CONTENTS

Animal Migration

 Definition

 Migration Types

 Multiple generation migration

 Human cultural responses to animal migration

Human migration

 Definition

 Migration statistics

 Pre-modern migrations

 Modern migrations

 Industrialization and the rise of nationalism/imperialism

 The World Wars and their aftermath

 Pakistan-India

 Theories for migration for work in the 21st century

 Overview

 Neoclassical economic theory

 Dual labor market theory

 The new economics of labor migration

 Relative deprivation theory

 World systems theory

 Historical theories

 Ravenstein
 Push Factors

 Pull Factors

 Climate cycles

 Other models
 References
 Animal Migration

Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a

seasonal basis. It is a ubiquitous phenomenon, found in all major animal groups, including birds,
mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans. The trigger for the migration may
be local climate, local availability of food, the season of the year or for mating reasons. To be
counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal or irruption, the movement of the
animals should be an annual or seasonal occurrence, such as birds migrating south for the winter,
or a major habitat change as part of their life, such as young Atlantic salmon leaving the river of
their birth when they have reached a few inches in size.

Definition

Migration can take very different forms in different species and as such, there is no
simple accepted definition of migration. One of the most commonly used definitions, proposed
by Kennedy is“Migratory behavior is persistent and straightened out movement effected by the
animal’s own locomotory exertions or by its active embarkation upon a vehicle. It depends on
some temporary inhibition of station keeping responses but promotes their eventual disinhibition
and recurrence.”

Migration has also been described as a term that describes the four related concepts:

1. persistent, straight, movement behavior

2. relocation of an individual on a greater scale (both spatially and temporally) than its
normal daily activities

3. seasonal ‘to-and-fro’ movement of a population between two areas

4. movement leading to the redistribution of individuals within a population

Migration Types

Migration can be either obligate, meaning individuals must migrate, or facultative,

meaning individuals can choose to migrate or not.

Within a migratory species or even within a single population, often not all individuals migrate.
Complete migration is when all individuals migrate, partial migration is when some individuals
migrate while others do not, and differential migration is when the difference between migratory
and non-migratory individuals is based on age or sex (for example).

While most migratory movements occur on an annual cycle, some daily movements are also
referred to as migration. For example, many aquatic animals make a vertical migration (Diel
vertical migration), travelling a few hundred metres up and down the water column. Similarly,
some jellyfish make daily horizontal migrations, traveling a few hundred metres across a lake.

Irregular (non-cyclical) migrations such as irruptions can occur under pressure of famine,
overpopulation of a locality, or some more obscure influence.

Multiple generation migration

In some insect species, such as the monarch butterfly and the painted lady butterfly, the
whole migration is not carried out by one individual. Instead the butterflies mate and reproduce
on the journey, and successive generations travel the next stage of the migration.

Human cultural responses to animal migration

Before the phenomenon of animal migration was understood, various folklore and
erroneous explanations sprang up to account for the disappearance or sudden arrival of birds in
an area. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle proposed that robins turned into redstarts when summer
arrived. The barnacle goose was explained in European Medieval bestiaries and manuscripts as
either growing like fruit on trees, or developing from goose barnacles on pieces of driftwood.
Another example is the swallow, which at various times was suggested to hibernate either
underwater, buried in muddy riverbanks, or in hollow trees.

A christmas island red crab on its migration.

Human migration

Human migration is movement by humans from one area to another, sometimes over long
distances or in large groups. Historically this movement was nomadic, often causing significant
conflict with the indigenous population and their displacement or cultural assimilation. Only a
few nomadic people have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. Migration has
continued under the form of both voluntary migration within one's region, country, or beyond
and involuntary migration (which includes the slave trade, trafficking in human beings and
ethnic cleansing). People who migrate into a territory are called immigrants, while at the
departure point they are called emigrants. Small populations migrating to develop a territory
considered void of settlement depending on historical setting, circumstances and perspective are
referred to as settlers or colonists, while populations displaced by immigration and colonization
are called refugees. The rest of this article will cover sense of a "change of residence", rather
than the temporary migrations of travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the commute.

Definition
According to International Organization for Migration, man "no universally accepted
definition for (migrant) exists. The term migrant was usually understood to cover all cases where
the decision to migrate was taken freely by the individual concerned for reasons of "personal
convenience" and without intervention of an external compelling factor; it therefore applied to
persons, and family members, moving to another country or region to better their material or
social conditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family. The United Nations
defines migrant as an individual who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year
irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used to
migrate. Under such a definition, those travelling for shorter periods as tourists and
businesspersons would not be considered migrants. However, common usage includes certain
kinds of shorter-term migrants, such as seasonal farm-workers who travel for short periods to
work planting or harvesting farm products." Also, human migration happened when the Paleo-
Indians entered America.

Migration statistics

According to the International Organization for Migration's World Migration Report

2010, the number of international migrants was estimated at 214 million in 2010. If this number
continues to grow at the same pace as during the last 20 years, it could reach 405 million by
2050. While some modern migration is a byproduct of wars (for example, emigration from Iraq
and Bosnia to the US and UK), political conflicts (for example, some emigration from Zimbabwe
to the UK), and natural disasters (for example, emigration from Montserrat to the UK following
the eruption of the island's volcano), contemporary migration is predominantly economically
motivated. In particular, there are wide disparities in the incomes that can be earned for similar
work in different countries of the world. There are also, at any given time, some jobs in some
high-wage countries for which there is a shortage of appropriately skilled or qualified citizens.
Some countries (e.g., UK and Australia) operate points systems that give some lawful
immigration visas to some non-citizens who are qualified for such shortage jobs. Non-citizens,
therefore, have an economic incentive to obtain the necessary skills and qualifications in their
own countries and then apply for, and migrate to take up, these job vacancies. International
migration similarly motivated by economic disparities and opportunities occurs within the EU,
where legal barriers to migration between member countries have been wholly or partially lifted.
Countries with higher prevailing wage levels, such as France, Germany, Italy and the UK are net
recipients of immigration from lower-wage member countries such as Greece, Hungary,
Lithuania, Poland and Romania.

Some contemporary economic migration occurs even where the migrant becomes
illegally resident in their destination country and therefore at major disadvantage in the
employment market. Illegal immigrants are, for example, known to cross in significant numbers,
typically at night, from Mexico into the US, from Mozambique into South Africa, from Bulgaria
and Turkey into Greece, from north Africa into Spain and Italy and from Bangladesh into India.

The pressures of human migrations, whether as outright conquest or by slow cultural

infiltration and resettlement, have affected the grand epochs in history and in land (for example,
the decline of the Roman Empire); under the form of colonization, migration has transformed the
world (such as the prehistoric and historic settlements of Australia and the Americas). Population
genetics studied in traditionally settled modern populations have opened a window into the
historical patterns of migrations, a technique pioneered by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza.

Forced migration has been a means of social control under authoritarian regimes, yet
free-initiative migration is a powerful factor in social adjustment and the growth of urban
populations.

In December 2003, The Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) was

launched with the support of Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan and several
countries, with an independent 19-member commission, a threefold mandate and a finite lifespan
ending December 2005. Its report, based on regional consultation meetings with stakeholders and
scientific reports from leading international migration experts, was published and presented to
Kofi Annan on 5 October 2005.

International migration challenges at the global level are addressed through the Global
Migration Group, established in 2006.

Different types of migration include:

 Seasonal human migration mainly related to agriculture and tourism to urban places
 Rural to urban, more common in developing countries as industrialization takes effect
(urbanization)

 Urban to rural, more common in developed countries due to a higher cost of urban living
(suburbanization)

 International migration
Pre-modern migrations

Historical migration of human populations begins with the movement of Homo erectus
out of Africa across Eurasia about a million years ago. Homo sapiens appear to have occupied all
of Africa about 150,000 years ago, moved out of Africa 70,000 years ago, and had spread across
Australia, Asia and Europe by 40,000 years BC. Migration to the Americas took place 20,000 to
15,000 years ago, and by 2,000 years ago, most of the Pacific Islands were colonized. Later
population movements notably include the Neolithic Revolution, Indo-European expansion, and
the Early Medieval Great Migrations including Turkic expansion. In some places, substantial
cultural transformation occurred following the migration of relatively small elite populations,
Turkey and Azerbaijan being such examples. In Britain, it is considered that the Roman and
Norman conquests were similar examples, while "the most hotly debated of all the British
cultural transitions is the role of migration in the relatively sudden and drastic change from
Romano-Britain to Anglo-Saxon Britain", which may be explained by a possible "substantial
migration of Anglo-Saxon Y chromosomes into Central England (contributing 50%–100% to the
gene pool at that time."

Early humans migrated due to many factors such as changing climate and landscape and
inadequate food supply. The evidence indicates that the ancestors of the Austronesian peoples
spread from the South Chinese mainland to Taiwan at sometime around 8,000 years ago.
Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring peoples
migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire region encompassed by
the Austronesian languages. It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago.
Indo-Aryan migration from the Indus Valley to the plain of the River Ganges in Northern India is
presumed to have taken place in the Middle to Late Bronze Age, contemporary to the Late
Harappan phase in India (ca. 1700 to 1300 BC). From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central
Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and
Kushans in the northwestern Indian subcontinent.

From 728 BC, the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in several
places, including Sicily and Marseille. In Europe, two waves of migrations dominate
demographic distributions, that of the Celtic people and that of the later Migration Period from
the North and East, both being possible examples of general cultural change sparked by
primarily elite and warrior migration. Other examples are small movements like that of the
Magyars into Pannonia (modern-day Hungary). Turkic peoples spread from their homeland in
modern Turkestan across most of Central Asia into Europe and the Middle East between the 6th
and 11th centuries. Recent research suggests that Madagascar was uninhabited until
Austronesian seafarers from Indonesia arrived during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Subsequent
migrations from both the Pacific and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, and
Malagasy people emerged.
 Before the expansion of the Bantu languages and their speakers, the southern half of
Africa is believed to have been populated by Pygmies and Khoisan-speaking people, today
occupying the arid regions around the Kalahari Desert and the forest of Central Africa. By about
1000 AD, Bantu migration had reached modern day Zimbabwe and South Africa. The Banu
Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who
migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their migration strongly
contributed to the Arabization and Islamization of the western Maghreb, which was until then
dominated by Berber tribes. Ostsiedlung was the medieval eastward migration and settlement of
Germans. The 13th century was the time of the great Mongol and Turkic migrations across
Eurasia.

Between the 11th and 18th centuries, there were numerous migrations in Asia. The
Vatsayan Priests from the eastern Himalaya hills, migrated to Kashmir during the Shan invasion
in 1203C. They settled in the lower Shivalik hills in 1206C to sanctify the manifest goddess. In
the Ming occupation, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến
(southward expansion). Manchuria was separated from China proper by the Inner Willow
Palisade, which restricted the movement of the Han Chinese into Manchuria during the early
Qing Dynasty, as the area was off-limits to the Han until the Qing started colonizing the area
with them later on in the dynasty's rule.

The Age of Exploration and European colonialism led to an accelerated pace of migration since
Early Modern times. In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports. In
the 19th century, over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The local populations or
tribes, such as the Aboriginal people in Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Japan and the
United States, were usually far overwhelmed numerically by the settlers.

Modern migrations

Industrialization and the rise of nationalism/imperialism

While the pace of migration had accelerated since the 18th century already (including the
involuntary slave trade), it would increase further in the 19th century. Manning distinguishes
three major types of migration: labor migration, refugee migrations, and urbanization. Millions
of agricultural workers left the countryside and moved to the cities causing unprecedented levels
of urbanization. This phenomenon began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread around the
world and continues to this day in many areas.

Industrialization encouraged migration wherever it appeared. The increasingly global economy

globalized the labor market. The Atlantic slave trade diminished sharply after 1820, which gave
rise to self-bound contract labor migration from Europe and Asia to plantations. Overpopulation,
open agricultural frontiers, and rising industrial centers attracted voluntary migrants. Moreover,
migration was significantly made easier by improved transportation techniques.

Romantic nationalism also rose in the 19th century, and, with it, ethnocentrism. The great
European industrial empires also rose. Both factors contributed to migration, as some countries
favored their own ethnicities over outsiders and other countries appeared to be considerably
more welcoming. For example, the Russian Empire identified with Eastern Orthodoxy, and
confined Jews, who were not Eastern Orthodox, to the Pale of Settlement and imposed
restrictions. Violence was also a problem. The United States was promoted as a better location, a
"golden land" where Jews could live more openly. Another effect of imperialism, colonialism,
led to the migration of some colonizing parties from "home countries" to "the colonies", and
eventually the migration of people from "colonies" to "home countries".

Transnational labor migration reached a peak of three million migrants per year in the
early twentieth century. Italy, Norway, Ireland and the Guangdong region of China were regions
with especially high emigration rates during these years. These large migration flows influenced
the process of nation state formation in many ways. Immigration restrictions have been
developed, as well as diaspora cultures and myths that reflect the importance of migration to the
foundation of certain nations, like the American melting pot. The transnational labor migration
fell to a lower level from 1930s to the 1960s and then rebounded.

The United States experienced considerable internal migration related to industrialization,

including its African American population. From 1910–1970, approximately 7 million African
Americans migrated from the rural Southern United States, where blacks faced both poor
economic opportunities and considerable political and social prejudice, to the industrial cities of
the Northeast, Midwest and West, where relatively well-paid jobs were available. This
phenomenon came to be known in the United States as its own Great Migration. With the demise
of legalized segregation in the 1960s and greatly improved economic opportunities in the South
in the subsequent decades, millions of blacks have returned to the South from other parts of the
country since 1980 in what has been called the New Great Migration.

The World Wars and their aftermath

The First and Second World Wars, and wars, genocides, and crises sparked by them, had
an enormous impact on migration. Muslims moved from the Balkan to Turkey, while Christians
moved the other way, during the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Four hundred thousand Jews
had already moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century, and numerous Jews to America, as
already mentioned. The Russian Civil War caused some three million Russians, Poles, and
Germans to migrate out of the new Soviet Union. Decolonization following the Second World
War also caused migrations.
 The Jewish communities across Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East were
formed from voluntary and involuntary migrants. After the Holocaust (1938 to 1945), there was
increased migration to the British Mandate of Palestine, which became the modern state of Israel
as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.

Provisions of the Potsdam Agreement from 1945 signed by victorious Western Allies and
the Soviet Union led to one of the largest European migrations, and the largest in the 20th
century. It involved the migration and resettlement of close to or over 20 million people. The
largest affected group were 16.5 million Germans expelled from Eastern Europe westwards. The
second largest group were Poles, millions of whom were expelled westwards from eastern Kresy
region and resettled in the so-called Recovered Territories (see Allies decide Polish border in the
article on the Oder-Neisse line). Hundreds of thousands of Poles, Ukrainians (Operation Vistula),
Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians and some Belarusians were expelled eastwards from Europe to
the Soviet Union. Finally, many of the several hundred thousand Jews remaining in Eastern
Europe after the Holocaust migrated outside Europe to Israel and the United States.

Pakistan-India

In 1947, upon the Partition of India, large populations moved from India to Pakistan and
vice versa, depending on their religious beliefs. The partition was promulgated in the Indian
Independence Act 1947 as a result of the dissolution of the British Indian Empire. The partition
displaced up to 12.5 million people in the former British Indian Empire, with estimates of loss of
life varying from several hundred thousand to a million. [22]Muslim residents of the former British
India migrated to Pakistan (including East Pakistan which is now Bangladesh), whilst Hindu and
Sikh residents of Pakistan and Hindu residents of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) moved in the
opposite direction.

In modern India, estimates based on industry sectors mainly employing migrants suggest
that there are around 100 million circular migrants in India. Caste, social networks and historical
precedents play a powerful role in shaping patterns of migration. Migration for the poor is
mainly circular, as despite moving temporarily to urban areas, they lack the social security which
might keep them there more permanently. They are also keen to maintain a foothold in home
areas during the agricultural season.

Research by the Overseas Development Institute identifies a rapid movement of labour

from slower- to faster-growing parts of the economy. Migrants can often find themselves
excluded by urban housing policies, and migrant support initiatives are needed to give workers
improved access to market information, certification of identity, housing and education.
Theories for migration for work in the 21st century

Overview
Migration for work in the 21st century has become a popular way for individuals from
impoverished developing countries to obtain sufficient income for survival. This income is sent
home to family members in the form of remittances and has become an economic staple in a
number of developing countries. There are a number of theories to explain the international flow
of capital and people from one country to another.

Neoclassical economic theory

This is the newest theory of migration and states that the main reason for labor migration
is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked
to geographic labor demand and supply. It can be said that areas with a shortage of labor but an
excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labor supply and a dearth of
capital have a low relative wage. Labor tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas.
Often, with this flow of labor comes changes in the sending as well as the receiving country.
Neoclassical economic theory is best used to describe transnational migration, because it is not
confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations.

Dual labor market theory

Dual labor market theory states that migration is mainly caused by pull factors in more
developed countries. This theory assumes that the labor markets in these developed countries
consist of two segments: primary, which requires high-skilled labor, and secondary, which is
very labor-intensive but requires low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from
less developed countries into more developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for
labor in the developed countries in their secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill the
lowest rung of the labor market because the native laborers do not want to do these jobs as they
present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial
dearth in available labor pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing.

The new economics of labor migration

This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the
level of individual workers and their economic incentives, but that wider social entities must be
considered as well. One such social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result
of risk aversion on the part of a household that has insufficient income. The household, in this
case, is in need of extra capital that can be achieved through remittances sent back by family
members who participate in migrant labor abroad. These remittances can also have a broader
effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital. Recent research
has examined a decline in U.S. interstate migration from 1991 to 2011, theorizing that the
reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of occupations and
an increase in workers’ ability to learn about other locations before moving there, through both
information technology and inexpensive travel. Other researchers find that the location-specific
nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labor reallocation.

Relative deprivation theory

Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between
neighbors or other households in the migrant-sending community is an important factor in
migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas that have a high level of economic
inequality. In the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may
actually decrease it. There are two stages of migration for a worker: first, they invest in human
capital formation, and then they try to capitalize on their investments. In this way, successful
migrants may use their new capital to provide for better schooling for their children and better
homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for
neighbors and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success.

World systems theory

World systems theory looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that
interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change within
societies. Trade with one country, which causes economic decline in another, may create
incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after
decolonization, the economic dependence of former colonies still remains on mother countries.
This view of international trade is controversial, however, and some argue that free trade can
actually reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the
developed countries import labor-intensive goods, which causes an increase in employment of
unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers.
The export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries also equalizes income
and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be
used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart.

Historical theories

Ravenstein

Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The
following was a standard list after Ravenstein's proposals during the time frame of 1834 to 1913
(← these are Ravenstein's date of birth and death, not the time frame of his proposal). The laws
are as follows:

1. every migration flow generates a return or countermigration.

 2. the majority of migrants move a short distance.

3. migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations.

4. urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas.

5. families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.

6. most migrants are adults.

7. large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase.

1. Migration stage by stage

2. Urban Rural difference

3. Migration and Technology

4. Economic condition

Lee

Lee's laws divides factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull
factors. Push factors are things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in, and pull
factors are things that attract one to another area.

Push Factors

 Not enough jobs

 Few opportunities

 Primitive conditions

 Desertification

 Famine or drought

 Political fear or persecution

 Slavery or forced labour

 Poor medical care

 Loss of wealth

 Natural disasters
  Death threats

 Lack of political or religious freedom

 Pollution

 Poor housing

 Landlord/tenant issues

 Bullying

 Discrimination

 Poor chances of marrying

 Condemned housing (radon gas, etc.)

 War

Pull Factors

 Job opportunities
 Better living conditions

 Political and/or religious freedom

 Enjoyment

 Education

 Better medical care

 Attractive climates

 Security

 Family links

 Industry

 Better chances of marrying

Climate cycles

The modern field of climate history suggests that the successive waves of Eurasian
nomadic movement throughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have
expanded or contracted pastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and the Altai. People
were displaced from their home ground by other tribes trying to find land that could be grazed by
essential flocks, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into the highlands of
Anatolia, the Pannonian Plain, into Mesopotamia or southwards, into the rich pastures of China.
Bogumil Terminski uses the term "migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the
context of Sea People invasion.

Other models
 Migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their
usual habitation. Idyorough is of the view that towns and cities are a creation of the
human struggle to obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and
reproduction, human beings must, out of necessity, move out of their usual habitation and
enter into indispensable social relationships that are cooperative or antagonistic. Human
beings also develop the tools and equipment to enable them to interact with nature to
produce the desired food and security. The improved relationship (cooperative
relationships) among human beings and improved technology further conditioned by the
push and pull factors all interact together to cause or bring about migration and higher
concentration of individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technology of
production of food and security and the higher the cooperative relationship among human
beings in the production of food and security and in the reproduction of the human
species, the higher would be the push and pull factors in the migration and concentration
of human beings in towns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist but
they do so to meet the human basic needs of food, security and the reproduction of the
human species. Therefore, migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and
security outside their usual habitation. Social services in the towns and cities are provided
to meet these basic needs for human survival and pleasure.
 Zipf's Inverse distance law (1956)

 Gravity model of migration and the friction of distance

 Buffer Theory

 Stouffer's theory of intervening opportunities (1940)

 Zelinsky's mobility transition model (1971)

 Bauder's regulation of labor markets (2006) "suggests that the international migration of
workers is necessary for the survival of industrialized economies...[It] turns the
conventional view of international migration on its head: it investigates how migration
regulates labor markets, rather than labor markets shaping migration flows."

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