energies

Article
Thermal Performance of Microencapsulated Phase
Change Material (mPCM) in Roof Modules during
Daily Operation
Qi Zhou 1 , Pin-Feng Liu 2 , Chun-Ta Tzeng 2 and Chi-Ming Lai 1, * ID

1 Department of Civil Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
yijiubaba.yierersi@foxmail.com
2 Department of Architecture, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan;
binfeng511@gmail.com (P.-F.L.); ctmt@mail.ncku.edu.tw (C.-T.T.)
* Correspondence: cmlai@mail.ncku.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-6-275-7575 (ext. 63136)

Received: 18 February 2018; Accepted: 15 March 2018; Published: 17 March 2018

Abstract: This study combines microencapsulated phase change materials (mPCMs) (core material:
paraffin; melting points: 37 and 43 ◦ C) and aluminum honeycomb boards (8 mm core cell) to form
mPCM roof modules and investigates their heat absorption and release performances, as well as their
impact on indoor heat gain by conducting experiments over a 24-h period, subject to representative
weather. The outdoor boundary conditions of the module are hourly sunlight and nighttime natural
cooling; on the indoor side of the module, the conditions are daytime air conditioning and nighttime
natural cooling. The results indicate that compared to a roof module with a 43 ◦ C melting point
mPCM, the roof module with a 37 ◦ C melting point mPCM had improved peak load-shifting capacity,
but had a slightly increased indoor heat gain. The mPCMs in both roof modules were successfully
cooled during the night, returning to their initial state, to begin a new thermal cycle the next day.

Keywords: phase change material (PCM); microencapsulated phase change material (mPCM); roof;
heat transfer; thermal performance; building materials

1. Introduction
A phase change material (PCM) is a substance with a high latent heat that can effectively store
or release latent heat during its solid or liquid phase change (melting or solidifying). The PCM
temperature can also be stably maintained during the latent heat transfer process. Therefore, in the
application of energy storage and thermal environmental control, PCMs are a promising material
choice. The applications of PCMs include PCM partition walls for regulating the temperature in
a room, temperature control in space equipment to compensate for the enormous temperature
difference between day and night, thermal management in electronic devices, batteries, or biochemical
storage tanks, heat transfer enhancement by incorporating PCMs into the working fluid, and PCM
thermal actuators.
Zhang et al. [1] showed that latent heat storage plays an important role in the heating and cooling
of spaces; latent heat storage can reduce or shift the building electricity demand, thus achieving energy
savings. This paper discusses the latent heat storage performance of PCMs, as well as introducing the
physical properties of numerous PCMs and the latent heat storage results of different PCMs applied
to various parts of a building. Kalnæs and Jelle [2] indicated that as a latent heat storage material,
PCMs applied to buildings have already become a trend, and an increasing number of commercialized
products have appeared. This paper reviews the most advanced PCMs on the market and selects a
few of them to introduce, along with a discussion of their potential fields of application. There is an

Energies 2018, 11, 679; doi:10.3390/en11030679 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 679 2 of 11

abundant literature related to the application of PCMs in building energy systems, which can be found
in Memon [3], Konuklu et al. [4], Akeiber et al. [5], and Mohamed et al. [6].
Many papers have addressed the thermal characteristics of PCMs; however, for the applications
of PCMs in building energy parameters, a thermal analysis of the PCM-containing building materials
or the entire building should be considered. Silva et al. [7] experimentally studied PCM-containing
blinds, and the experimental results indicated that PCM blinds have great potential in regulating the
indoor thermal environment and improving energy utilization efficiency. Lecompte et al. [8] mixed
micro-encapsulated PCM into concrete and mortar and studied its physical properties compared to
ordinary concrete mortar. The results indicated that the micro-encapsulated PCM-mixed concrete
mortar was able to maintain a certain degree of mechanical strength, but more importantly, it had
better thermal performance than concrete and mortar alone. Zhou et al. [9] constructed a laminated
composite PCM gypsum board and analyzed its thermal properties. The authors tested the thermal
properties of 4-mm-thick PCM plasterboard in a naturally ventilated environment and obtained a
maximum heat exchange of 15.6 W/m2 and a maximum heat storage of 363.7 W/m2 . Additionally,
they built a model house using the PCM gypsum board, and compared it to a model house built
with ordinary gypsum board; the indoor temperature was reduced by as much as 5 ◦ C with the PCM
gypsum board.
Wang and Zhao [10] showed that the placement of windows is important for affecting solar
heat gain; to reduce the heat transferred indoors through windows, this study experimented with
PCM-containing windows. The results indicated that a thicker PCM layer furnished a greater reduction
in solar heat gain. The melting point of PCMs is very important for reducing heat gain. When a
15-mm-thick PCM layer with a melting point of 29 ◦ C was used in the hottest period of the summer
in Shanghai, the maximum heat gain reduction reached 30%. Gracia et al. [11] analyzed the thermal
performance of a ventilated facade with PCMs. Their research has a certain degree of complexity;
thus, they proposed some numerical methods for simplification to better explain and describe the
experimental process and results. Liu and Li [12] studied the thermal properties of solar chimneys with
and without PCM. The PCM-containing solar chimney was divided into three groups: fully enclosed
heating, semi-closed heating, and fully open heating. The experimental results indicated that in the
heating stage, compared with the solar chimney without PCM, the PCM-containing solar chimney
reduced the air flow; the opposite was true in the PCM heat release stage.
From the previous discussion, it is apparent that the methods of combining PCMs with building
materials are diverse, and there are numerous related studies. However, PCMs may interact with
construction materials and change their properties; in addition, leakage may be a problem over a long
lifetime. However, micro-encapsulated PCMs (mPCMs) may change these circumstances, and they
are becoming a very promising choice for employment in building materials. Lai et al. [13] integrated
mPCM into gypsum to fabricate mPCM gypsum board and then investigated its physical properties
and heat transfer behavior. Their research shows that cases with a higher Stefan number or sub-cooling
have a higher heat transfer rate through the hot wall. Lai and Hokoi [14] constructed an mPCM
honeycomb wallboard prototype. The results indicated that the aluminum honeycomb used for the
main structure and heat transfer enhancement in the prototype swiftly transferred the heat flow into
the mPCM. Thus, the time lag of the peak heating load was increased due to the PCM latent heat,
effectively shifting the peak hours of energy use in the summer and accomplishing a lower surface
temperature than others. Liu et al. [15] developed a wall tile containing macro-encapsulated PCM
(macroPCM) and polyvinyl acetate (PVA). This tile showed a lower indoor heat flow than that of other
tested construction materials and increased the time lag of the peak load, effectively shifting the peak
energy demand in the summer.
By incorporating mPCMs into building construction, the through-wall/roof heat transfer can be
appropriately controlled with the absorption and release of latent heat. This combination would result
in an effective reduction in solar heat gain. Therefore, this study evaluates an mPCM roof module
Energies 2018, 11, 679 3 of 11

under typical temperature changes over a 24-h period and studies its heat absorption and release
Energies 2018, 11,as
performance, x FOR
wellPEER REVIEW
as its impact on the indoor heat gain. 3 of 11

2.
2. Research Methods
In research, we
In this research, weconstruct
constructa aroofroofmodule
module with
with mPCMmPCM andand aluminum
aluminum honeycomb
honeycomb board
board and
and measure the heat absorption and release processes of the roof module during
measure the heat absorption and release processes of the roof module during a one-day period. The a one-day period.
The tested
tested module
module is placed
is placed on a on
walla wall
openingopening of a climate
of a climate chamber,
chamber, one of
one side side of which
which is in contact
is in contact with
with the airflow
the airflow inside inside the air-conditioned
the air-conditioned chamber
chamber to simulate
to simulate the indoor
the indoor environment.
environment. A heating
A heating plate
plate is attached
is attached to thetoother
the other
side ofside
theof the module
module to simulate
to simulate the heat
the solar solargain
heatexperienced
gain experienced
by the by the
tested
tested
module module
throughthrough timing-controlled
timing-controlled heating.
heating. Figure
Figure 1 shows
1 shows thethe schematicdiagram
schematic diagramof of the
the tested
module
module and photos
photos of of the
thehoneycomb
honeycombboards boardswith
withand
andwithout
withoutmPCM.
mPCM. The
The thermal
thermal performance
performance of
of
thethe tested
tested module
module is isanalyzed
analyzedbybymeasuring
measuringthe theinternal
internalandand surface
surface temperatures
temperatures of of the tested
tested
module
module and and the
the module
module surface
surface heat
heat fluxes.
fluxes.

Figure 1. Test cell experimental setup (left) and the tested mPCM roof module (right).
Figure 1. Test cell experimental setup (left) and the tested mPCM roof module (right).

2.1. Tested Roof Module

2.1. Tested Roof Module
To improve the low thermal conductivity of mPCMs and achieve the required stiffness,
To improve the low thermal conductivity of mPCMs and achieve the required stiffness, aluminum
aluminum honeycomb (25.4-mm thick; 8 mm core cell) was used as a structural support skeleton, as
honeycomb (25.4-mm thick; 8 mm core cell) was used as a structural support skeleton, as well as
well as as a thermal channel to enhance the heat transfer within the tested module. From the
as a thermal channel to enhance the heat transfer within the tested module. From the viewpoint of
viewpoint of construction practices, the conventional roof thickness places restrictions on the test cell
construction practices, the conventional roof thickness places restrictions on the test cell width W. Thus,
width W. Thus, the module dimensions were set to H 10 cm × W 2.54 cm × L 10 cm. mPCM powder
the module dimensions were set to H 10 cm × W 2.54 cm × L 10 cm. mPCM powder was placed in
was placed in a dehumidification box for 1 h to remove water attached to the power surfaces; then, it
a dehumidification box for 1 h to remove water attached to the power surfaces; then, it was poured
was poured and pressed into the experimental mPCM roof module. The weight of the mPCM used
and pressed into the experimental mPCM roof module. The weight of the mPCM used in both tested
in both tested modules was 120.0 g. To reduce heat loss to the outside environment, the mPCM roof
modules was 120.0 g. To reduce heat loss to the outside environment, the mPCM roof module was
module was peripherally fabricated by Balsa boards with a board thickness of 2 mm, covered with
peripherally fabricated by Balsa boards with a board thickness of 2 mm, covered with natural cotton
natural cotton for thermal insulation and, then, placed into a wooden box.
for thermal insulation and, then, placed into a wooden box.
A 10 × 10 cm mica heater, used as the main heating sheet (on the upper side of the module in
A 10 × 10 cm mica heater, used as the main heating sheet (on the upper side of the module in
Figure 1), was attached to a 1-mm-thick copper slab and the exterior side of the tested roof module
Figure 1), was attached to a 1-mm-thick copper slab and the exterior side of the tested roof module to
to provide a time-changing heating flux. The electrical power output of the main heating sheet
provide a time-changing heating flux. The electrical power output of the main heating sheet simulated
simulated representative weather, as described in Section 2.3. The copper slab was used to evenly
representative weather, as described in Section 2.3. The copper slab was used to evenly distribute the
distribute the heat from the main heating sheet and to offer the required heating flux conditions for
heat from the main heating sheet and to offer the required heating flux conditions for the experiments.
the experiments.
An auxiliary heating sheet (a 10 × 10 cm mica heater) was placed 2 cm from the main heating
An auxiliary heating sheet (a 10 × 10 cm mica heater) was placed 2 cm from the main heating
sheet to reduce heat loss from the exterior side of the tested module to the outside environment.
sheet to reduce heat loss from the exterior side of the tested module to the outside environment. The
The heating power of the main heating sheet was controlled to enable the exterior side of the tested
heating power of the main heating sheet was controlled to enable the exterior side of the tested
module to meet the set heating flux (Figure 2). The heating power of the auxiliary heating sheet was
controlled manually to let the surface temperature (Taux) of the auxiliary heating sheet meet the
surface temperature (Tmain) of the main heating sheet. This configuration could ensure that heat flow
from the main heating sheet was conducted inwards to the investigated module.
Energies 2018, 11, 679 4 of 11

module to meet the set heating flux (Figure 2). The heating power of the auxiliary heating sheet was
controlled manually to let the surface temperature (Taux ) of the auxiliary heating sheet meet the surface
temperature (Tmain ) of the main heating sheet. This configuration could ensure that heat flow from the
main
Energiesheating
2018, 11, sheet
x FOR was
PEERconducted
REVIEW inwards to the investigated module. 5 of 11

1
Normalized heat flux

 t 
sin  ; T=10
T
0.5
Heat flux in
Meteorological data

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (t) (hr)

Figure 2. Normalized heating flux input and measured meteorological data.

Figure 2. Normalized heating flux input and measured meteorological data.

The temperature inside the air-conditioned climate chamber was allowed to reach a stable initial
The
value of T interior side (on the bottom side in Figure 1) of the tested module was composed of a wooden
i before the experiment, and then all instruments were started. During the experimental
plate.
process,An theair conditioner,setting
temperature locatedof on
the the interior
auxiliary side of
heating the was
sheet tested module,
adjusted was
every used
2–10 min.toAfter
offer10theh
thermo-regulated air, flowing over this interior side with a set temperature (T ) and
of heating, the heating power units and air conditioners were shut off, and ithe cotton insulation was airflow velocity (V i ).

removedFive to
type K thermocouples
allow the tested modulewere to
positioned on thefor
cool naturally surface
14 h. of
Thetheexperiments
main heating forsheet
eachand auxiliary
module/test
heating sheet to obtain Tmain and T aux ,
were repeated three times to confirm repeatability. respectively. Five thermocouples were placed on the outside
surfaces of the heat flux sensors and the wooden wall (the module’s interior side). Finally, five
thermocouples
2.4. Experimentalwere placed 0.5 cm apart inside the mPCM to observe the temperature distribution
Uncertainty
during the experiment. Heat flows outward from the exterior and lateral sides of the module
Uncertainties
and inward to theinindoor
the measured
side werequantities
measured fordirectly
this study wereflux
by heat estimated
sensors.to The
be ±0.1 °C for the
measurement
temperature,included
apparatuses ±0.05 W for the heating
AC/DC powerpower
supply input
unitsmeasured
(Gwinstek byAPS-1102,
an electronic wattWill
Good meter, and ±2%Co.,
Instrument for
the heating flux measured by the heat flow meter. The indoor heat flux and
Ltd., New Taipei City, Taiwan), heat flux sensors (MF-180, EKO Instruments, Tokyo, Japan), data heat fluxes outward the
peripheries units
acquisition of the(MX-100,
module were measuredTokyo,
YOKOGAWA, simultaneously.
Japan), and Toareproduce
PC. the thermal behavior of the
roof modules during service and to reduce the peripheral heat loss of the tested module, thermal
insulation
2.2. The mPCM material was applied around the lateral sides of the tested modules. From the heat flow
Capsule
measurement within the peripheral insulation, the average accumulated heat loss with
The mPCMs used in this paper were fabricated by Microtek Laboratories Inc. (Dayton, OH, USA).
Gs,o = 600 W/m2, Ti = 26 °C, and Vi = 0.5 m/s was 2.73% of◦ the total heating input. All the heat losses
The properties of the mPCM with the melting point of 37 C are as follows: the model name is MPCM
were within acceptable levels. These errors are believed to be inconsequential to the results of the
37-D, the core material is paraffin, the mean particle size is 17–20 microns, the capsule composition is
experiment.
85–90 wt. % PCM and 10–15 wt. % polymer shell, the specific gravity is 0.9, and the heat of fusion
is 166.54 kJ/kg [14]. Before and after mPCM melting, the average specific heat values were 3.21 and
3. Results and Discussion
2.70 kJ/(kg·◦ C), respectively [14]. The properties of the mPCM with the melting point of 43 ◦ C are
The experiment
as follows: the modelis namedivided into two43-D,
is MPCM stages:the10core
h ofmaterial
solar heating duringthe
is paraffin, themean
daytime and 14
particle h of
size is
natural convection cooling at night. The heating power at the exterior (outdoor)
14–24 microns, the capsule composition is 85–90 wt. % PCM and 10–15 wt. % polymer shell, the side of the tested roof
module gravity
specific was automatically
is 0.9, and thecontrolled (see Section
heat of fusion is 134.02.3, Experimental
J/g. Before and afterProcedure)
mPCM to simulate
melting, thethe daily
average
solar heat gain. The heating power peaks of the ◦sine
specific heat values were 3.45 and 2.35 kJ/(kg· C), respectively. function of time at the exterior side of the module
were set as 200, 400, and 600 W/m2. During the daytime, the convective condition of the interior
(indoor) side was set as Ti = 26 °C and Vi = 0.5 m/s. During the nighttime, the convective condition of
the interior side was also set as Ti = 26 °C, and the wind speed was close to 0 m/s (no wind outdoors).
The melting temperatures, Tm, of the mPCMs used in the modules were 37 °C and 43 °C, and these
were used to determine the location of the melting interface.

3.1. Case Studies

Energies 2018, 11, 679 5 of 11

2.3. Experimental Procedure

00
The time variation of the heating flux on the exterior side of the module (qh ) and the mPCM used
in the modules (37 ◦ C and 43 ◦ C melting points) were the main control parameters. This time- variant
heating flux on the exterior side, under the control of power from the power supply unit, simulated the
typical solar heat gain on a roof in a tropical region (Tainan City) in Taiwan. The convective condition
of the interior side of the module was achieved by the constant airflow temperature (Ti = 26 ◦ C) and
speed (0.5 m/s) supplied by an air conditioner, simulating the typical indoor air environment near the
roof. The initial temperature of the entire module was the same as that of the interior side (26 ◦ C) in
the experiment.
To reproduce solar heat gain conditions that were as realistic as possible, the time-variant heat
00
flux qh at the exterior side was gotten from meteorological data measured from June to August 2015
(the summer season in Taiwan) for the average hourly amount of solar heat gain and was considered
to be a sine function of time, as shown in Equation (1) and Figure 2. Figure 2 illustrates the measured
meteorological data and heating flux input, normalized by their respective peak values. The amount of
solar heat gain immediately before sunrise and immediately after sunset were both zero. Immediately
after sunrise, the solar heat gain begins to increase until a maximum (Gs,o ) is reached, after which the
solar heat gain decreases until sunset:

00 πt
qh (t) = Gs,o sin( ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T, T = 10 h (1)
T

where Gs,o is the peak value (200, 400, and 600 W/m2 ) of the heating power in the experiments.
The temperature inside the air-conditioned climate chamber was allowed to reach a stable initial
value of Ti before the experiment, and then all instruments were started. During the experimental
process, the temperature setting of the auxiliary heating sheet was adjusted every 2–10 min. After 10 h
of heating, the heating power units and air conditioners were shut off, and the cotton insulation was
removed to allow the tested module to cool naturally for 14 h. The experiments for each module/test
were repeated three times to confirm repeatability.

2.4. Experimental Uncertainty

Uncertainties in the measured quantities for this study were estimated to be ±0.1 ◦ C for the
temperature, ±0.05 W for the heating power input measured by an electronic watt meter, and ±2%
for the heating flux measured by the heat flow meter. The indoor heat flux and heat fluxes outward
the peripheries of the module were measured simultaneously. To reproduce the thermal behavior
of the roof modules during service and to reduce the peripheral heat loss of the tested module,
thermal insulation material was applied around the lateral sides of the tested modules. From the
heat flow measurement within the peripheral insulation, the average accumulated heat loss with
Gs,o = 600 W/m2 , Ti = 26 ◦ C, and Vi = 0.5 m/s was 2.73% of the total heating input. All the heat
losses were within acceptable levels. These errors are believed to be inconsequential to the results of
the experiment.

3. Results and Discussion

The experiment is divided into two stages: 10 h of solar heating during the daytime and 14 h
of natural convection cooling at night. The heating power at the exterior (outdoor) side of the tested
roof module was automatically controlled (see Section 2.3, Experimental Procedure) to simulate the
daily solar heat gain. The heating power peaks of the sine function of time at the exterior side of the
module were set as 200, 400, and 600 W/m2 . During the daytime, the convective condition of the
interior (indoor) side was set as Ti = 26 ◦ C and Vi = 0.5 m/s. During the nighttime, the convective
condition of the interior side was also set as Ti = 26 ◦ C, and the wind speed was close to 0 m/s (no
 Energies 2018, 11, 679 6 of 11

wind outdoors). The melting temperatures, Tm , of the mPCMs used in the modules were 37 ◦ C and
43 ◦ C, and these were used to determine the location of the melting interface.

3.1. Case Studies

Energies
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Energies 2018,11,
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Figures 3 and 4 show the hourly change in temperature and the heat flux of the mPCM roof module
Because
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(with
Because a heating
37 ◦ C melting
heating
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. Because
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At thebeginning
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at various
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the
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temperature
temperature
the temperature of ofthe
of the
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below thePCM
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support,
support,
a structural asaswell
as well
well asasaaaheat
as
support, heat
heat conduction
as well conduction
conduction
as a heat path,
path,
path,
conductionthe thealuminum
the aluminum
aluminum
path, the honeycomb
aluminumwas
honeycomb
honeycomb wasable
was
honeycomb ableto
able to
to
rapidly
rapidly
rapidly
was
Because the indoor side of this able conduct
conduct
conduct
to rapidly solar
solar
solar heat
conduct heat
heat gain
gain
gain
solar into
into
into
heat the
the
the
gain mPCM,
mPCM,
mPCM,
into the increasing
increasing
increasing
mPCM, the
increasing the
the module
module
module the temperature
temperature
temperature
module temperature slowly
slowly
slowly and
and
and
slowly
uniformly,
uniformly,
uniformly,
and
lect the small sawtooth-shaped uniformly, such
suchsuch
such that
thatthat
that aaathermal
thermal
thermal
a thermal stratification
stratification
stratification
stratification phenomenon
phenomenon
phenomenon
phenomenon waswas
was was notnot
not not observed.
observed.At
observed.
observed. At
At At510 510min,
510
510 min,the
min,
min, the
the
space resulting from temperature
temperature
temperature
the on-off of ofthe
of theindoor
the indoorside
indoor sideof
side ofthe
of themodule
the module(denoted
module (denotedby
(denoted bythe
by thesymbol
the symbol
symbol in inFigure
in Figure3a)
Figure
Figure 3a)reached
3a)
3a) reachedaaa
reached
reached
maximum
maximum value in of
value of32.632.6°C, ◦°C,
C,and andthe thetime timelag lagwas was210 210min. min.Although
Althoughthe thetemperature
temperature change
changewas wasnot not
s inEnergies
the results xmaximum
2018, 11,are FORpresented
PEER REVIEW value of 32.6 °C, and the time lag was 210 min. Although the temperature 6 of 11 change was not
mainly presented large, large,
with the
thetime
large,averaged
the timelag
time lagphenomenon
lag phenomenonwas
phenomenon wassignificant.
was significant.
significant.
Because heating power Figure
Figure
Figure 3b
(denoted 3bshows
3b
3b shows
shows
shows by the the hourly
hourly
hourly
thesymbol
the hourly heat
heat
heat
heat flux
fluxchange
flux
in Figures
flux 3 andfor
change
change
change 4) the
for
for
for thecondition
the
simulates condition
condition
condition the solar ofofaaaheat
of peak
peak
peak heating
heatingpower
heating
gain,
heating powerof
power
power of
of
the hourly 200
200 W/m
W/m
W/m 2 2
. ..At At
.At the
the
the beginning
beginning
beginning andof of
of ofthe
the
the daytime
daytime
daytime solar
solar
solar heating,
heating,
heating, because
becausethe
because
because theheating
the
the heating
heating power
powerwas
power
power waslow,
was low,the
low, the
the
g point modulechange
for 200the in
W/m the
condition22 temperature
At the beginning the heat
the flux also
daytime solar shows heating, a sinusoidal-like form within
heating
600 min (10
irradiation fromh) temperature
temperature
of sunthe during
temperature
the experiment variation
variation
variation ofofthe
of
(simulatingtheentire
the entire
entire roof
daytime roofmodule
roof
roof module
module
sunshine).
module waswassmall;
was small;therefore,
small;
Because
small; therefore,
therefore,
the indoor
therefore, the
the heat
theside heatof
heat dissipating
dissipating
dissipating
this
dissipating from
fromthe
from
from the
the
ndsexperiment indoor
to absorbingsimulates indoor
indoor
solar heatside
side
angain.
side of ofthe
of themodule
the
air-conditioned
the modulewas
module was
was low.
space, low.to
low.
low. Due Due
Due totothe
to theeffect
the
realistically effect
effect of
reflect ofthe
of the
the theauxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary heating
heatingsheet,
heating
small sawtooth-shaped sheet,the
sheet, theoutdoor
the outdoorheat
outdoor heat
heat
amplitude
duction. loss
At thevariationlossfrom
loss
beginning from
fromof of the the
the the module
module
module
air temperaturewas
wascontrolled
was controlled
controlled to tobe
to
in an air-conditioned beclose
be closeto
close tozero.
to zero.
space
zero. AsAs the theheating
Asresulting
the heating
heating from time
time
time the increased,
on-off the
increased,
increased, themodule
the module
module
operation
dually mode
increased. temperature
temperature
of an actual
However,
temperature began
the began totoincrease
to
air conditioner
began increase gradually,
increasecompressor, gradually,and
gradually,
gradually, andthe
and
the
and theindoor
the
figures indoor
indoor
indoor in the heat
heat
heat
heat flow
resultsfloware
flow through
through
through
presented the
themodule
the module
module
in
module began
beganto
began
began to
to
rawthe
uring form,
entire increase
without increase
increase
heating gradually.
gradually.
gradually.
averaging,
process; The
butThe The average
average
theaverage
description heat
heat
heat flux flux
flux
of the onto
onto
onto the
data the indoor
indoor
theisindoor mainly side
side
side (denoted
(denoted
(denotedwith
presented byby the
by the the symbol
symbol x x in
symbol x in Figure 3b)
averaged in Figure
Figure 3b)
3b)
had aaamaximum 2 222
values.absorbed
M entirely had
had
sensible maximum
maximum heat. value valueof
value ofapproximately
of approximately46.0
approximately 46.0W/m
46.0 W/m
W/m
W/m atat
at515
at 515min.
515
515 min.The
min. Thestored
The
The storedheat
stored heatflux
heat flux(denoted
flux (denotedby
(denoted bythe
by the
the
minum Figure 3asymbol
honeycomb symbol
symbol
shows wasthe  in
able inFigure
Figure3b)
Figure
temperature
in to
Figure 3b) hadhadaaaamaximum
3b)distribution
3b) had
had maximum
maximum
maximum of thevalue 37 °Cof
value
value
value of166.7
of
of 166.7W/m
166.7
melting
166.7 W/m
W/m
point
W/m 2 222atat300
at
module 300min.
300 forCompared
min.
min. Compared
Compared
the condition with
withthe
with theheating
the heating
heating
of a peak
module heating
temperature power,
power,
power,
power
slowly there
there
thereofand 200was
was
was W/m almost
almost
almost2. The no no
no time
timelag.
building
time lag.
lag.roof After
After
After
receives
After approximately
approximately
approximately
heat irradiation
approximately 9.5 9.5hhhfrom
9.5 ofofdaytime
of the sunheating,
daytime
daytime during the
heating,
heating, themodule’s
the module’s
module’s
notthe daytime,At
observed. internal
and internal
internal
510 themin, heat
heat
outdoor
heat thestorage
storage
storage
side of
storage became
became
became
the mPCM
became negative,
negative,
negative,
negative, roof indicating
indicating
indicating
module that
thatthe
that
responds
that the
the
the tomodule’s
module’s
module’s
absorbing
module’s heat
heat
heat
heat solargain
gaingain
gainheat
waswaswas
was already
gain. already
already
already lessless
less
less
thanthan
than
than its
mbol  in Figure
Thermal energy itsits
its heat
heat
heat
enters
3a)
heat loss
reached
loss atat
loss
loss
the at
at athis
mPCM
this this
this
time.time.
time.
time.
in the module through heat conduction. At the beginning of the
theexperiment,
temperaturethe change InIn the
temperature
Inwas thenighttime
the nighttime
nighttime
not
nighttime at various cooling
cooling
cooling
cooling stage,
parts stage,
stage, of the theheating
the heatingplate
heating
module plate
gradually
plate power
power
power was
wasturned
was
increased. turned
turned off
offto
off
However, tosimulate
to
to the the
simulate
simulate
simulate thelack
the lackof
lack
lack of
of
temperature ofsunshine,
R REVIEW sunshine,
the mPCM
sunshine, which
which
remained
which caused
caused
caused belowthe
theheat
the heat
the
heat flux
PCM flux to
fluxmeltingtothe
to theoutdoors
the outdoors
outdoors
point during
outdoors 8through
through
through
11the entire
through
of thethetested
the tested
tested
heating
tested module
module
module
process;
module (denoted
(denotedby
(denoted
(denoted bythe
by
by the
the
on therefore,
of a peakthe symbol
symbol
symbol
phase
heating 
change
power inin in
in Figure
Figure
Figure
phenomenon
of
Figure 3b)3b) 3b)
3b)
to to
didto
increase increase
to not increase
increase
occur,
to a certain to to aaathe
to
and certain
certain
certain
value,PCM value,
value,
value,
entirely
remain remain
constant remain
remain
absorbed forconstant
certainfor
constant
constant
asensible for aaa(approximately
for
heat.
time certain
certain time
certain time
time
edAs
the as the ratio
a structural
heating of(approximately
power the h),amplitude
3(approximately
(approximately
support,
was low,then
and asthe of
well 3the
33as
decrease h), highest
h),
h),a and and
heat
slowly. temperature
then
andconduction
then
then decrease
decrease
decrease
Meanwhile, of the
path, interior
slowly.
slowly.
slowly.
the the aluminum
module’s side
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
outdoor honeycomb the
the module’s
the
surface module’s
module’s
was ableoutdoor
temperature outdoor
outdoor
to (denoted surface
surface
surface by
rface (denoted
rapidly
e, the bytemperature
heat conduct
dissipating thesolar
the symbol
temperature
temperature from
symbol heat 
the in Figure
(denoted
(denoted
(denoted
gain intoby
Figure by4a,
by
the
3a)theis
the
the
mPCM,0.43.
symbol
symbol
symbol
continuously in
increasing inFigure
in Figure
Figure
decreased. the module 3a)3a)continuously
3a)
The continuously
continuously
indoor temperature decreased.
decreased.
decreased.
air-conditioning slowly and TheTheturned
The
was indoor
indooroff
indoor air-
air-
air-
in
uniformly,
heating sheet,such
the conditioning
conditioning
conditioning
the that
outdoor a heat
experiment was
thermal was
was toturned
turned
turned off
stratification
reflect off
aofflackin inthe
in of the
the experiment
experimentto
experiment
phenomenon
air-conditioning toreflect
to
was inreflect
reflect
not aobserved.
aalack
the off-work lackof
lack of air-conditioning
ofhours,
air-conditioning
air-conditioning
At 510 which min, causedthein inthe
in theoff-work
the off-work
off-work
module’s
tingtemperature
time increased, ofhours,
hours,
hours,
the
indoor which
theindoorwhich
which
module
side surface caused
sidecaused
caused the
of temperature
the module’s
themodule
the module’s
module’s indoor
(denotedindoorside
indoor
(denoted side
side
by
by thesurface
the surface
surface
symbol
symbol  in
temperature
temperature
temperature in Figure
Figure (denoted
(denoted
(denoted
3a) to
3a) reached by bythe
by
increase thea symbol
the symbol
symbol
slightly atthe
 in in
in
maximum
w through thevalue Figure
module Figure
Figure
of 32.6
beginning 3a)3a)
3a)
began to
°C, toincrease
to
and increase
increase
and
to then slightly
theslowly slightly
slightly
time lag atat
atthe
was
decrease. beginning
the210
the beginning
beginning
Themin. andand
and
Although
indoor then
heat then
then slowly
the
flux slowly
slowly
temperature
through decrease.
decrease.
decrease. TheTheindoor
The
change
the module indoor
indoor
was not
(denoted heat
heatby
heat flux
flux
fluxthe through
through
through
symbol
edlarge,
by thethe timethe
symbol xthe
the
lag inmodule
Figure (denoted
module
module
phenomenon (denoted
(denoted
3b)
3a) wasby
decreased by
by thethe
the
significant.symbol
symbol
symbol
slightly, xxxin
followed inFigure
in by a 3a)
Figure
Figure 3a)decreased
3a)
rapid increase,slightly,
decreased
decreased slightly,
slightly,
and then followed
followed
followed
a slow decrease by byaaarapid
by rapid
rapid increase,
again. increase,
increase,
In the
stored heatFigure
flux3b andand
and
shows
(denoted
early then
then
then aaaslow
the
by
stages slow
slow
thehourly decrease
of nighttime heat again.
decrease
decrease again.
again.
flux
cooling, In
change In
In the
due theto
the early
early
early
for thethe stages
stages
stages
condition
above of ofnighttime
of
boundary nighttime
nighttime
of a condition
peak cooling,
cooling,
cooling,
heating due
due
due
change, totothe
to
power theabove
the
both above
above
of boundary
boundary
boundary
the temperature
min.200 W/m2. Atwith
Compared condition
condition
condition
the
and beginning
the
theheating
heatchange,
change,
change, of the
flux both
both
both
values the
daytime thetemperature
the
underwent temperature
temperature
solar heating, large and and
and the
because
changes theand
the heat
heat
heatthe flux
fluxvalues
flux
heating
entered values
values
thepower underwent
smoothunderwent
underwent
was low,large
natural the changes
large
large
cooling stage and
changes
changes and
and
after
temperature
daytime heating, entered
entered
entered
variation
the module’s
approximately the
ofthethe
the smooth
smooth
smooth entire
30 min natural
natural
natural
roof(when cooling
cooling
cooling
module stage
was stage
stage
the experiment after
afterapproximately
after
small; approximately
approximately
therefore,
time was 10.5 the heat 30 30min
30
h). min
min (when
(whenthe
(when
dissipating
The temperature the
thefromexperiment
the heattime
experiment
experiment
and timewas
time
flux was
was
at all
indoor
heat gain side
was of 10.5
the
already h).
10.5module
10.5 h).
h). The
less The
The temperature
than temperature
temperature
was low. Due and
andto heat
and heat
heat
the flux
fluxat
flux
effect atall
at
of allpoints
all
the points
points
auxiliary decreased
decreased
decreasedheating gradually.
sheet, theAt
gradually.
gradually. Atroughly
At roughly
roughly
outdoor heatthe
thesixth
the sixthhour
sixth hourof
hour of
of
loss from the module nighttime
nighttime
nighttime was cooling
cooling
cooling
controlled (when
(when
(when tothe theexperiment
the
be experiment
experiment
close to zero.time time
time
As the reached
reached
reached
heating 16 16htime
16 hhand and
and thetheactual
the
increased, actual
actual time
the time
time was
module wasapproximately
was approximately
approximately
urnedtemperature 23:00),
began
off to simulate 23:00),
23:00), the the
to the
the temperature
increase
lack temperature
temperature
of gradually, and
andheat
and heatflux
heat
and fluxat
flux
the atall
at
indoor allpoints
all heat recovered
points
points recovered
recovered
flow through to tototheir the initial
their
their initialstates.
initial
module states.
states.
began to
increase
tested gradually.
module (denoted Theby averagethe heat flux onto the indoor side (denoted by the symbol x in Figure 3b)
n had a maximum
constant for a certain value oftime approximately 46.0 W/m2 at 515 min. The stored heat flux (denoted by the
2
Energies 2018, 11, 679 7 of 11

points decreased gradually. At roughly the sixth hour of nighttime cooling (when the experiment time
reached 16 h and the actual time was approximately 23:00), the temperature and heat flux at all points
recovered to their initial states.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11

(a) Temperature changes over time.

(b) Heat flux changes over time.

Figure 3. Heat transfer behavior of the tested module (Tm = 37 °C, Gs,o = 200 W/m2).
Figure 3. Heat transfer behavior of the tested module (Tm = 37 ◦ C, Gs,o = 200 W/m2 ).

Figure 4 shows the experimental results for when the peak heating power was 600 W/m2. From
FigureFigure 4 shows
4a, during the experimental
the period of 0.5 to 2 hresults for when the
of the experiment, thepeak heating
module power
internal W/m2 .
was 600 (figure
temperature
From Figure
legend 4a, during1–5”
“thermocouple the period
in Figure of 0.5
4a) to 2 h of the
increased experiment,
rapidly from 26the°Cmodule internal temperature
to approximately 35 °C. The
(figure legend “thermocouple 1–5” in Figure 4a) increased rapidly from 26 ◦ C to approximately 35 ◦ C.
mPCM interior was still in its solid state during this stage, and it was absorbing heat in the form of
The mPCM
sensible interior
heat. From was2 still
to in3 its
h, solid
the state
moduleduring this stage,
interior and it waswas
temperature absorbing
stable,heat in the form at
maintaining of
sensible heat. From 2 to 3 h, the module interior temperature was stable, maintaining
approximately 37 °C. At this stage, the interior of the mPCM gradually changed from a solid to a at approximately
37 ◦ C. At
liquid andthis stage, the
absorbed interior
solar heat of gaintheinmPCM
the formgradually changed
of latent from 3a to
heat. From solid to athe
10 h, liquid and absorbed
module’s interior
temperature variation showed a sine wave shape, along with the solar heating mode, which increased
from 37 °C to a peak value of 77 °C and then decreased back to 37 °C. The interior of the mPCM was
liquid and absorbed heat in the form of sensible heat. The temperature change exhibited a significant
time lag and amplitude reduction. The temperature time lag, defined as the difference in time
between when the peak temperature of the interior side (denoted by the symbol  in Figure 4a occurs
 Energies 2018, 11, 679 8 of 11

solar heat gain in the form of latent heat. From 3 to 10 h, the module’s interior temperature variation
showed a sine wave shape, along with the solar heating mode, which increased from 37 ◦ C to a
peak value of 77 ◦ C and then decreased back to 37 ◦ C. The interior of the mPCM was liquid and
absorbed heat in the form of sensible heat. The temperature change exhibited a significant time lag
and amplitude reduction. The temperature time lag, defined as the difference in time between when
Energies 2018, 11,the peak
x FOR PEERtemperature
REVIEW of the interior side (denoted by the symbol + in Figure 4a occurs 8 of 11and when the
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11
peak heating (denoted by the symbol # in Figure 4a occurs, is 78 min. The temperature decrement
decrement factor, defined
factor, definedasasthe theratio
ratioofofthe
theamplitude
amplitudeofofthe
thehighest
highesttemperature
temperatureof
ofthe
theinterior
interior side
side to that of the
decrement factor, defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the highest temperature of the interior side
to that of the heated surface (denoted by the symbol  in Figure 4a, is 0.43.
to that of the heated surface (denoted by the symbol  in Figure 4a, is 0.43.




(a) Temperature changes over time.

(a) Temperature changes over time.

(b) Heat flux changes over time.

(b) Heat flux changes over time.
Figure 4. Heat transfer behavior of the tested module (Tm = 37 °C, Gs,o = 600 W/m2).
Figure 4. Heat transfer behavior of the tested module (Tm = 37 °C, Gs,o = 600 W/m2).
Figure 4. Heat transfer behavior of the tested module (Tm = 37 ◦ C, Gs,o = 600 W/m2 ).
During the nighttime, the roof module starts to release the heat energy that was stored during
During the nighttime, the roof module starts to release the heat energy that was stored during
the daytime. From 10.7 to 14 h, the module’s interior temperature at each measuring point showed
the daytime. From 10.7 to 14 h, the module’s interior temperature at each measuring point showed
slight differences (denoted by the symbol  in Figure 4a), maintaining at approximately 35 °C. The
slight differences (denoted by the symbol  in Figure 4a), maintaining at approximately 35 °C. The
mPCM interior started to solidify at this stage, gradually changing from liquid to solid, and released
mPCM interior started to solidify at this stage, gradually changing from liquid to solid, and released
heat in the form of latent heat. Thus, the temperature needed for solidifying mPCMs was slightly
heat in the form of latent heat. Thus, the temperature needed for solidifying mPCMs was slightly
lower than the melting point, showing its supercooling effect. From 14 to 20 h, the module’s interior
lower than the melting point, showing its supercooling effect. From 14 to 20 h, the module’s interior
temperature rapidly decreased from 33 °C. From 20 to 24 h, the module interior temperature only
temperature rapidly decreased from 33 °C. From 20 to 24 h, the module interior temperature only
Energies 2018, 11, 679 9 of 11

During the nighttime, the roof module starts to release the heat energy that was stored during the
daytime. From 10.7 to 14 h, the module’s interior temperature at each measuring point showed slight
differences (denoted by the symbol 1 in Figure 4a), maintaining at approximately 35 ◦ C. The mPCM
interior started to solidify at this stage, gradually changing from liquid to solid, and released heat in
the form of latent heat. Thus, the temperature needed for solidifying mPCMs was slightly lower than
the melting point, showing its supercooling effect. From 14 to 20 h, the module’s interior temperature
rapidly decreased from 33 ◦ C. From 20 to 24 h, the module interior temperature only slightly changed,
maintaining at approximately 26 ◦ C. There were still a few thermal stratifications inside the mPCMs,
but during the nighttime cooling, the module’s interior temperature showed a consistent variation
behavior, demonstrating no thermal stratification.
Figure 4b shows the heat flows for a peak heating power of 600 W/m2 . The solar heat gain
(denoted by the symbol # in Figure 4b) peak value appeared at the experimental time of 300 min.
The heat flux into the indoor side (denoted by the symbol x in Figure 4b) started to greatly increase at
3.3 h, which roughly corresponds to the time the mPCM interior completely melted (this phenomenon
can also be seen from the temperature variation in Figure 4a). At this time, the latent heat of the PCM
was exhausted, and as the solar heat gain continued, the mPCM interior temperature and the heat
flow into the indoor side also increased rapidly. A maximum value of 288.2 W/m2 of heat flow into
the indoor side appeared at 400 min, while the maximum stored heat flux of 439.8 W/m2 occurred at
183 min.

3.2. Findings
Table 1 shows the temperature time lag and temperature decrement factor of each experiment
during the daytime. It is evident that when using a certain material, as the heating power increases, the
temperature time lag and the temperature decrement factor both decrease. At a high heating power,
the temperature time lag and temperature decrement factor of the 37 ◦ C mPCM performed better than
that of the 43 ◦ C mPCM and featured a better thermal performance.

Table 1. Temperature time lag and temperature decrement factor of each experimental during
the daytime.

Used PCM Characteristics 200 W/m2 400 W/m2 600 W/m2

Temperature time lag 303 min 95 min 78 min
37 ◦ C mPCM
Temperature decrement factor 0.75 0.50 0.43
Temperature time lag 304 min 53 min 53 min
43 ◦ C mPCM
Temperature decrement factor 0.68 0.52 0.46

Figure 5 shows the time lag and decrement factor of heat flux of the tested module filled with
37 ◦ C and 43 ◦ C mPCMs for different peak heating power conditions. The heat flux time lag is the
difference in time between when the peak interior surface heat flux occurs and peak solar heat gain
occurs. A larger time lag indicates a better heat storage and/or insulation performance and can shift
the daily peak load more effectively. The heat flux decrement factor is the ratio of the peak interior
surface heat flux to the peak solar heat gain. A lower decrement factor indicates better heat storage
and/or thermal insulation performance, which can reduce peak indoor heat gain.
It can be seen from Figure 5 that for the same type of PCM, as the peak heating power increases,
the time lag of the heat flux decreases, which reduces the peak load shifting capability of the tested
module. Nonetheless, the time lag at the high heating power peak (600 W/m2 ) of the 37 ◦ C melting
point module was only slightly lower than that at 400 W/m2 , and the difference was minimal.
When the heating power peak of the 37 ◦ C melting point module was increased from 400 W/m2
to 600 W/m2 , the time lag was slightly reduced, but the decrement factor was maintained at 0.45–0.47,
showing its good heat flux impedance ability. For high heating power conditions, the decrement factor
 Energies 2018, 11, 679 10 of 11

of the 43 ◦ C melting point module was lower than that of the 37 ◦ C melting point module, indicating
that the 43 ◦ C melting point module has a relatively low indoor heat gain. However, the time lag of
Energies 43 ◦ C11,melting
the 2018, module was much lower than that of the 37 ◦ C melting point module.
pointREVIEW
x FOR PEER 10 of 11

(a) with a 37 °C melting point mPCM (b) with a 43 °C melting point mPCM
Figure 5. 5.
Figure Relationship
Relationship between theheating
between the heating power
power peak peak
and theand
timethe
lag time
of the lag
heat of
fluxthe
andheat flux and
decrement
decrement factor of the
factor of the heat flux.heat flux.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
ThisThis
research
researchcombines
combines mPCMs
mPCMs (core(corematerial:
material: paraffin;
paraffin; melting
melting temperatures:
temperatures: 37 and37 ◦ C) and
43 and 43 °C)
andaluminum
aluminumhoneycomb
honeycomb boards
boards (8 (8
mmmm core
core cell)
cell) to to form
form mPCM
mPCM roofroof modules.
modules. TheThe thermal
thermal cycling
cycling
characteristics of the modules are studied by measuring their heat flux and
characteristics of the modules are studied by measuring their heat flux and temperature variation.temperature variation.
During
During thethe first
first 10 10
h ofh of
thethe experiment,the
experiment, theheating
heating power
powerof ofthe
themodule’s
module’s outdoor
outdoorsurface simulates
surface simulates
hourly sunshine changes, and an air conditioning system (set to 26 ◦ C) is applied to maintain the
hourly sunshine changes, and an air conditioning system (set to 26 °C) is applied to maintain the
interior
interior sideside environment
environment ofofthe
themodule.
module.During
During the
the experiment
experimenttime timebetween
between 1010
and 24 24
and h, nighttime
h, nighttime
conditions are simulated, and the module’s indoor and outdoor sides are subject to natural convection
conditions are simulated, and the module’s indoor and outdoor sides are subject to natural
cooling. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results:
convection cooling. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results:
1. When the tested mPCM roof modules were at a high solar heat gain (600 W/m2 ), the decrement
1. When the tested mPCM roof modules were at a high solar heat gain (600 W/m 2), the decrement
factor of the heat flux of the 37 ◦ C melting point module was 0.48, which was slightly higher
factor of the heat flux of the 37 °C melting point module was 0.48, which was slightly higher
than the value of 0.44 for the 43 ◦ C melting point module, indicating that the 37 ◦ C melting point
than the value of 0.44 for the 43 °C melting point module, indicating that the 37 °C melting point
module has a higher peak indoor heat gain (approximately 4% higher). However, the time lag
module
of thehas
heata flux
higher peak
of the 37 ◦indoor heat
C melting gainmodule
point (approximately
was 100 min,4%which
higher).
wasHowever,
far greaterthe
thantime
the lag
of the heatofflux
60 min the of
43 the 37 °C melting
◦ C melting point indicating
point module, module wasthat100 min,
the 37 ◦ C which
meltingwas
pointfarmodule
greaterhasthan
the the
60 min of the 43 °C melting point
better peak load shifting ability. module, indicating that the 37 °C melting point module has
2.the For
better
thepeak load shifting
conditions ability.
of daytime heating and nighttime natural convection cooling established in
2. For this
the study,
conditions of daytime
the mPCMs with 37heating ◦ C melting
and 43and nighttime natural
points insideconvection
the two roofcooling
modules established
are both in
thiseffective
study, the mPCMs their
at releasing withsolar
37 and 43allowing
heat, °C melting
thempoints inside the
to be restored two roof
to their initialmodules are both
state to begin
thermal
effective at cycling
releasingagain thesolar
their following
heat,day.
allowing them to be restored to their initial state to begin
thermal cycling again the following day.
The results are limited to the used mPCM and the specific chosen location. To explore the practical
aspects and applications
The results are limited at other
to thelocations,
used mPCMmPCMsand
withthe
different melting
specific points
chosen shouldTo
location. be tested.
explore the
practical aspects and applications at other locations, mPCMs with different melting points should be
Acknowledgments: Support from the Ministry of Sciences and Technologies (MOST) of ROC in Taiwan through
tested.
grant no. MOST 105-2923-E-006-006-MY3 in this study is gratefully acknowledged.

Acknowledgments: Support from the Ministry of Sciences and Technologies (MOST) of ROC in Taiwan through
grant no. MOST 105-2923-E-006-006-MY3 in this study is gratefully acknowledged.

Author Contributions: Qi Zhou and Chi-Ming Lai conceived and designed the investigated model; Qi Zhou
performed the experiments; Qi Zhou, Pin-Feng Liu and Chun-Ta Tzeng analyzed the data; and Pin-Feng and
Chi-Ming Lai wrote the paper.
Energies 2018, 11, 679 11 of 11

Author Contributions: Qi Zhou and Chi-Ming Lai conceived and designed the investigated model; Qi Zhou
performed the experiments; Qi Zhou, Pin-Feng Liu and Chun-Ta Tzeng analyzed the data; and Pin-Feng and
Chi-Ming Lai wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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