1.

Sensors and their Application

Input Mechanical Electromechanical Electrical
Primary sensor Out put
Physical variable Displacement transducer
(To be measured) Or strain

SECE 1
 1/2. Sensors and their Application

Transducers can be broadly divided into the following categories:

 Active and passive transducers.
 Analog and digital transducer.
 Primary and secondary transducers.
 Direct and inverse transducers.

SECE 2
 1/3. Sensors and Transducer

 Measurement of both electrical and non-electrical quantities are required

industrial systems and research.
 The electrical quantities includes:
 voltage, current, impedance parameters, and phase, frequency and time.
 The non-electrical measurand may be:
 force, velocity, accelerations, mass, pressure, strain, etc.

Question
What is the deference between sensor and transducer ?

SECE 3
 1/4. Sensors and Transducer
 A transducer: a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a
corresponding signal having a different physical form.
 Therefore, it is an energy converter.
 Input signals may be :
 electrical, mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical, and radiation
(corpuscular and electromagnetic)
 Sensors: are a device which can quantitatively measure a certain quantity and
ideally no energy is drawn from a system being measured.

SECE 4
 1/5. Sensors and Transducer

Signal Signal
Sensing Electrical Output
signal
conditioning conversion/proc
Non-electrical element presentation
element essing element
quantity

Sensors Elements: which generate variation of electrical quantities (EQ) in response to

variation of non-electrical quantities (NEQ)
Examples of NEQ
Temperature, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed, pressure,…
Sensors are sometimes called transducers

SECE 5
 1/6. Sensors and Transducer
Advantages of using sensors include
 Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum possibility
 Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
 The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
 The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a distance
from the sensing medium and use modern digital computers etc …

SECE 6
 2.Uses of Sensors
Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose

This gives an understanding of the current status of the system parameters

Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the speed of a car

against time
 System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a controller

Desired signal System Output signal

Controller under
control

Sensor

SECE 7
 3.Sensor Requirements
 Ruggedness: Capable of withstanding overload
o Some safety arrangements should be provided for overload protection
1) Linearity: Its input-output characteristics must be linear
2) Repeatability: It should reproduce the same output signal when the same
input is applied again and again
3) High output signal quality
4) High reliability and stability
5) Good dynamic response
6) No hysteresis.

SECE 8
 4.Classifications
Sensors can be divided on the basis of

 Method of applications

 Method of energy conversion used

 Nature of output signals

 Electrical principle

In general, the classification of sensors is given by

 Primary and secondary sensors

 Active and passive sensors

 Analog and Digital sensors

SECE 9
 5. Primary and Secondary Sensors

 Classification is based on the method of application

1. Primary sensor
 Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
 Inductive Sensors
 Capacitive Sensors
 Piezoelectric Sensors

SECE 10
 5. Primary and Secondary Sensors

2. Secondary sensor

• The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary)

sensor that converts the NEQ to EQ
oWheatstone Bridge
oAmplifiers

SECE 11
The general classification of transducer based on input signal:
Mechanical: Force, pressure, and displacement
 Impedance variation: resistance, capacitance, and inductance
Speed, acceleration :
 electromotive force (EMF) due to electrodynamic and piezoelectric
effects.

SECE 12
SECE 13
SECE 14
 6.Seeback effect
 When two wires or strips made of different metals are securely joined at both
ends to create a continuous circuit, and if the two junctions are exposed to
different temperatures,
o An electric current will circulate through the circuit.

o This device is commonly known as a thermocouple, and

o The phenomenon involved is referred to as the Seebeck effect.

o 𝐴 𝑚𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑉 voltmeter with very high

input impedance may included to measure

the resulting emf which is generally called

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑜 − 𝑒𝑚𝑓.

SECE 15
• The Seebeck coefficient (S) is unique to each type of thermocouple material and is typically
provided by manufacturers for specific thermocouple alloys.

SECE 16
 7. Optical Sensors
 Luminous flux variation: Resistance variation:

 photo-resistors, photo-diodes ,photo transistors and photo-multiplier

Photo-electric effect :

o EMF: photo-voltaic cell

SECE 17
 7/1. Optical Sensors
1) Optical Fiber: Thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit light signals over long
distances for high-speed communication and data transfer.

2) Laser: A device that emits a coherent and focused beam of light.

 Lasers have numerous applications, including cutting, welding, medical

procedures, barcode scanning, and optical storage (CDs, DVDs).

3) Spectrometer: A device that measures the intensity of light at different wavelengths.

 Spectrometers are used in various fields, including chemistry, physics,

astronomy, and environmental analysis.

4) Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The technology that converts printed or

handwritten text into machine-readable data.

SECE 18
 7/2. Optical Sensors
5) Optical Sensors: Various optical sensors are used for detecting and measuring physical
quantities such as:

 light intensity,

 temperature,

 pressure, and

 distance.

 These sensors find applications in automation, robotics, environmental

monitoring, and biomedical devices.

SECE 19
 8. Magnetic
 Magnetic Sensors: measure and detect magnetic fields.

 They are designed to sense changes in the magnetic field and convert them into
electrical signals.
o Area of applications: Navigation, automotive industry, robotics, electronic
devices, and more.
o Some of the best-known examples of magnetic sensors are:
1. Hall effect sensors
2. Magnetoresistive Sensors:
3. Fluxgate Sensors:
4. Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR) Sensors
5. Magnetic Encoders
SECE 20
 8/1. Magnetic
 Magnetic flux variation ⟹ Hall effect, magnetic resonance, magnetic
recording

 Geometric change of magnetic circuit ⟹ Impedance change: inductance

and flow measurement.

 permeability change ⟹ variable voltage transformation

SECE 21
 8/1. Molecular
 Molecular sensors are devices or systems that are designed to detect and analyze specific
molecules in a sample.

 They are widely used in various fields, including:

o chemistry, biology, medicine, environmental monitoring, and food safety.

 PH meter, electrolytic sensor.

 Electrochemical Sensors: Electrochemical sensors measure electrical properties, such as current

or potential, to detect and quantify molecules.

o They are based on the principle that certain molecules can undergo electrochemical
reactions at electrodes, leading to measurable signals.

o Biosensors: are molecular sensors that incorporate biological components, such as

enzymes, antibodies, or nucleic acids, to selectively recognize and interact with target
molecules. SECE 22
 9. Classification based on the basis of energy conversion
NEQ EQ
Active
Ex. Temperature sensors Voltage or current

Active and Passive sensors

 Active sensor

o Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation

o These are also called self-generating sensors

o Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV

 Examples

o Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces an output voltage

o Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage

o Hall-effect sensors, …
SECE 23
 9/1. Classification based on the basis of energy conversion
 Passive sensors: Sensors that do not generate voltage or current, but produce element variation in
R, L, or C. Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation

 Examples

 Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance

 Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance

 Strain gauge: Change in length or position into a change in resistance)

 LVDT, Mic
NEQ R, L, C
Passive
sensors

SECE 24
 10. Classification based on the the nature of output signal
 Analog sensor

 Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes

 Output can have an infinite number of values within the sensor’s range

 Examples: temperature sensor, pressure sensor, light sensor, and others.

 analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card

SECE 25
 10. Classification based on the the nature of output signal
 Digital sensor

 A digital sensor within an instrument

o microcontroller sensor µC keypad

signal timing
signal timing
sensor memory display
data storage handheld instrument

 Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled form and so can have a
finite number of values

 E.g., Revolution counter, digital thermometer, digital camera, and digital pressure sensor.

SECE 26
 11. Classification based on their application
 In the measurements of :  Angular Speed

 Temperature Sensors:  Acceleration

 Pressure Sensors  pH Sensors

 Motion and Position Sensors

 Level Sensors

 Light Sensors

 Gas Sensors

 Humidity and Moisture

Sensors

SECE 27
Passive sensors
 Resistive Sensors – Potentiometer
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 28
 1. Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 Convert s linear (translatory) or angular (rotary) displacement into a change of
resistance in the resistive element provided with a movable contact.

 Petrol-tank level indicator

o Change in petrol level moves a

potentiometer arm.

o Output signal is proportion to the external

voltage source applied across the
potentiometer

o The energy in the output signal comes from

the external power source SECE 29
 1/2. Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 This means that resistance is proportional to the
distance d traveled by the wiper between A and B.
 The ratio of open circuit voltage 𝐸𝑇ℎ to supply voltage 𝑉𝑠
is given by:

𝐸𝑇ℎ voltage across AB resistance across AB 𝑑

 = = =𝑑
𝑉𝑠 voltage across CB resistance across CB 𝑇

Resistance of CB = total resistance of potentiometer = 𝑅𝑝

𝑑
Resistance of AB = fractional resistance = 𝑅𝑝 = 𝑅𝑝 𝑥
𝑑𝑇

x = fractional displacement = 𝑑ൗ𝑑𝑇 .

𝒅
Therefore the open circuit voltage for a linear displacement potentiometer is: 𝑬𝑻𝒉 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒙 = 𝑽𝒔
𝒅𝑻
SECE 30
 1/3. Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 The open circuit voltage for an angular displacement potentiometer is:
𝜃
 𝐸𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒙 Where x = fractional angular displacement =
𝜃
.
𝜃𝑇
𝜃𝑇

𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝑝 𝑥(1 − 𝑥).

SECE 31
1/4. Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer

SECE 32
 2. Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
Two classes of thermal resistors are: Metallic element, Semiconductor

For most metals, the resistance increases with increase in temperature

1 R
R (T )  R0 [1  1T   2T  ...]  R0 [1  T ]
2  
T R0

Examples: Platinum, Nickel, and Copper metals.  is the temperature coefficient

 Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics

 Positive temperature coefficient.

 Reproducible over a wide range of temperature

 Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement.

 A typical platinum element has 𝑅0 = 100Ω , 𝑅100 = 138.5 Ω, 𝑅200 = 175.83Ω

SECE 33
 2. Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors

 The change in resistance between the ice point and the steam point,i.e
 𝑅100 − 𝑅0 … … … … 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
 Which is 38.5 Ω

SECE 34
 2/1. Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
 Resistive temperature elements made from semiconductor materials are often referred to as
thermistors.

 Thermally sensitive resistor. Formed from semiconductor materials.

 Often compose of a ceramic and a metallic oxide ( Mn, Co, Cu ,or Fe)

 The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear.

 The resistance of these elements decreases with temperature

 Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) .

𝛽
 Governed by : 𝑅𝜃 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝( ), where 𝑅𝜃 is the resistance at temperature θ kelvin; K and β are
𝜃

constants for the thermistor.

SECE 35
 2/2. Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and governed by :
1 1
(  )
R (T )  R0 e T T0
; T0  300 0 K

 Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and  is material constant
expressed in degree Kelvin.

SECE 36
 3. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 Concepts of stress, strain, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio.

 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒Τ𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

 Tensile stress caused by tensile force, +𝐹Τ𝐴

 The positive sign indicates tensile stress which tends to increase the length of the body.

SECE 37
 3/1. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 Compressive stress, caused by compressive force, −𝐹Τ𝐴

 The negative sign indicates compressive stress which tends to reduce the length of the
body.

 The effect of the applied stress is to produce a strain in the body which is defined by:

(Strain = ∆𝑙ൗ𝑙0, where 𝑙0 is the original length.

 Thus in Figure (a) the strain is e = +∆𝑙ൗ𝑙0 (tensile), and

 in (b) the strain is e = −∆𝑙ൗ𝑙0 (compressive);

SECE 38
 3/2. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 In both cases, the strain is longitudinal, i.e.

 Along the direction of the applied stress.

 The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a given body over a
certain range of values;

 The slope of the straight line is termed the elastic modulus of the body:

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎)
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑒)

SECE 39
 4/1. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 For linear tensile or compressive stress, the elastic modulus is called Young’s
modulus E;
 For shear stress, the relevant elastic modulus is shear modulus S.
 The relation between longitudinal strain 𝑒𝐿 and accompanying transverse strain 𝑒𝑇 is:
𝑒𝑇 = −𝜈𝑒𝐿
 where ν is Poisson’s ratio,
 which has a value between 0.25 and 0.4 for most materials.
 A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance changes when
under strain.

SECE 40
1. Which stress type will be decreasing the cross-sectional area by increasing the length of the body? Tensile stress or compressive stress?

2. An aluminum alloy bar of rectanguar section 75𝑚𝑚 × 20𝑚𝑚, 800𝑚𝑚 long is streched by an axial load of 150kN. Assume: 𝐸 = 70,000 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . Calculate the strain and
stress in the bar.

800mm
75mm
150kN 20mm

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒Τ𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 150,000𝑁Τ 75𝑚𝑚 × 20𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2

∆𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿0
′
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜎 100(𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 )
𝐸= ⟹ 𝑒= = 1.423 × 10−3
𝑒 70,000 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 )

SECE 41
 4/2. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 We can derive the relationship between changes in resistance and strain by
considering the factors which influence the resistance of the element.
 The resistance of an element of length l, cross-sectional area A and resistivity ρ is
𝛒𝐋
given by: 𝐑=
𝐀
 In general with strain gauges ρ, l and A can change if the element is strained, so that
the change in resistance ΔR is given by:

R R R
R  l  A  
l A 
 l l
 l  2 A  
A A A
SECE 42
 4/3. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 Dividing both sides by R, we get the fractional change as

R l A 
  
R l A 
 Where 𝑒𝐿 = ∆𝐿Τ𝐿 is the longitudinal stain.
 Since cross-sectional area 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑡
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
Δ𝐴 = Δ𝑤 + Δ𝑡
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑡

Δ𝐴 Δ𝑤 Δ𝑡
⇒ = + = 2𝑒𝑇
𝐴 𝑤 𝑡

∆𝑅 ∆𝜌 Δ𝜌
∴ = 𝑒𝐿 − −2𝑒𝐿 + = 𝑒𝐿 1 + 2𝜈 +
𝑅 𝜌 𝜌
SECE 43
 4/4. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
Then, the Gauge Factor, G is used to compare strain-gate materials
∆𝑅Τ𝑅0 ∆𝑅Τ𝑅0
𝐺= =
∆𝑙 Τ𝑙0 𝑒𝐿
G is also known as the Strain-Sensitivity factor; by rearranging terms, we get
Δ𝜌Τ𝜌 Δ𝜌Τ𝜌
𝐺 = 1 + 2𝜈 + , Where is the Piezoresistive term.
𝑒𝐿 𝑒𝐿
∆𝜌
And ൗ𝜌 piezoresistive effect.

Δ𝜌Τ𝜌
 For most metal 𝜐 ≅ 0.3, and the term representing strain-induced changes in resistivity
𝑒𝐿

(piezoresistive effect) is small (around 0.4), so the overall gauge factor G is around 2.0.

 For most metals, the Piezoresistive term is about 0.4 and 0.2 <  < 0.5

 Thus, the Gauge factor for metallic stain gauges is in the range of 2.0–2.5 (not sensitive)

SECE 44
 4/5. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges
 Sensitive measurements require very high Gauge factors in the range of 100-300
Such factor can be obtained from semiconductor strain gauges.

 In semiconductor gauges the piezo-resistive term (1/e) (Δρ/ρ) can be large, giving
large gauge factors.

SECE 45
 5. Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
 Operating principle: When the resistance changes,

o Less current passes through the pressure sensor

o The Wheatstone bridge detects these changes

o And report the change in pressure

 Advantages: Coverage of a wide pressure range, High accuracy.

 Excellent long-term stability.

 High overload resistance.

 Good shock and vibration resistance.

SECE 46
 5/1. Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
 Piezoresistivity is a strain-dependent resistivity in a single-crystal semiconductor.

 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm:

o it causes a strain on the resistor

o The resistance change is proportional to this strain, and

o hence change in pressure

SECE 47
 6. Resistive Sensors – Photoconductor
 Are light-sensitive resistors with a non-linear negative temperature coefficient

 Photoconductors have resistance variation that depends on illumination

 The resistance illumination characteristics are given by

𝑅 = 𝑅𝐷 𝑒 −𝛼𝐸

 Where RD is Dark Resistance and E is illumination level in Lux.

Photoconductors are used in

 Cameras, light sensors in spectrophotometer.

 Counting systems where an object interrupts a light beam hitting the photoconductor,
etc.
SECE 48
 6/1. Resistive Sensors – Photoconductor
 A voltage is impressed on the semiconductor material

 When light strikes the semiconductor material:

o there is a decrease in the resistance resulting in an increase in the current

indicated by the meter

SECE 49
 7. Capacitive Sensor
Capacitor sensors are basically used as:

 Liquid Level Measurement

 Pressure Sensor

 Proximity Switch

 Linear Displacement

SECE 50
 7/1. Capacitive Sensor
Capacitor sensors are basically used as:

 Linear Displacement

Where:

ra = inner cylinder radius

rb = outer cylinder radius

L = length of the cylinder

Variable area capacitance displacement transducer

SECE 51
7/2. Capacitive Sensor
Proximity Switch

SECE 52
 8. Proximity Switch
 A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence of an object (often referred
to as the “target”) when the target enters the sensor’s field.
 Depending on the type of proximity sensor:
o sound, light, infrared radiation (IR), or electromagnetic fields may be utilized by
the sensor to detect a target.
 The two most commonly used proximity sensors are :
1. Inductive proximity sensor :Can only detect metal targets.

SECE 53
 8/1. Proximity Switch
2. Capacitive proximity sensor.
 are not limited to metallic targets.
 capable of detecting anything that can carry an electrical charge.
 Capacitive sensors are commonly used in liquid-level detection.
 Possible targets for capacitive sensors include but are not limited to glass,
plastic, water, wood, metals, and a myriad of targets of other materials.

SECE 54
 8/2. Proximity Switch

1. Three wire inductive 2. Capacitive proximity sensor

proximity sensor

SECE 55
 9. Parallel plate Capacitive Sensor
𝐴
The parallel plate capacitance is given by: 𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑑

d= distance between plates

A=overlapping area

0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m is the absolute permittivity,

r =dielectric constant (r =1 for air and r =3 for plastics)

SECE 56
9/1. Capacitive Sensor different setup

Figure 1: Capacitive sensing elements.

SECE 57
 9/2. Capacitive Sensor different setup
 Capacitor C can be changed by changing: either d, A, or ε ;
 Figure 1 on the previous page shows capacitive displacement sensors using each of these
methods.
1. Variable separation displacement sensor.
 If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the capacitance of the
𝜀0 𝜀𝐴
sensor is: 𝐶=
𝑑+𝑥

SECE 58
 9/3. Capacitive Sensor different setup
 There is a non-linear relation between C and x.
𝑑𝐶
 The sensitivity of the capacitance be :
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑥
 The percent change in C is proportional to the percent change in x. =−
𝐶 𝑥

SECE 59
2. Variable area displacement sensor :
the displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease by 𝑤𝑥, where w is the width of the
plates, giving:
𝜀0 𝜀
𝐶= 𝐴 − 𝑤𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ∆𝐴
𝑑

3. Variable dielectric displacement sensor

 The total capacitance of the sensor,
o The sum of the two capacitance
o One with area 𝐴1 and dielectric constant 𝜀1 , 𝐴1 = 𝑤𝑥 and
o One with area 𝐴2 and dielectric constant 𝜀2 , 𝐴2 = 𝑤 𝑙 − 𝑥 , w is width of the plate
𝜀0 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝜀0 𝜀 2 𝐴2 𝜀0 𝜀1 𝑤𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀2 𝑤(𝑙−𝑥)
𝐶= + = +
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝜺𝟎 𝒘
C= [𝜺𝟐 𝒍 − (𝜺𝟐 − 𝜺𝟏 )𝒙]
𝒅

SECE 60
 Differential capacitive displacement sensor
 The variable separation displacement sensor has the disadvantage of being nonlinear .
𝜀0 𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑+𝑥

 This problem is overcome by using the three-plate differential or push-pull

displacement sensor shown.

 This consists of a plate M moving between two fixed plates 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 ;

 If x is the displacement of M from the centre line AB, then the capacitances 𝐶1 and 𝐶2
𝜀0 𝜀𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝐴
formed by 𝑀𝐹1 and 𝑀𝐹2 respectively are:𝐶1 = , 𝐶2 = ,
𝑑+𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

SECE 61
 Differential capacitive displacement sensor
 The relations between 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and x are still non-linear, but when 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are
incorporated into the a.c. deflection bridge, the overall relationship between
𝑉𝑠
bridge output voltage and x is linear. 𝐸𝑡ℎ = x (from chapter 4)
2𝑑

SECE 62
 A commonly used capacitive pressure sensor is linear displacement sensor
(Reading Assignment...from TextBook)
Remark:
 The parallel plate capacitor can be used as:
i. variable separation 𝑑 ± ∆𝑑 ,
ii. Variable rea 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
iii. variable dielectric ∆𝜀,
iv. capacitive pressure sensor (diaphragm), or
v. differential or push pull displacement sensor (𝑑 + ∆𝑑) and (𝑑 − ∆𝑑)

SECE 63
Industry application of capacitive sensor

SECE 64
SECE 65
 Examples
1) A capacitive transducer consists of two plates of diameter 2 cm each, separated
by an air gap of 0.25mm. Find the displacement sensitivity.
𝜀𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m, 𝜀 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝜕𝐶 𝜀𝜀0 𝐴
𝐾= =− 2
𝜕𝑑 𝑑
𝝅 𝟐
𝑨 = . 𝟐 = 𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝟒
𝑝𝐹ൗ
𝐾 = −444.85 𝑐𝑚

 The negative sign indicates capacitance, with an increase of air gap.

SECE 66
 10.Inductive Sensors
For a coil of n turns, the inductance L is given by

𝑛2 𝑛2
𝐿 = 𝜇𝐴 =
𝑙 𝑅

Where
Variable reluctance proximity sensor
n : Number of turns of the coil

l: Mean length of the magnetic path

A: Area of the magnetic path

𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 : Permeability of the magnetic material

R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit

SECE 67
SECE 68
  Variable reluctance lements:
i. (a), (b) Basic principle of
reluctance sensing
elements
ii. (c) Reluctance calculation
for typical element
iii. (d) Differential or
push/pull reluctance
displacement sensor.

SECE 69
 (c) shows a typical variable reluctance displacement sensor, consisting : three element
o a ferromagnetic core in the shape of a semitoroid (semicircular ring),
o a variable air gap and
o a ferromagnetic plate or armature.
 The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is the sum of the individual reluctances, i.e.
 𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 + 𝑅𝐺𝐴𝑃 + 𝑅𝐴𝑅𝑀𝐴𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐸 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 … 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘)

SECE 70
 Inductive Sensors
Application of inductive sensors
 Force, displacement, pressure, …
Inductance variation can be in the form of
 Self inductance or
 Mutual inductance: e.g., differential transformer
 Eddy current

SECE 71
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Input voltage (alternating current): One primary coil
o There will be a magnetic coupling between the core and the coils

 Output voltage: Two secondary coils connected in series

o Operates using the principle of variation of mutual inductance

 The output voltage is a function of the

core’s displacement

 Widely used for translating linear motion

into an electrical signal

SECE 72
 The two secondary's are connected in series opposition:
 The output voltage:
o 𝑉෠𝑂𝑈𝑇 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 𝜑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 of the voltages induced in the secondaries.
 A ferromagnetic core or plunger moves inside the former;
o Alters the mutual inductance between the primary and secondaries.
 With the core removed 𝑉෠𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 0.
 With the core in the former, V1 and V2 change with core position x,
o Causing amplitude 𝑉෠𝑂𝑈𝑇 and phase φ to change.

SECE 73
SECE 74
SECE 75
 a.c. waveforms for secondary voltages 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and
1
 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 at three positions A, C and B. C is the halfway point at 𝑥 = ℓ and A and
2

B are equidistant from C. SECE 76

 When the core is at position A:
 the upper secondary is weakly coupled to the primary;
 the lower secondary is strongly coupled to the primary and
 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 and
 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage 𝑉𝑝 .
 When the core is at position B:
 The upper secondary is strongly coupled to the primary;
 The lower secondary is weakly coupled to the primary and
 𝑉2 < 𝑉1 and
 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 is in phase with the primary voltage 𝑉𝑝 .

SECE 77
 When the core is at position C:
 the secondaries are equally coupled to the primary and 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 have
 approximately equal amplitudes;
 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 has therefore minimum amplitude (ideally zero) and C is
termed the null point.
LVDT – Applications
 Measure linear mechanical displacement.
Used to measure position in control systems and precision manufacturing.
Can also be used to measure force, pressure, acceleration, etc…

SECE 78
SECE 79
Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 80
 11. Active Sensors - Thermocouple
 A thermocouple is an instance of an active transducer.
 The active transducer generates output in form of voltage and electric powered
signals

SECE 81
 11/1. Active Sensors - Thermocouple
 Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal in response to change in
temperature Example: Thermocouple

 Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical energy

Application: To measure temperature

 Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end (sensing or hot
junction) and terminated at the other end (reference or cold junction)

 When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing junction and the reference, an emf
is produced Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )

SECE 82
SECE 83
11/2. Law of Thermocouple Behavior

SECE 84
11/3. Law of Thermocouple Behavior

SECE 85
11/4. Law of Thermocouple Behavior

SECE 86
Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 87
 1. Active Sensors – Photoelectric
Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy or light
 Are extensively used in instrumentation
Most known photosensitive devices include
1. Photovoltaic cells
 Semiconductor junction devices used to convert radiation energy into electrical energy

SECE 88
 1/1. Photo-diode

 Operates in reverse bias.

 Generate a current proportional to the light that strikes their active area.

 Most measurement applications involve using a trans-impedance amplifier to convert

the photodiode current into an output voltage.

 The photodiode has a small opening

on the top for light entering the light and

energizing the PN junction.

 They are different from a typical rectifier diode.

SECE 89
 1/2.Photo-diode
 Has an opening in its case containing a lens that focuses incident light on the PN
junction
 P-type connects to the negative of the battery terminal.
 And n-type connects to the positive of the battery terminal.
 A simple circuit of a photodiode is presented here with a photodiode, 10k resistor, and a
5V DC voltage.

SECE 90
 2. Photo-transistor

 A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component

which relies on exposure to light to operate.
 Operate in reverse-biased.
 When light falls on the junction, reverse current flows which are proportional to the
luminance.

SECE 91
2/1. Photo-transistor

SECE 92
Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 93
 3. Piezoelectric sensors
 Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy

 If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be an atomic displacement, x

 The displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the same way as elastic
sensor such as spring.

 An external force, entering the sensor through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a
crystal.

 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of the applied pressure.

 A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate electrodes.

 Application of force on such a plate will develop stress and a corresponding deformation

SECE 94.
 3/1. Piezoelectric sensors
 With certain crystals, this deformation will produce a potential difference at the surface of the
crystal. This effect is called the piezoelectric effect

 Induced charge is proportional to the impressed force, 𝐸 = 𝑄𝑑

 d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) = proportionality constant

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑔𝑡𝑃, 𝑃 = 𝐹 Τ𝐴
𝑔 = 𝐾 Τ𝑡
g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
K = Piezoelectric constant
t= crystal thickness
P = impressed pressure
A = Area of the crystal in 𝑚2
SECE 95
 3/2. Piezoelectric sensors

Piezoelelectric sensors have good frequency response

Example: Accelerometer

SECE 96
 Area of Application
 In microphone: Sound pressure is conveted into an electrical signal .

 This signal is ultimately amplified to produce a louder sound.

 It is also used in Medical Diagnostics.

 It is used in electric lighters used in standard kitchens.

 the pressure made on the piezoelectric sensor creates an electric signal which ultimately
causes the flash to fire up.

 It is also used in restaurants or airports where when a person steps near the door,
the door opens automatically.

SECE 97
Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 98
4. Hall Effect Sensors

SECE 99
4/1. Hall Effect Sensors

SECE 100
SECE 101
• The Hall-voltage is expressed as
𝐼𝑐𝛽
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐾𝐻
𝑡
Where
 Ic : Control current flowing through the Hall-effect sensor, in Amps

 : Flux density of the magnetic field applied, in Wb/m2

 t : Thickness of the Hall-effect sensor, in meters

 KH : Hall-effect coefficient

Hall-effect sensors are used to measure flux density

SECE 102
Example: A doped silicon wafer has a thickness of 0.5 mm and a Hall
coefficient of 2 × 10−2. If the current through the wafer is 7.5 mA, find
the Hall voltage for a magnetic flux density of 0.2 T.

SECE 103
Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators

SECE 104
 5. Tachometric Generators
 Tachometer – any device used to measure shaft’s rotation

 Tachometric generator
A machine, when driven by a rotating mechanical force, produces an electric output
proportional to the speed of rotation

Essentially a small generators

 The voltage generated is proportional to the rotation of the shaft.

SECE 105
 5/1. Tachometric Generators
• Voltage generated is proportional to rotation of the shaft

SECE 106
 6. Elastic Sensing Element

 Figure below shows four practical elastic sensing elements.

a) Cantilever load cell

b) Pillar load cell
c) Torque sensor
d) Unbomded strain gauge accelerometer.

SECE 107
 6/1. Elastic Sensing Element

 If a force is applied to a spring, then the amount of extension or compression of the

spring is approximately proportional to the applied force.
 This is the principle of elastic sensing elements which convert an input force into an
output displacement.
 In a measurement system, an elastic element will be followed by a suitable secondary
displacement sensor.
 e.g. potentiometer, strain gauge, or LVDT, which converts displacement into an
electrical signal.

SECE 108
 6/2. Elastic Sensing Element

 All four elements are fairly stiff, i.e. 𝑘 and 𝑤𝑛 are high, but steady-state sensitivity K and
displacement x are small,
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑘 Τ𝑚 can be increased by increasing the ratio k/m, giving a high stiffness, low mass
sensor.
 so that strain gauges are used as secondary displacement sensors.
 In the cantilever force element or load cell,
 the applied force F causes the cantilever to bend:
 so that the top surface experiences a tensile strain +e and
 the bottom surface an equal compressive strain −e.
6(1−𝑥)
 The magnitude of strain e is given by: 𝑒= 𝐹
𝑤𝑡 2 𝐸
o where E is Young’s modulus
SECE 109
 6/3. Elastic Sensing Element

 Strain gauges 1 and 3 sense a tensile strain +e

 so that their resistance increases by ΔR.
 Gauges 2 and 4 sense a compressive strain −e
 so that their resistance decreases by an equal amount.
 ∆𝑅 = 𝐺𝑅0 𝑒
 Where G is the gauge factor and 𝑅0 the unstrained resistance of the gauges.this
give: 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅0 + ∆𝑅 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝐺𝑒
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅0 − ∆𝑅 = 𝑅0 1 − 𝐺𝑒

SECE 110
 The four gauges are connected into a deflection bridge

 In the pillar load cell the applied force F causes a compressive stress −F/A,
 Where A is the cross-sectional area of the pillar.
𝐹
 This produces a longitudinal, compressive strain: 𝑒𝐿 = −
𝐴𝐸

SECE 111
 𝜈𝐹
 which is accompanied by a transverse, tensile strain 𝑒𝑇 = −𝜈𝑒𝐿 =
𝐴𝐸

 where E and ν are respectively Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for the pillar
material.
 Strain gauges are bonded onto the pillar so that
 gauges 1 and 3 sense 𝑒𝑇 and gauges 2 and 4 sense 𝑒𝐿 ; thus

𝜈𝐹
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅0 + 𝑅0 𝐺𝑒𝑇 = 𝑅0 1+𝐺
𝐴𝐸

𝐺𝐹
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 𝑅0 + 𝑅0 𝐺𝑒𝐿 = 𝑅0 1 −
𝐴𝐸

SECE 112
The approximate Thevenin equivalent of output voltage of the bridge is given by:

𝑉𝑠 𝐺𝑒
𝐸𝑇ℎ =
1 + 𝐺𝑒0

SECE 113
SECE 114