Chapter 1

Migration : Conceptual and Theoretical perspectives

INTRODUCTION
Migration is a concept that includes people who move for different reasons
across different spaces. A migrant can be a person who moves to another city
or town within a nation; a refugee who crosses an international border to escape
religious or political persecution; a jobseeker who moves to another country for
better economic prospects; a slave who is forcibly moved; or a person
displaced by war or natural disaster. Demographers lack a single, operational
definition for migration because it occurs under different conditions.
Since time immemorial, people have been migrating from one place to another
as families, tribes, groups and other forms of social units in search of food,
ethnic, shelter, security and jobs and for other reasons. The movement of
people from one place to another for the purpose of settling down is commonly
known as migration, which has been a universal phenomenon. The
phenomenon of migration in society and history is universal and is applicable
to all stages of human life. Any movement of people from the place of its
origin to another for the purpose of settling down is also generally known as
migration. It is not only natural but also steered by socio economic changes and
transformations in society.

Millions of people all over the world move out of their place of residence to
seek fortune elsewhere. Migration has a far reaching impact not only on the
migrants but also on the society at large both at the place of origin and
destination. Thus, migration research begins with the premise that every
departure of a new community is in response to some impelling need that for
some reason has rendered the community undesirable and unpleasant.

Migration is an important process that has contributed significantly to the other

process of urbanization, industrialization, population redistribution, economic
development, cultural diffusion and social integration. It is an essential
component of economic development, social change and transformation and
political organization. In the developing countries the importance of migration
cannot be underestimated because it is a major factor of economic development
and man power planning. It has a major implication on urbanization, slum
development and social change. It has a notable feedback effect on the place of
origin as the migrants maintain different kinds and degrees of contact. The
migration and its effects are also the subject of planners and policy making.
Overcrowding, poverty, densely populated inhabitations are all part of such
phenomena.

THE CONCEPT OF MIGRATION

The social scientists have tried to define the concept of migration in their own
perspectives. Geographers have emphasized on the time and space significance
of mobility, sociologists have laid stress on social consequences of mobility
whereas importance to economic aspect of migration has been given by the
economists. The political scientists have examined power shifts and voting
pattern in elections. Literal meaning of “Migration” is “shifting of people or an
individual or group of individual‟s from one geographical area-cultural area to
another, which may be permanent or temporary”. In Webster‟s Dictionary, the
term has been defined as “the act or an instance of moving from one country,
region to settle in another”. Secondly it is defined as “an act of moving from
one area to another in search of work”. The simplest meaning of the word
migration can be a simple shift in the physical space.

But it would be interesting to note that meaning of migration is changing

simultaneously with the passage of time. Now-a-days, both the scope and
definition of migration have become more complicated i.e. only mobility in
physical state cannot be defined as the concept of migration.

The term migration has been understood in a number of ways. Literally, it

means the settlement or shifting of an individual or a group of individuals from
one cultural area or place of habitation to another, more or less permanently.
According to the Dictionary of Sociology (1999), “Migration involves more or
less permanent movement of individuals or groups across symbolic or political
boundaries into new residential area and communities”.
Peterson (1958) defines free migration as “movement motivated by the
individual willingness to risk the unknown of a new home and breaking free
from a familiar social universe for the sake of adventure, achievement of ideals
or to escape a social system from which he has become alienated”.

The National Geographical Summit (2014) held in Bengaluru states that,

“Migration is the movement of people from one place to another place, which
could be voluntarily chosen to search for new and better opportunities. Three
key areas that affect the relationship between migration and development were
examined as the immediate and long-term impacts of the emigration of people;
the impact of financial flows and the role of Diaspora population.”
It has been pointed out that most of the migrants move from rural areas to
urban centers to find out better economic opportunities. A few well educated,
socially and economically better off people are attracted by the vast
opportunities of fulfilling their aspirations and to acquire better status and
chances of further achievements in society. This movement brings about
changes in the composition of the population which result in the problems of
the migrants in the new environment. Beijer (1970) points out, “Migration
involves a complete change and adjustment of the community affiliations of the
individuals”. Jasen (1978) regards migration as a “demographic problem which
influences the size of population at both the places-the place of origin and
destination”.

With the complexity of human life and fast changing socio- economic
conditions, human migration is gaining importance day by day. Basic factor
that has influenced the mobility of man from one region to another was uneven
distribution of population and resources, unbalanced utilization of resources
and variation in economic and cultural developments. There were certain areas
of habitation marked as „Centers of habitation‟ where people were attracted
from various regions, countries, and continents. Different parts of the world, on
the whole, have different types of mobility caused by various socio-economic
conditions. And this mobility of man has either favorably or adversely
influenced the socio-economic conditions of that area also. Scholars have tried
to study the phenomenon of migration from various angles. Sociologists,
anthropologists, economists, geographers and demographers have been taking a
keen interest in the migration and its consequences, and many of them have
thrown new light on the various aspects of this phenomenon.
Studies in migration indicate that the process, volume and direction of people
in their movement from one place to another are influenced by a number of
such factors as geographical conditions, economic hazards, non-availability of
regular and reliable occupations, educational opportunities and achievements.
As an outcome of migration, people have to adjust themselves to the societies
and cultures of the places to which they migrate. The setback and extend of the
adjustment of the migrants to the new cultures is important both from the point
of view of the preservation of their own values and practices as well as their
contacts with, and their adaptation to the new conditions. They have to adjust
themselves not only to the new conditions and cultural expectations but also to
the expectations and demands of their families, relatives and other social
relations at the place of their origin.

TYPES OF MIGRATION
Interdisciplinary approaches of various scholars have brought into
consideration various types of migration but most of them agree on the main
types. Typology of migration has been influenced by space, time, volume,
direction, cause, velocity, selectivity, stability, behaviour etc. Various types of
migration have been suggested by scholars from time to time.

Migration has been classified into invasion, conquest, colonization and

immigration by Fairchild. Later on, Isaac modified the divisions of Fairchild as
free (reasonable, nomadic, temporary and permanent) and forced (refugee,
slave etc.) weakness of Fairchild‟s typology has been exposed by Peterson who
has claimed that it is an implicit and incomplete crossing of two criteria i.e.
peaceful-warlike and low culture to high culture. Peterson suggested a more
complex typology based on two main criteria i.e. conservation-innovation and
migratory force i.e. ecological push, political force, aspiration freely to find
better conditions and social pressure exerted by a mass movement.

A typology of migration is presented that extends the one originally developed

by William Petersen, which was based on ecological push, migration policy,
people's aspirations, and social momentum. Mainly there are two types of
migration:
Internal Migration: The internal migration occurs within the country from one
region to another or from one place to another. Internal migration has four
streams-rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to urban and urban to rural.
Based on the rural or urban nature of the place of birth and the place of
enumeration, internal migrants can be classified as:
 Rural-to-Rural
This stream of migration dominates over all other streams in terms of
volume of migration. An outstanding feature of rural-to-rural stream of
migration is the dominance of female migrants. According to Indian
tradition, the girl has to move from her parents‟ residence to the residence
of her in-laws and live with her husband.
Apart from marriage migration, there are several other factors which
contribute to large scale rural-to-rural migration. Migration of agricultural
labourers and movement of people to the newly reclaimed areas for
agricultural purposes constitute the most important component of such
migrations. Normally, rural-to-rural migration originates from crowded
areas of low productivity and is destined towards sparsely populated areas
experiencing large scale developmental activities. Such a migration may
take place even for longer distances and may result in permanent
redistribution of population.
  Rural-to-Urban
Rural-urban migration is caused by both push of the rural areas as well as
pull of the urban areas. In rural areas appalling poverty, unbearable
unemployment, low and uncertain wages, uneconomic land holdings and
poor facilities for education, recreation and other services work as push
factors. By contrast, the pull of urban areas may include better employment
opportunities; regular and higher wages, fixed working hours, better
amenities of living, facilities for education and socio-cultural activities
(Chandna, 1992). The glamour of urban life and rigid caste system in the
villages has given strength to push and pull factors.
 Urban-to-Urban
This is a stream of migration which is believed to be dominated by the
middle class people (Singh, 1980). Generally, people migrate from small
towns with fewer facilities to large cities with more facilities. This has
resulted in few cities growing faster as compared to other towns. In fact,
small towns are constantly losing to big cities. This migration forms a part
of what is known as step-migration as given by Zachariah (1968), he means
a shift from smaller to a larger settlement.
 Urban-to-Rural
This stream has the lowest volume of migrants as the movement takes place
at the advanced stage of urbanization when urban centers are characterized
by over-congestion, haphazard growth, high cost of living, heavy pressure
on public utility services unemployment.

External Migration: External migration stands for crossing the internationally

recognized boundaries of the country and settling down in foreign land. If a
person moves from one country to another, he or she becomes in an
international migrant, an immigrant.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MIGRATION

Conceptual and theoretical explanation of migration is somewhat complex. The
process is closely link to population growth and demographical features.
Although migration phenomena has been studied by social scientists, thinkers,
reformers and others from the very beginning of human civilization, the
theoretical and empirical knowledge of migration has not developed to a
considerable extent.

However when we talk about migration processes several considerations is

taken into account. First - usual phase of residence, second - place of residence,
third- measuring the total number of migrating and fourth - the process which
have taken place. (Beer, 1969). Even today this study needs migration theories,
laws and models taking into consideration its spatial and temporal variations.
Unlike physical laws, migration laws cannot be made rigid. Some hypothesis
have been developed by social scientists and scholars, they have formulated a
few theories and laws and have also suggested migration models. It was in 19th
century that theories concerning migration flow and other processes related
appeared. Several attempts have been made through researchers to explain
migration in terms of various theories but these seem to be fragmented.

The theories of migration can be divided into two groups as, classical migration
theories that explain the commencement and consequences of migration
whereas the other group of theories explains the continuation of migration.
CLASSICAL THEORIES OF MIGRATION
Adam Smith, father of economics, viewed that labour migration is due to the
imbalance in the labour market at different locations (Lebhart, 2005). However,
the oldest theoretical approach for elucidating the phenomenon of labour
migration is based on Ravenstein‟s laws of migration in which he highlighted
the concept of „search of opportunity‟ as the main drive for migration
(Ravenstein, 1889). Successively, a variety of studies has been proposed to
explain the beginning and causes of migration. There are six prominent
classical theories of migration and they are reviewed in this section.

 THE NEO-CLASSICAL THEORY

According to the neo-classical theory of migration, migration of labour is due
to the differences in the real wages between the regions and migration of labour
brings equilibrium in the labour market which wipes away the wage
differences. The neo-classical macro theory of migration dates back to Hicks
(1932). According to this theory, the migrants move towards the places where
employment, wages and other economic conditions are more favourable to
them giving high chances of ending the differences in wages and living
conditions between places. In addition, this theory also considers household
strategy behind migration as the actual drive of migration is to change the
source of income rather than maximize the income. This theory also
emphasizes the importance of financial transfers of migration in the context of
socio-cultural changes. Moreover, this theory also helps to understand why
individuals of a particular community are potential migrants. It also observes
that poor people are less inclined to migration compared to the rich due to the
high costs of migration (International Labour Organization (IOM), 2003).
 THE SITUATION ORIENTED APPROACH (PUSH-PULL THEORY)
This approach was formulated by Lee in 1966 for explaining the unstable
nature of migrants. According to him, the push-pull factors are the most
important factor in migration. Here, the push factors are the negative factors at
the place of origin while the pull factors are the positive ones at the destination
place. Lee suggests that the choice to migrate and the process of migration are
influenced by factors associated with the area of origin, destination, intervening
factors, personal factors and fluctuations in the economy. (Lee, 1966)

 THE WORLD SYSTEM THEORY

Wallerstein (1974) proposes the world system theory in which he attempts to
link the development process of the countries with migration. The theory
asserts that the root cause of migration is the existence of unequal development
between the central developed regions and the peripheral agricultural regions.
According to his theory, the central will develop by exploiting the peripheral.
Besides, this theory realises that migration is the natural consequence of
globalisation and market penetration across national boundaries (Wallerstein,
1974). The theory also observes that globalisation, cheap air transportation and
growth of multinational companies etc. lead to the enhancement of migration
(Joly, 2000).

 THE DUAL LABOUR MARKET THEORY

According to this theory, the labour markets of industrialized countries have a
dualistic structure - skilled workers (primary segment) and unskilled workers
(secondary segment). The skilled workers are well-paid whereas the salaries of
unskilled workers in the secondary segment are low so that the indigenous
workers avoid secondary jobs. As a result of labour shortages at the bottom of
the job hierarchy, employers are bound to recruit the unskilled foreign workers,
who do not plan to stay permanently, but accept the secondary job more easily
since it pays them more income (Piore, 1979 and Stalker, 2000).

 DUAL ECONOMY MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

As per the dual economy model labour migration has a key role in the
economic development of a country. Thus, according to this theory, migration
is mainly due to differences in wages and employment openings. Moreover,
this considers migration as an individual decision for income generation.
Hence, the flow of migration over a long period of time is due to the prolonged
disequilibrium that exists between the countries (Lewis, 1953 and Tadaro,
1980).

PERPETUATION THEORIES OF MIGRATION

The perpetuation theories of migration highlight relations and friendship
networks as important factors in migration. The interpersonal ties connect
migrants, former migrants and non-migrants in origin and destination that
encourage circular migration and reduce migration risk (Tilly and Brown,
1967). There are a few theories that explain the persistence of migration out of
which the two most relevant theories from the point of view of the present
study are the Migration Networks Theory and the Theory of Cumulative
Causation.
 THE MIGRATION NETWORKS THEORY
This theory considers migration as a network process in which migrants help
each other by communicating with the close friends and family members. They
exchange information, provide financial assistance and even help to find a job
for the migrant. It is stressed that such interaction eases migration by reducing
the costs and risks.

 THE CUMULATIVE CAUSATION THEORY OF MIGRATION

The cumulative causation theory of migration is propounded by Massey and
this theory states that perpetuation of migration is due to the interacting of
migrants with other persons of the origin. The theory also asserts that migration
is sustained itself by creating more migration (Massey, 1990).

On the basis of the theories reviewed above, it can be determined that there is
not a common theory or principle that can explicate different types of
migration. However, these theories create diverse factors, instincts and causes
behind migration. As such, these theories expose important factors and features
of migration from Kerala to Udaipur.
The present features of migration include from small town to cosmopolitan
urban centers. These days a lot of migration exists between small cities to
larger populated cities. However, the phenomenon is yet to be examined.

GLOBAL MIGRATION
Migration now is a global phenomenon and it has been so from time
immemorial. Partly it is colonialism which encouraged a global migration.
Colonial rulers in India recruited labour from different parts of India and took
them away to Fiji, South Africa and Mauritius. Entrepreneurs also migrated to
different parts. The following diagram may give an idea of such global
migration.

From one country to another

bounded by boundaries

Colonial Migration

Invited labour Migration

Illegal Migration

Diagram 1.1 GLOBAL MIGRATION

According to Waterloo World labour, market has also created a migration
process; the technical and professional population has been part of such
process.

It is a movement of people from one place of abode to another by crossing an

administrative boundary may be for the improvement of their standard of
living. People may migrate on grounds of employment or governments may
encourage it as a means to solve the problem of unemployment. Migration may
be internal or international and as voluntary or forced. Voluntary migration is
usually undertaken in search of a better life but forced migrations include
expulsions of people during war and the transference of slaves or prisoners.
Migration of people from one country to another is known as international
migration. The international migration at the beginning was mostly motivated
by non-economic reasons. However, the recent international labour migration
especially at the end of Second World War has been motivated by economic
reasons mainly the prospect of earning higher wages and income abroad
(Salvatore, 2005).

Although migration was almost unrestricted at the beginning, it has been

restricted at the end of 17th century owing to the formation of nation states by
the western countries. Even though migration was restricted due to the
establishment of colonies by western countries, there was migration of people
during the 19th and early 20th centuries. There was large scale migration of
Asians to different parts of South East Asia during the 19th and 20th centuries.
During this period, lot of Japanese migrated to north eastern province of China
and millions of Indians migrated to Burma as plantation labourers. The current
trend of globalization of world economies has also boosted international
migration of workers (Stalker, 2000).

Migration has vast socio-economic and cultural implications both in the origin
and in the destination countries (Bogue, 1959). The importance of international
labour migration has increased especially due to the huge foreign remittances
involved in these migrations. The foreign remittances is the largest source of
external finance in the developing countries after foreign direct investment and
it helps these countries to generate foreign exchange earnings which in turn
increases the credit worthiness of these countries for external borrowing.

MIGRATION FROM INDIA

After the abolition of slavery from the British Empire in 1833, Indian labourers
from almost all regions of India were recruited and exported to different parts
of the world like Fiji, Trinidad, Tobago, Guyana, Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaysia,
Mauritius, West Indies and South Africa as plantation workers. During 1930's
due to the Great Depression migration had completely stopped. The
independent India had witnessed different streams of migration and during
1950's migration was of brain drain type mainly to the developed countries as
India government failed to absorb the well-educated Indian professionals here.
This has resulted in the outflow of thousands of trained professionals from
India to the developed countries during the 1960's (The Committee on
International Migration of Talent, 1970). However, this type of migration to the
developed countries was very much limited due to the highly selective nature
of the immigration rules in the host countries and the limited supply of eligible
skilled manpower ready to move out of India (Tinker, 1974).
According to an estimate, out of the 3.22 lakh Indians residing in Britain in
1971, 2.52 lakhs migrated after 1949 and the study also found that in 1974,
there were 6 lakh Indians in USA and Canada (UN, 1976). However, there
were lots of changes in the type of migrants from India since 1990 and there
were emigration of even information technology professionals to the developed
and developing countries (Sasikumar, 2003).

The accumulation of huge income following the increase in the price of

petroleum products in the Gulf countries have resulted in a spurt in the
development activities in these countries especially in the construction sector.
Demand for workers also increased due to the development of trade,
commerce, business, health and education in these countries. This has increased
the demand for all kinds of workers in the Gulf countries since 1973.
Thus, international migration from India received a great stimulus since mid-
1970's as there was a sudden rise in the flow of skilled, semi-skilled and
unskilled workers to the Gulf countries mainly to the UAE, Saudi Arabia,
Oman, Kuwait, Qatar and Bahrain etc. This sudden increase in the migration of
workers from India to the Gulf was due to the emergence of massive
construction activities in these economies as a result of an unexpected increase
in income consequent upon the hike in the petroleum price.

INTERNAL MIGRATION IN INDIA

Indian society is featured with diversity in culture, language, ethnicity,
religions and ideological restrictions; despite of all these diversities, in
migration and out migration have been occurring since early times. In spite of
the fact that India has a tradition with relatively immobile population, examples
of people moving from one cultural setting to another, cannot be avoided. Due
to the expansion of trade, commerce and industry, gaps between rural and
urban sectors in respect of employment opportunity and wages have
considerably widened; with the result that urban complexes are expanding at
the cost of rural depopulation.

Patterns of Migration have always fascinated demographers. Elaborate theories

have been formulated on the subject and policy interventions designed to
reduce or take care of the effects of migration. The results of Census 2011
reveal the contours of migration in the last decade.
In India, there are two major sources of data on migration: Census of India and
surveys of National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).
Migration in the Census of India is of two types – Migration by Birth place and
Migration by place of last residence. When a person is enumerated in Census at
 a place, i.e., village or town, different from her/his place of birth, she/he would
be considered a migrant by place of birth. A person would be considered a
migrant by place of last residence, if she/he had last resided at a place other
than her/his place of enumeration.

Table 1.1
CENSUS DATA ON MIGRATION
Number of migrants
by place of last Migrations by
Category Percentage
residence – India Place of Birth
2011
A. Total Population 1,028,610,328
B. Total Migrations 314,541,350 30.6
Migrants within the state of
B.1 268,219,260 85.3
enumeration
B.11 Migrants from within the districts 193,592,938 72.2
Migrants from other districts of the
B.12 74,626,322 17.8
state
B.2 Migrants from other states in India 41,166,265 13.1
B.3 Migrants from other countries 5,155,423 1.6
Source: Table D1 India, Census of India 2011

The Census also captures the reasons for migration. The following reasons for
migration from place of last residence are captured: Work/Employment,
Business, Education, Marriage, Moved after birth, Moved with household and
any other. According to the Census of India total number of migrants has been
314 million in 2011.

Opportunities in urban areas for employment, education, etc. have been a pull
factor attracting migrants from rural to urban areas and from smaller towns and
cities to larger urban areas. There is also migration in the opposite direction
from urban to rural areas due to various reasons.

Out of about 98 million, total intra-state and inter-state migrants in the country
during last decade, 61 million have moved to rural areas and 36 million to
urban areas. Migration stream out of rural areas (73 million) to another rural
areas was quite high (53 million) in comparison from rural to urban areas (20
million). About 6 million migrants went to rural areas from urban areas. On the
basis of net migrants by last residence during the past decade, i.e., the
difference between in – migration and out – migration, in each state,
Maharashtra stands at the top of the list with 2.3 million net migrants, followed
by Delhi (1.7 million), Gujarat (0.68 million) and Haryana (0.67 million) as per
census. Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million) were the two states
with largest number of net migrants migrating out of the state.

MIGRATION IN RAJASTHAN
Rajasthan has a total population of 56,507,188 and total in migrants as
1,845,782 according to the 2011 census report.
Indian cities are growing in size by pulling men to them, a question would
naturally arise as to who are these men who migrate to cities? From a
sociological point of view more important than the number of migrants, their
backgrounds characteristics and their intentions in migrating is important.

A few earlier studies in the field have shown that our cities have attracted the
people of higher socio-economic background in larger proportion than the
people of other backgrounds. For example, the study by Victor S. D‟Souza has
revealed that since the "urban communities have a relatively greater proportion
of higher skill and higher prestige occupations, they give greater opportunity
for people from higher caste to migrate to them". The studies of others like
Noel P. Gist have shown that '' the cities seem to exert a relatively stronger
pull on persons of high social, economic and educational status than those
occupying lower levels in these respects..."

Historically, Rajasthan has been in habit of internal migration throughout the

corners of India called as Marwari. They were traders, businessman,
entrepreneurs and labourers. They were the hard workers and successful in
their adventures. In all metropolitan cities in India we can find Marwari
migrant population in big numbers.

SUMMARY
Many men migrate to the city mostly in search of a job or other means of
livelihood. Some men are unemployed; they are searching for some work to
support themselves economically. Others are employed but are looking for
better opportunity. The urban occupational structure while providing ample
employment opportunities for men coming from outside, forces them to enter
into vocations which are, in all likelihood, different from those followed by
their parents. Not only that, even in the course of their career in the city, these
men are sometimes forced to change their job and in doing so they exhibit a
pattern that is sociologically significant.
In the subsequent chapters we shall discuss about the review of literature and
research methodology on migration studies, and lately look into the state of
Kerala.
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