IMPACTS OF OIL SPILLAGE AND CONTAMINANTS ON PHYSICOCHEMICAL

PARAMETERS AND HEAVY METALS IN WATER, FISH AND SEDIMENT FROM

IGBOLOGUN AXIS OF BADAGRY CREEK, LAGOS, NIGERIA

AKEREDOLU OPEYEMI TAIWO

(MATRICULATION NUMBER: 170541012)

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT FISHERIES AND AQUATIC BIOLOGY,,

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY, OJO, LAGOS STATE ,

NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE (B.Sc. Fisheries)

APRIL, 2023
 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this project work was carried out by Akeredolu, Opeyemi Taiwo (Matriculation

number 170541012) under the supervision in the Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Science,

Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos state, Nigeria.

……………………………. …………………………….

Dr. A. O. Adeboyejo Date

Supervisor

……………………………. …………………………….

Professor A. A. Jimoh Date

Head of Department, Fisheries LASU.

 DEDICATION

This research is dedicated to the All knowing God, whose grace, wisdom, favour and mercy

made this project work a reality. This research work is also dedicated to my Father and mother,

who has encouraged me to study this course and they never for once stepped back on their duties

as a parents.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am so glad to have Dr Adeboyejo as my supervisor, I cherish the time spent with him and

sacrifices made for the completion of this work. I want to appreciate him for his priceless time,

tenacity, encouragement and corrections in the course of my research work. My gratitude also

goes to the Head of Department Prof. A.A Jimoh, Thank you for your availability and sincerity.
A big shout to my wonderful and amazing lecturers, you are all indeed a force to be reckoned

with.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Table of Content
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem statements

1.2 Justification of study

1.3 Aims and Objectives

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Physicochemical parameters

2.2 Heavy metals

2.3 Sources of heavy metals

2.4 Effects Of Heavy Metals

2.5 Effect of oil pollution of aquatic organism

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Material and methods

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II

APPENDIX III
 ABSTRACT

The present study was undertaken to assess the water quality, sediment and fish species: as well

potential source of contamination of Igbologun axis of Badagry creek . In the study, three

sampling stations (upstream, midstream and downstream) were selected using composite

samples. Physicochemical parameters and heavy metals were analyzed using HACH’s

Spectrophotometer by following standard laboratory procedure. The results of water analyses

revealed varying physicochemical parameters and heavy metals: Highest pH was 7.24, TSS

(58.0mg/l), Turbidity (43.0mg/l), lowest DO value was 2.01mg/l, Nitrate(6.36mg/l), highest Fe

was 1.1mg/l, Mg (168mg/l) and Zn (0.06). In the sediment: pH was as low as 5.23, As
0.07mg/kg, Cd (1.03mg/kg), Cr (0.99mg/kg), Fe (106mg/kg), Pb (0.59mg/kg), Mn (117.1mg/kg)

and Zn (8.22mg/kg). In fish species, all metals were low except for Fe (10.86mg/kg) . These

results however implicated the midstream area (SS2) to be the most polluted site; being the

major point of discharge of cocktails of contaminants, zenobiotics, pesticides and black oil. A

comparison of the measured parameters with acceptable standards e.g. WHO, shows that all the

parameters measured (except NO2-, NO3-, DO, Cd and Cu) were above the standards. The

concentrations of each parameter among the selected sites were significantly different (ANOVA)

at p≤0.05. Therefore, it recommended that the government and other responsible authorities have

to take appropriate corrective action and should support further study.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Oil spill is a form of pollution described as the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the

environment, especially marine areas, due to human activities. Oil spills may be due to release of

crude oil from tankers, pipelines, railcars, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as

spills of refined petroleum products and their by-products, heavy fuels used by large ships such

as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Spilled oil can penetrate into the

structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing their insulating ability and
making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water

(Jernelov, 2010).

The effects of oil pollution in water can be divided into two types, long-term and short-term. In

addition to this, reduce light transmission, inhibit the photosynthesis of aquatic plants and greatly

slow down the absorption of oxygen from the air by water. So that the rate of oxygen dissolution

in the aqueous layers of oil slicks is even less than deep water layers. One of the best ways to

deal with this pollution is to find a way to significantly reduce it, which requires a thorough

understanding of oil and hydrocarbon pollution and the effects it has on the marine ecosystem.

Aquatic oil pollution impact indicators such as oil grease, low dissolved oxygen concentration,

increased biochemical oxygen demand, increased water temperature and acidity of the water are

associated with aquatic habitat degradation, reduced productivity and or loss of biodiversity.

These impact indicators are interrelated and connected in a chain reaction that a severe shift in

any of the parameters will induce negative changes in others. For instance, introduction of

significant quantities of crude oil into the aquatic ecosystem will cause increase in biochemical

oxygen demand, reduction in dissolved oxygen concentration, increased temperature and pH of

the water body. The resultant effect of these abnormal shifts in the impact indicators is disorders

in the physiological status and reduction in the immune status of aquatic organisms, which may

lead to mortality. Therefore to ensure sustainable management and optimum exploitation of the

aquatic resources, it is necessary to set safe limits for the pollution impact indicators.
Pollution of the aquatic environment occurs from many different sources including; oil

refineries. Oil refinery effluents contain many different chemicals at different concentrations

including ammonia, sulphides, phenol and hydrocarbons. The exact composition cannot however

be generalized as it depends on the refinery and which units are in operation at any specific time.

It is therefore difficult to predict what effects the effluent may have on the environment. Toxicity

tests have shown that most refinery effluents are toxic but to varying extents. Some species are

more sensitive and the toxicity may vary throughout the life cycle. Sub lethal tests have found

that not only can the effluents be lethal but also they can often have sub lethal effects on growth

and reproduction. (Kataria, 1996)

Field studies have shown that oil refinery effluents often have impact on the fauna, which is

usually restricted to the area close to the outfall. It is possible to detect two effects that oil

refinery effluent has on the environment. Firstly it has a toxic effect close to the outfall, which is

seen by the absence of all or most species. Secondly there is an enrichment effect which can be

distinguished as a peak in the abundance or biomass. These effects are not limited to just oil

refinery effluents, which makes it difficult to distinguish the effects an oil refinery effluent has

from other pollution sources. The discharge from oil refineries has reduced in quantity and

toxicity over recent decades, allowing many impacted environments in estuaries and coasts to

make a substantial recovery.

The causes responsible for oil spill are due to several reasons for control of where possible.

Poverty, Unemployment Policy and Negligence are also the factors of oil spills in the

environment. Lack of livelihood has essentially contributed to youths restiveness, cultism and

banditry. The people are physically, mentally and emotionally frustrated and there enmity and
lack of trust and transparency between communities and oil companies which hugely influence

factor restiveness. Also, the divide and rule and double standard theory by the oil companies

where they engage youths and some comprised elders to protect them and their facilities by

equipping them with weapons has contributed to restiveness. (Nwilo and Badejo, 2005). Oil

affected areas of the Niger Delta , after all the damages of pipelines and sabotage by the youths,

compensation and clean up contract from companies or government of the environment is the

only way the people can achieve their benefits.The activities of illegal bunkering by the youths

and companies are major causes of oil spillage in the regions.

Crude oil, due to its special chemical properties, causes serious damage to human health and

ecosystems. Prolonged presence and high concentration in the environment causes kid ney

disease, liver and various cancers (Latha R. 2012). In general, aromatic compounds are more

toxic than aliphatic compounds, and low molecular weight compounds are more toxic than high

molecular weight compounds. Sunlight affects the toxicity of oil and the surface of oil exposed

to light is less toxic than water-soluble parts (Harayama et al., 1999). Polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons are highly toxic pollutants and can pass through the skin, affect breathing and

swallowing and even affect the food chain. Their primary effects are shortness of breath, dry

cough, chest pain, and irregular heartbeat. It is also the most toxic in crustaceans in marine

environments and is absorbed and accumulated in some marine plants and animals.

Petroleum hydrocarbons also affect the semi permeability of membranes by displacing lipid

compounds, inhibiting photosynthesis and impairing the growth and reproduction of

phytoplankton. This is due to the dissolution of chloroplast lipid-phase hydrocarbons and

interference with the interaction of chlorophyll molecules. Another similar disturbance occurs in

the mitochondrial membrane, causing a tri-carboxylic acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

Cosine diverts cell membrane lipids and then infects toxins in red seaweed, and naphthalene also

reduces cellular protein levels. One of the obvious signs of oil pollution is the bad taste of fish

meat in very low concentrations of petroleum products, about 0.02 units per thousand. Oil also

inactivates the feeding duct in echinoderms, causing cancerous masses in the mouth of fish and

burning of the eyes.

The effects of oil on birds include the infiltration of oil into their feathers, the replacement of

water with air, the loss of thermal insulation and reduced buoyancy, and birds will not be able to

swim and fly. Also, the toxicity of oil reduces the viability of the eggs. Low levels of oxygen and

saturation of sediments with water, mangrove forests, reduce oil decomposition, and especially

aromatic hydrocarbons in these areas remain and accumulate for years and can even last up to 20

years. In mangrove forests, floating oil suffocates the respiratory and nutritional roots and not

only destroys some trees, but also reduces the growth of trees (Topham, M.K., 2001).

Majority of the people engaged in fishing and farming for sustenance and also for trading faces

depletion of aquatic lives, reduction and abandonment of farm lands and loss of biodiversity

resulting from over exploitation of existing resources and the resultant pollution. Fishing and

farming produce have reduced drastically as oil and gas operations in the region gained
ascendancy (Egbe, 2012). Almost all the riverine dwellers relocate to another communities or

state to seek for alternative means of survival.

Akujuru, (2014) identified that the impact of oil operations on economic activities includes:

1. Loss of arable land, vegetation and forest resources.

2. Increase in land and water transportation with attendant consequences like aggravation of

shore erosion, disturbances between life and fishing activities.

3. Improper disposal of dredge spoils along water ways, channels causing blockages to bush

paths and waterways used for access to fishing farming parts and timber logging areas.

4. Oil pollution which pollutes drinking water sources destroys fisheries and farms and generally

destroys the ecosystem.

Oil operations are known to have deleterious effects on human health especially gas flaring and

oil spillage which contaminates the air, land and water. The hydrocarbons released into the

environment and gases such as CO and CO 2 have negative effect on human health. Skin contact

with certain chromium compounds can cause skin ulcers and ingesting large amounts of it can

cause stomach upset, ulcers, kidney and liver damage and even death. Environmental pollution

caused by oil spill can cause health problems like respiratory problems, increased blood

pressures, heart rhythm changes, stomach irritation, muscle weakness, changes in nerve reflexes,

swelling of brains and liver, lungs diseases and cancer, kidney and heart damage, diarrhoea,

asthma, eye infections, bronchitis, skin infection, headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, eye

and throat irritations, as well as breathing difficulties

. The main oil spill effects include a variety of diseases, negative economic impact, pollution

with crude oil or petroleum products (distillates such as: gasoline, diesel products, jet fuels,

kerosene, fuel oil, as well as heavy distillates like hydraulic and lubricating oils) and the

aesthetic issues that affect the residents of the affected areas in multiple ways (Egbe and

Thompson, 2010). Oil settle on beaches and kills organism that live there, it also settle on oceans

floor and kills benthic bottom –dwelling organisms such as crabs and other marine ecosystem.

The accumulation of oil in the sediment directly affects benthic organisms and also influences

many other organisms through the food web .(Garrity and Leving 1990)

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

As a result of aggregation of oil companies present in Igbologun axis of Badagry creek, Lagos,

Nigeria. There is a high possibility for oil-spills and subsequent accumulation in the water

column, soil and in fishes. These will also make the water unsuitable for human use and critical

to fish consumption safety. Since fishermen always fish and some young adult dive in to swim

from the axis where oil is visible on the water body, it create an urgent need to access the level of

pollution of the river through the consideration of the impact of effluent from the oil company on

water, sediment and fish.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

This study explores the impacts of oil spill in the water body and its significance can be

considered relevant in the following ways. Through this study: the impact of oil spill on the

water, sediment and the fishes will be explored; the chemical properties, dangerous and

beneficial health implication of oil spill in aquatic life and sediments would be assessed;
problems associated to oil spill will be examined on fishes;. The result of this study will assist

the authorities in designing appropriate prevention measure to ensure that the water quality of

Rivers/Creeks/Lagoons are improved. Consequently, the report from this scientific study would

invoke significant statement to policy makers on the issues of surveillance, environment bio-

monitoring and implementation of marine guidelines on oil spillage and their impacts.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this work is to determine the impacts of oil spillage on physicochemical parameters

and heavy metals in water, fish and sediment from Igbologun Axis of Badagry Creek, Lagos,

Nigeria. With the above aim, the following are the objectives will be undertaken:

1. Determination of physicochemical parameters in water, fish and sediment using APHA,

(2022).

2. Determination of Heavy metals in water, fish and sediment from Igbologun axis, Badagry

Creek, Apapa, Lagos, by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer

(Agilent ICP-OES, 710-Axial), Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), using APHA,

(2022),.

3. Create a statistical model based on the result of test that will be obtained from the samples.

4. To advise policy makers of the best line of action of result to obtain.

 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

It is very essential and important to test the water before it is used for drinking, domestic,

agricultural or industrial purpose. Water must be tested with different physicochemical

parameters. Selection of parameters for testing of water solely depends upon for what purpose

we going to use that water and what extent we need its quality and purity. Water have different

types of floating, dissolved, suspended, microbiological as well as bacteriological impurities.

Some physical test should be performed for testing of its physical appearance such as pH, total

suspended solid, turbidity, salinity, dissolved oxygen, total hardness, acidity, alkalinity, nitrate,

nitrite, phosphate, sulphate, other characters. For obtaining more and more quality and purity

water, it should be tested for its trace metal, heavy metal contents and organic i.e. pesticide

residue. It is obvious that drinking water should pass these entire tests and it should content

required amount of mineral level. There are different physic chemical parameters and they are

tested regularly for monitoring quality of water.

pH

pH is most important in determining the corrosive nature of water.The lower the pH value higher

is the corrosive nature of water. It is one of the most important water quality parameters.The

measurement of pH relates to the acidity or alkalinity of the water. High pH levels of water,

forces the dissolved ammonia to its toxic and unionized form, which gravely affect aquatic

organism (USEPA, 2008).

Total Suspended Solid

Suspended solids is descriptive of the organic and inorganic particulate matter in water. The less

turbid the water the more desirable it becomes for fish to swim.Total suspended solid effects are

similar for both fresh and marine waters. Settle-able materials on the bottom of water bodies

damage the invertebrate populations.

Turbidity

Turbidity is the measure of the suspended particulate matter in a water body that interferes with

the passage or dispersion of a beam of light through the water.. These particles are generally

invisible to the naked eye, just like what happens to smoke in the air. Turbidity results in a

decrease in the intensity of light that passes through cloudiness or turbidity water due to light,

absorption, and reflection of light.

Dissolved Oxygen

DO is an important environmental parameter for the survival of aquatic life it also affects the

growth, survival, distribution, behavior and physiology of shrimps and other aquatic organisms

(Solis 2008). The principal sources of oxygen in water are atmospheric air and photosynthetic

planktons. As a general rule, concentrations of DO above 5 mg/L are considered supportive of

marine life, while concentrations below this are potentially harmful.

Alkalinity
The Alkalinity of water is due to the presence of mineral salts, primarily carbonate and

bicarbonate ions present in it. Alkalinity makes water tasteful and helps in coagulation (Hussain

1987).

Acidity

The most serious chronic effect of increased acidity in surface waters appears to be interference

with the fish’ reproductive cycle. Calcium levels in the female fish may be lowered to the point

where she cannot produce eggs or the eggs fail to pass from the ovaries or if fertilized, the eggs

and/or larvae develop abnormally (EPA, 1980).

Salinity

Salinity is the concentration of salt in water, usually measured in parts per thousand (ppt).

Salinity is the measurement of the ionic composition of water and it varies depending on mixing

of relatively fresh inland waters with saltier marine waters (Twomeu et al., 2014). It is an

important factor that affects the density and growth of aquatic organism`s population ( Jamabo

2008).

Total Hardness

The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both

expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate equivalent per litre (Karim and Panda, 2014).

Nitrate

Nitrates are a form of nitrogen and a vital nutrient for growth, reproduction, and the survival of

organisms. Santhosh and Singh described the favorable range of 0.1 mg/L to 4.0 mg/L in fish

culture water. Nitrates are contributes to freshwater through discharge of sewage and industrial
wastes and run off from agricultural fields. The highest amount of nitrate concentration was

known to support the formation of blooms.

Nitrite

Nitrite can be termed as an invisible killer of fish because it oxidizes hemoglobin to

methemoglobin in the blood, turning the blood and gills brown and hindering respiration also

damages the nervous system, liver, spleen and kidneys of the fish (Bhatnagar and Devi, 2001).

Phosphate

Almost all of the phosphorus (P) present in water is in the form of phosphate (PO4) and it is an

essential plant nutrient as it is often in limited supply and stimulates plant (algae) growth and its

role in increasing the aquatic productivity is well recognized. High levels of both phosphate and

nitrate can lead to eutrophication, which increases algae growth and ultimately reduces dissolved

oxygen levels in the water.

Sulphate

Sulphates are found appreciably in all natural waters, particularly those with high salt content.

Besides industrial pollution and domestic sewage, biological oxidation of reduced sulphur

species also add to sulphate content.

2.2 HEAVY METALS

Heavy metals are a pressing concern in terms of their pollution in aquatic ecosystems because of

their persistence, environmental toxicity, bioaccumulation, etc. Aquatic environments e.g. lakes,

rivers, reservoirs, and wetlands receive heavy metals in untreated or inadequately treated waste
water from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources. Pollution from heavy metals has

affected rivers worldwide, especially in developing countries (Zhang et al.,2014).

Heavy metals are defined as metallic elements that have a relatively high density compared to

water. With the assumption that heaviness and toxicity are interrelated, heavy metals also include

metalloids, such as arsenic, that are able to induce toxicity at low level of exposure. In recent

years, there has been an increasing ecological and global public health concern associated with

environmental contamination by these metal.It mainly enter aquatic environments as a result of a

variety of human activities (e.g., agriculture, combustion, corroded underground pipes, industrial

plants, sewage, smelting, and vehicles).

Heavy metals are not readily degraded in the environment, and those that enter a water body can

remain there for some time. They are usually found in low concentrations in aquatic systems, and

high concentrations of heavy metals in sediments can indicate anthropogenic rather than natural

sources . Heavy metals are poorly soluble in water, so predominantly sorb to suspended particles

that then settle as sediment . Also, human exposure has risen dramatically as a result of an

exponential increase of their use in several industrial, agricultural, domestic, and technological

applications. Reported sources of heavy metals in the environment include geogenic, industrial,

agricultural, pharmaceutical, domestic effluents, and atmospheric sources (Bradi H, 2002).

Environmental pollution is very prominent in point source areas such as mining, foundries and

smelters, and other metal-based industrial operations. Although heavy metals are naturally

occurring elements that are found throughout the earth’s crust, most environmental
contamination and human exposure result from anthropogenic activities such as mining and

smelting operations, industrial production and use, and domestic and agricultural use of metals

and metal-containing compounds . Environmental contamination can also occur through metal

corrosion, atmospheric deposition, soil erosion of metal ions and leaching of heavy metals,

sediment re-suspension, and metal evaporation from water resources to soil and groundwater.

Natural phenomena such as weathering and volcanic eruptions have also been reported to

significantly contribute to heavy metal pollution . (Walker, 2012).

Heavy metals are strong neurotoxins in fish species. The interaction of heavy metals with

chemical stimuli in fish may interrupt the communication of fish with their environment. Heavy

metals have been found associated with fish deformities in both natural populations and in the

laboratory. Generally, such deformities have negative effects on fish populations because

deformities affect their survival, growth rates, welfare, and external image. These deformities in

fish can serve as excellent biomarkers of environmental heavy metal pollution .

Water sediments are a sink for heavy metals, and heavy metal concentrations are generally

higher in sediment than in water . Indeed, concentrations of heavy metals in water are sometimes

lower than detection limits, meaning that sediment should be analysed to assess levels of

contamination by heavy metals in the aquatic system . Water sediments can also act as a source

to the overlying water. Contaminated sediments can act as non-point sources of heavy metals to

the water column when the chemistry of the aquatic system changes, for example if certain

biochemical processes occur, if organic complexing agents enter the system, if the pH changes, if
the redox conditions change, or if the salinity increases . Most heavy metals quickly deposit into

the sediment after entering rivers, and are much more concentrated in the sediment than in the

water body of riverine systems . Conversely, when the physicochemical or hydrological

conditions change, heavy metals in the sediment may absorb or suspend to cause secondary

pollution in the water body . The accumulation of heavy metals in the sediment directly affects

benthic organisms and also influences many other organisms through the food web .

2.3 Sources of heavy metal

These heavy metals are found naturally on the Earth's crust since the Earth's formation. Due to

the astounding increase of the use of heavy metals, it has resulted in an imminent surge of

metallic substances in both the terrestrial environment and the aquatic environment (Zhang

2016). Heavy metal pollution has emerged due to anthropogenic activity which is the prime

cause of pollution, primarily due to mining the metal, smelting, foundries, and other industries

that are metal-based, leaching of metals from different sources such as landfills, waste dumps,

excretion, livestock and chicken manure, runoffs, automobiles and roadworks.

Figure 1: Sources of heavy metals

2.4 Effect of heavy metals on fishes

The most infected important organs in the body of fish are the Gills, kidneys and liver that

absorb metals in the body of fish (Newman MC, 2009) .

The absorption of cadmium through the gills is much greater than the absorption through the

gastrointestinal tract. Muscle tissue usually have the lowest amounts of heavy metals in fish and

these elements accumulate in tissues such as kidney, liver and gills. The amount of mercury in

the internal organs of fish is slightly higher than muscle tissue.

Liver: The liver is the organ that is most associated with detoxification and biodegradation

processes. Due to this function and the presence of abundant blood in it, it is one of the organs

that is most affected by contaminants in water. It is important to select the liver as a biological

indicator of environmental pollution, including that the liver of fish has functions such as

inactivation of petroleum hydrocarbons, storage of nutrients and release of catabolism products

of other tissues to produce bile, which plays an important role. It is very effective in digesting

fatty acids and excreting toxic metabolites.The blood it receives has the greatest effect on the

contaminants in the water, and in general, several factors can cause liver damage, which due to

the metabolic functions of the liver, such injuries can have serious effects on aquatic metabolism.

Kidney: The most important function of the kidneys in fish is the osmotic regulation of water

and salt through the excretion of excess nitrogenous substances, which plays an important role in

maintaining the body’s homeostasis. They are responsible for various xenobiotics. Therefore, the
kidneys are constantly exposed to chemical toxins and their dangerous effects and are an

important target organ for many environmental pollutants.

Gills: Fish gills are the main site of gas exchange in almost all fish. The gills of fish are made of

hard bony or cartilaginous arches and are protected by a gill skull. Most fish exchange gas using

gills on either side of their throats. Gills are tissues that look like short threads. They are exposed

to contaminants such as pyrene, hyperemia, and s-shaped blades. Exposure of this organ to

various levels of contamination by Pyrenees causes it to become deformed, shortened, clubbed,

and torn off.

2.5 The Effect Of Oil Pollution On The Aquatic Lives

Effects of oil on phytoplankton communities that feed on zooplankton destroy algae. Biomass

of zooplankton is severely reduced by oil pollution. The study shows that oil-contaminated

volar fish eggs (planktonic conditions) have been found to have adverse genetic effects. The ill

effect causes them to die ( Vajargah, 2018).

Aquatic organisms are likely to be affected by oil spills in many different ways which are: direct

contact with oil, toxic effects of hydrocarbon compounds,destruction of critical food resources

etc. The oil compounds can impact fishes through ingestion, absorption, and inhalation and may

give rise to several health problems.

The direct impact on organisms can be seen from causing changes in behaviour like changes in

the foraging area, migration to other safe and suitable areas, changes in the time of foraging

periods to killing fishes or contaminating the critical resources in the food chain. However, the
degree of impact and harm caused by oil exposure depends upon various biological factors like

age, size, and overall health of the organism. The death of fishes may be attributed to the fact

that oil may form a layer of film over the gill filaments and prevent the gaseous exchange

between body and surrounding environment leading to suffocation or due to lethal and sub-lethal

effects of oil components to organisms.

In general, eggs, larvae, and early juvenile life forms are more vulnerable to sub-lethal and

lethal effects of oil. An oil spill can kill fish or cause sub-lethal damage to fish eggs and larvae

like morphological deformities, reduced feeding and growth rates, increase vulnerability to

predation and starvation (Sorhus et al., 2016; Hicken et al., 2011), loss of hatching ability of

eggs, fouling of gill structures, impaired growth, respiration, reproduction (Balckburn et

al.,2014). However, the impacts are more prominent in the early stages of eggs and larva due to

the underdeveloped membrane, body and detoxifying structures (Bellas et al., 2013)

One of the abnormal effects of oil pollution, disturbing and reducing the fertility of fish and

leaving their natural habitats as well as changing their behavioral states. Petroleum products and

their derivatives enter the body of aquatic organisms through the food network and accumulate in

the liver and gallbladder (Chorehi, 2013).

Swallowed petroleum products enter the fish stomach directly and are excreted as urine and

faeces in the contaminated environment after consumption. The surface of the gills is covered

with petroleum products and the impossibility of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide gases

between the blood and air leads to suffocation .Most of the damage caused by oil pollution

affects young and mature fish communities that live in shallow water. Studies have shown that
fish caught contaminated with light petroleum compounds have undergone genetic modification,

skin cancer and gill cancer (Forouhar Vajargah, 2017).

Evidence to date suggests that embryo and larval life stages of fish are more sensitive to oil

toxicity than adults (NRC 2005). It is possible that the smaller size, less developed metabolic

capability and differences in cell permeability of early-life stage organisms contributes to their

enhanced sensitivity (Georges-Ares and Clark 2000). In general, early-life stages are also less

mobile and unable to actively avoid areas where spills occur. In addition, some groundfish

species have early-life stages that are pelagic and can be exposed to oil if present near the surface

or in the water-column. A wide range of concentrations of hydrocarbons have been found to

cause mortality in fish. Exposure to hydrocarbons can also cause mortality in reptiles. It is also

possible that mortalities immediately following oil spills are not observed but that toxic effects

eventually lead to mortality.

Implications of Pollution on Eggs, Spawn, Fry on Breeding Grounds and Feeding Grounds.

Fish eggs are much more resistant than the adult fish. Toxicity thresholds for lead, zinc and

nickel to be about 20, 40 and 2000 ppm respectively, values for higher than those found for

about animal. Eggs would develop normally between pH 6 to 9. In water more acid than pH 4.0,

the eggs displayed exosmosis and collapsed, in water more alkaline than pH 9.0 there was

endosmosis, the eggs swelled and yolk became white. The critical oxygen tensions are about 40

mm Hg for newly fertilized eggs and rises, as the embryo develops, to about 100 mgHg (about

60% saturation) at the time of hatching. Trout and Salmon lay their eggs in gravel, through
which water must percolate while the eggs batch and the fry live on the food from the egg yolk

(Adam DH, 2005).

Deformities

Different types of morphological abnormalities have been reported in fish taken from

contaminated waters, including fin erosion (Ajao EA, 2003) skull deformation; jaw deformities;

skeletal deformities such as lordosis, scoliosis, and kyphosis (Ogbei AE, 2005); opercular

deformity; fin deformity; lower lip protrusion; gill deformity ocular disorders; scale deformity

and disorientation; and neo-plasia or hyperplasia (Okunola SO, 2005). In contaminated waters,

fish may exhibit whole animal,morphological, histopathological, cellular, organismic, or

parasitic aspects of abnormalities, some of which can be used as biomarkers of contamination

exposure.

Figure 2: Points in the life cycle when fish are especially sensitive to pollutants
Source Peter brown

Figure 3: Gills deformation in tilapia

2.6 Preventive Measures

Every individual has a duty to prevent pollution of water resources. Water is a basic need for our

survival, and hence it should be our first priority to keep all water resources free from

contamination to pollution. Measures of prevention and control are essential in improving the

quality of water and reducing the costly treatment measures that are taken to treat water.

Preventive measures and possible solutions to control water contamination to avoid pollution are

given as follows

1) Ensuring the primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged into rivers, creeks, lagoons

and the sea.

2) Promoting use of environmental impact assessments to help ensure an acceptable level of

environment quality.
3) Implementation and enforcement of policies and existing acts and regulation of environmental

protection

Table 1 The major sources and significance of pollution in aquatic eco-systems (Stanley, 2000)

Class of pollutant Effects and significance

Trace Elements Health, aquatic biota, toxicity

Heavy metals Health, aquatic biota, toxicity

Inorganic pollutants Toxicity, aquatic biota

Algal nutrients Eutrophication

Acidity, alkalinity, salinity (in excess) Water quality, aquatic life

Trace organic pollutants Toxicity

Polychlorinated biphenyls Possible biological effects

Pesticides Toxicity, aquatic biota, wildlife

Sewage, human and animal wastes Water quality, oxygen levels

Biochemical oxygen demand Water quality, oxygen levels

Pathogens Health effects

Detergents Eutrophication, wildlife, esthetics

Chemical Carcinogens Incidence of cancer

Table 2 Importance of trace element in natural water (Stanley, 2000)

 Elements Sources Effects and significance

Arsenic Mining byproduct, chemical Toxic, possibly carcinogenic

waste

Beryllium Coal, industrial waste Toxic

Chromium Metal plating Essential as Cr(III), toxic as Cr(VI)

Copper Metal plating, mining, Essential trace element, toxic to

industrial waste plants and algae at higher level

Fluorine Natural geological sources, Prevent tooth decay at around

wastes, water additive 1mg/L, toxic at higher level

Iron Industrial waste, corrosion, Essential nutrient, damage fixtures

acid mine water, microbial by staining
action

Lead Industrial waste, mining, fuels Toxic, harmful to wildlife

Manganese Industrial wastes, acid Toxic to plants, damage fixture by staining

mine water, microbial
action

Mercury Industrial waste, Toxic, mobilized as methyl mercury

mining, coal compound by anaerobic bacteria

Zinc Industrial waste, metal Essential element, toxic to plants at higher

plating, plumbing levels

Table 3 Summaries of some major source and health effect of heavy metals under the study

(Kaur, 2012, US-EPA, 1999, Weiner, 2008, Jordao et al., 2002).

 Pollutants Major sources Effect on human health
WHO, 2008

Pb Paint, pesticide, lead Cognitive impairment in 0.01

storage batteries, crystal children, cause blood and brain
glass, preparation disorder, peripheral neuropathy
fertilizers in adults, developmental delay,
decrease in hemoglobin
production,

Cu Copper electroplating, Headache, nausea, vomiting, 0.10

pesticide production, diarrhea, liver anemia, cirrhosis
mining, common copper- in patients, liver and kidney
bearing ores are S2-, As, damage.
Cl-, and CO32-

Zn Effluents from Vomiting, diarrhea, liver and 0.2

electroplating industries, kidney damage, system
sewage discharge, dysfunctions
fertilizers, manufacture

Mn Domestic waste, industrial Mn deficiency in females causes 0.5

effluent, atmospheric dust a reduced maternal carrying for
and decomposition of her young The +7 oxidation
plant material. number Mn oxidize manganese
and/ or other organic matter

Fe Erosion of minerals from Increase the free radical 0.3

rocks and soil, corrosion production, which is responsible
of pipeline, sewage for degenerative diseases

Table 4 Water quality parameters used for testing quality of water and their sources of and

potential health effect (US EPA, 1999) guidelines

Parameters Sources Potential health effects

pH Due to different dissolved Bitter test, corrosion, WHO,

gases and solid affect mucus membrane 2008

6.5-8.5
Temp. Due to chemical reaction, Influence chemical, -
hot waste water biochemical, biological of
aquatic system, effect on
solubility of essential
gases

EC Due to different dissolved High conductivity 500μS/cm

solid increases corrosive nature
of water

Turbidity Soil runoff Higher level causing 5 NTU

bacteria

TDS From the Presence all Undesirable taste, gastro- 1000

dissolved salt intestinal irritation,
corrosion, or incrustation

Color Dissolved salts Consumer acceptance 15 HU

decreases

Nitrite NH3 compounds Form nitrosamine’s - 3.0

carcinogenic

Nitrate Runoff, fertilizers Effect on infant symptoms 50mg/L

septic tank, include shortness of

breath, blue-baby
 syndrome

Sulphate Due to dissolved Taste affect; gastro- 500mg/L

Ca/Mg/Fe sulphate intestinal irritation;

calcium sulphate scale,

laxative effect

phosphate Waste water from Stimulate microbial 5.0mg/L

detergent effluent, rocks growth; rancidity mould

growth; algal growth,

eutrophication
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

General description of sampling area

Igbologun is one of the towns in Badagry creek, C8GM+W4J, Ibafon 102102, Lagos,

Nigeria.The town is located at 60 25143.2911 North Latitude and 3019156.92211 East longitudes.

Currently, the town has oil companies and factory that produce oil, black oil and petrol.

SITE A SITE B

SITE C

Figure 4 Sampling stations

Figure 5 Map of Igbologun axis showing the three sites of the study area.

Sampling sites selection

A preliminary survey of sampling stations has done carefully for one day to select the

appropriate sampling site based on the objectives of the study and potential sources of pollution.

The sampling of water of the river has done for three consecutive months from October 2022 to

December 2022. Three sampling sites, which cover a length of about 1.5Kms were selected by

considering the relative sources of pollution to the river. In site A (upstream), the effluents

discharge entry point from the oil company into river is approximately 800m (0.8Km), the land

around the river is a farmland and partly covered with some indigenous trees and grasses. Also,

Sampling site B has a major effluent entry point (point source); effluents are discharged from
black oil activity, boat construction, oil spillage, domestic and waste materials of inhabitants of

the community; the water surface appears turbid (Figure 2). The land around the river is covered

with grasses, eucalyptus trees and weeds. Site C (downstream) is located at about 700m (0.7Km)

downstream from the discharge entry point (site B); The land is covered with grasses, shrubs,

eucalyptus trees and discharge of oil from boats and canoes.

Checklist of equipment used:

Analytical Balance (Gulfex FA 2104), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission

Spectrometer (Agilent ICP-OES, 710-Axial) , Spectrophotometer (HACH DR 3900, Hach,

Loveland, USA), Freezer, capable of maintaining 4 oC , Lab Oven (Labnet ED 23; Labnet

Scientific Services, USA) , COD Reactor (Grant QBD 2) , Dissolved Oxygen- Meter Hanna HI ,

Refrigerator, capable of maintaining a temperature of 4oC, Hot plate with variable heat settings

(Labnet), Multi-meter for EC/TDS/Salinity/pH/mV (IONIX PC-50), Turbidity meter (Hach

2100Qis), Laboratory Oven (Labnet), Lab ware – All reusable lab ware (glass, Teflon, plastic,

etc) Calibrated micropipettes with range 100-1000 µl, and 1-5 ml, Standard reference solutions

of 1000 µg/ml, each metal(Christiansburg, VA; USA).Whatman filter paper #42.

Chemicals and reagents

Analytical Reagent grade chemicals were used in all tests. Except otherwise stated, all reagents

used for QC procedures were from Hach Chemical Company, USA. Reagents and certified

reference standards were procured from authorised dealers: Analytical grade Nitric Acid (Analar,

Sigma Aldrich), Hydrochloric Acid (Analar, Sigma Aldrich) Deionised Water (EC < 2.0 µS/cm),
Calibration standards (1.0-5.0 mg/L, each of the metals were prepared by appropriate dilutions of

the stock standard solutions

Sample collection, preservation and transportation procedures

Half liters of water sample from each sites have taken using a 50cl plastic bottle to collect the

water sample, composite sampling technique has applied according to sampling procedure. That

was by combining portion of multiple grab samples of equal water volumes collected at a regular

time interval in each single bottle. Then, each container of the sample has labeled A, B and C

with water,sediment and fish sample description detailing the sample condition. Finally, the

samples were collected by the a lab attendant to do the analysis at the lab after few minutes. The

contents of the container have divided in to two equal parts. Half part for physicochemical

analysis and the rest were stored . All the samples have analyzed for heavy metals such as Fe,

Cu, Zn, Pb and Mn using ICP-OES (EPA Method 200.7)

Sample Pre-treatment Mild Digestion for Determination of SO42-, PO43- in Water

An aliquot (50 ml) of well-mixed water sample was transferred into a conical flask. To this was

added 5 mL of 6M HCl, and then heated on a hot plate until the volume has been reduced to

about 30 ml. The digestate was cooled and then filtered through Whatman #42 filter paper. The

residue on filter was washed with distilled water. The filtrate was quantitatively transferred to a

50 ml volumetric flask, diluted to volume with distilled water, and saved for the determination of

sulphate and phosphate.

Sample Pre-treatment for Determination of NO3- and NO2-

A 50 ml aliquot of well-mixed water sample was filtered through a 0.45µm membrane filter. The

filtrate was saved for the determination of nitrate and nitrite .Other sample pre-treatment

methods are discussed under individual methods for measurements

Physicochemical Parameters

Physicochemical parameters and heavy metals variables measured for the assessment of

Igbologun axis of Badagry creeks includes: pH (<250C), Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

(mg/l),Turbidity (NTU), Salinity (‰), Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/l), Total Hardness (TH)

(mg/l), Acidity (mg/)l, Alkalinity (mg/l), Nitrate (mg/l), Nitrite (mg/l), Phosphate

(mg/l),Sulphate (mg/l), Arsenic (mg/l), Cadmium (Cd) (mg/l), Calcium (Ca)(mg/l), Copper (Cu)

(mg/l), Chromium (Cr) (mg/l), Iron (Fe) (mg/l), Lead (Pb) (mg/l), Manganese (mg/l),

Magnesium (mg/l), Nickel (mg/l), Zinc (mg/l)

1. pH (Hach Method 8156, SM 4500H+B): pH was determined on aliquot of unfiltered water

samples using a combination pH electrode (IONIX PC-50) multi-parameter test meter. Test

results were validated using traceable pH buffer solutions (pH 4.01 ±0.02, 7.00 ±0.02, 10.0

±0.02; Hach Chemicals, Loveland, USA)

2. Salinity Direct Measurement Method: Salinity was determined by potentiometric method,

using a multi-parameter conductivity meter IONIX PC-50), in the salinity mode. Test results

were validated against certified salinity standards (0.10, 0.50, 1.0 and 5.0 ppt; Sigma Aldrich,

USA)
3. Total Suspended Solids (SM 2450 D; Hach Method 8158): An aliquot (100 ml) of the

sample was filtered through a tarred 47 mm, 0.45um glass fibre filter. The residue on the filter

was dried at 103℃, for 1 hour, cooled in a desiccator to 25oC and weighed.

4. Turbidity -Nephelometric: Turbidity of the water sample was measured on a 10 ml aliquot,

of a homogeneous sample, by ratio turbidimetry using a turbidity meter

5. Total Acidity -Buret Titration Method (SM 2320, Hach Method 8010): Total Acidity of

the samples was determined by titration of aliquots of the water sample using standard NaOH, to

phenolpthalein endpoint

6. Total Alkalinity -Buret Titration Method (SM 2320 B, Hach Method 8203): Total

Alkalinity of unfiltered samples was determined by titration of the water sample with standard

sulphuric acid (0.02 N) to colorimetric end-point, corresponding to pH 4.3, and includes all

forms of alkalinity (carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide alkalinities)

7. Total Hardness -Titration Method (SM 2340 C, Hach Method 8226)

Total hardness was determined by the buret titration method. An aliquot (20 ml) of the test

sample was treated with a pH 10 buffer and then titrated with standard 0.08 M EDTA, using

calmagite as end-point indicator.

8. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) -Dissolved oxygen was determined by membrane electrode method

using a dissolved oxygen meter with amperometric sensor DO was determined on aliquots of the

test samples by direct immersion of the DO probe into the solution, and reading off the display

9. Phosphate -Ascorbic Acid Method (HACH Method 8048, SM 4500-P E)

To 10 ml aliquot of the pretreated sample in a vial was added the content of one phosVer 3

phosphate test reagent (Hach Chemicals). The mixture was shaken to dissolve the powder, and
then allowed to stand for 3 min, for complete reaction. Measurement was made at 880 nm, using

a direct reading spectrophotometer (HACH DR 3900).

10. Nitrate -Cadmium Reduction Method (HACH 8192, SM 4500 B, E)

To a 15 ml aliquot of the prepared sample was added the contents of one NitraVer 6

Nitrate Reagent Powder Pillow (Hach Chemicals). The mixture was shaken and allowed to stand

for 5 min. To 10 ml of the clear solution was added the content of NitriVer 3 reagent, and the

solution shaken to dissolve the mixture. The mixture was allowed to stand for 15 min for

complete color development. Thereafter, measurement was made with a spectrophotometer at

507 nm.

11. Nitrite -Diazotization Method (Hach Method 10019, EPA Method 354.1)

To a 5 ml aliquot of the prepared sample was added the contents of one NitriVer 3 Nitrite

Reagent Powder Pillow (Hach Chemicals). The mixture was shaken and allowed to stand for 15

min for complete color development. Thereafter, measurement was made with a

spectrophotometer at 507 nm.

12. Sulphate Turbidimetric Methods (SM 4500 E; HACH 8051)

Sulphate was determined by turbidimetric method, in which a 10 ml aliquot of the filtered water

sample was reacted with barium chloride (HACH SulfaVer 4 reagent powder). The amount of

turbidity in test solution (proportional to sulphate concentration) was determined at 450 nm,

using a spectrophotometer
Heavy Metals

Determination of Metals by Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry

(ICP-OES)

The method was used for determination of the specified metals in digested water, sediment &

fish samples. Standard multi-element calibration solution of the metals (1.0-5.0 mg/L, each)

were prepared for the ICP-OES calibration curves. The solutions were prepared from the stock

standard reference solution of the individual metal (1000 µg/ml) by appropriate dilution, in a

volumetric flask, with deionized water. Except otherwise stated in the procedures, the chemicals

used for the analysis of the samples were of analytical grade. (EPA Method 2007)

Instrument Set-up

The ICP-OES setup conditions were optimized as summarized in the table below. The metals

were determined on the prepared sample solutions by ICP-OES spectrometry. A reagent blank

was determined against a 5-point calibration curve plotted for the standard solutions of the

metals. Quantitation of the elements was obtained with Agilent Expert II software Conversion

from mg/L of test solution to mg/kg of the sediment or fish sample was obtained from the

relationship:

mg/L 𝑥 final volume of digested sample (ml)

Metal (𝑚𝑔⁄kg) =

Weight 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 digested (g)

Agilent ICP-OES, 710-Axial Set-up Conditions

Operating Parameters Setting

RF Power 1400 W
View Axial
Plasma Flow (L/min) 12.0
Auxiliary Flow (L/min) 0.75
Nebulizer Flow (L/min) 0.75
Spray Chamber Cyclonic
Sample Uptake (ml/min) 1.0
Pump speed (rpm) 15
Auto-sampler Agilent SPS-3
Read Time (s) 20
Replicate 3
Rinse Time (s) 3

Metals Wavelength (nm)

Arsenic 193.759
Cadmium 226.502
Copper 324.754
Chromium 267.716
Iron 259.940
Nickel 231.604
Lead 220.353
Manganese 257.610
Zinc 213.857
 Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 23) and Microsoft Excel 2007. Descriptive

data was generated for all variables and presented as means±standard deviation (±SD). The

results of the physicochemical parameters analyzed and heavy metals concentration determined

of all the three sampling site were compared with WHO(World Health Organization), 2008

standards for surface water and interpreted as acceptable or unacceptable. The mean variations

in data between the three sites were analyzed using One-way ANOVA. The parameters were

correlated against each other to determine their relationships using Pearson’s correlation matrix.

Significance was considered at 95% confidence interval. Differences in mean values obtained

were considered significant if calculated p-values were P<0.05.

 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy metals Characteristics of water samples

Physicochemical parameters studied for the period of three months in water sample are presented

in Table 1 in Range (Mean±SD). pH ranged from 6.72 – 7.25 (7.03±0.21); TSS ranged from 8.0

- 58.0 (20.56±19.98) mg/l; Turbidity ranged from 5.68 - 43.0 (23.33±12.0) NTU; Salinity ranged

from 2.18 - 5.59 (3.46±1.05) ‰; Dissolved Oxygen ranged from 2.01 - 4.40 (3.38±0.69) mg/l;

Total hardness ranged from 567.6 - 1243.0 (794.26±208.87) mg/l; Acidity ranged from 12.1 -

33.9 (17.93±7.73) mg/l; Alkalinity ranged from 40.0 - 722.0 (51.14±10.28) mg/l; nitrate (NO 3-)

ranged from 6.36 - 13.67 (9.54±2.88) mg/l; nitrite (NO 2-) ranged from 0.03 - 0.08 (0.05±0.02)

mg/l; Phosphate ranged from 0.01-0.53 (0.21±0.18) mg/l; Sulphate ranged from 147.6 - 461.0

(255.73±103.92) mg/l; arsenic (As) was 0.0 mg/l; cadmium (Cd) was <0.01 mg/l; calcium (Ca)

ranged from 56.76 - 220.03 (123.94±56.0) mg/l; copper (Cu) was <0.01 mg/l; chromium (Cr)

ranged from 0.01 - 0.02 (<0.01±<0.01); iron (Fe) ranged from 0.12 - 1.11 (0.46±0.38) mg/l; lead

(Pb) was <0.01mg/l, magnesium (Mg) ranged from 0.04 - 0.41 (0.13±0.12)mg/l, manganese

(Mn) ranged from 98.12 - 168.03 (116.99±22.59) mg/l; nickel (Ni) ranged from 0.01 -

0.07(0.03±0.02); zinc (Zn) ranged from 0.01 - 0.12 (0.07±0.04) mg/l.

 Table 1: Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy metals data from Igbologun axis of
Badagry Creek, Lagos throughout the study period

Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Standard WHO

Deviation Error Limits
(2008)
pH (<250C) 6.72 7.25 7.03 0.21 0.07 6.5-8.5
Total Suspended -
8.0 58.0 20.56 19.98 6.66
Solids (TSS) (mg/l)
Turbidity (NTU) 5.68 43.0 23.33 12.0 4.01 5 NTU
Salinity (‰) 2.18 5.59 3.46 1.05 0.35 37ppm
Dissolved Oxygen 5.0mg/l
2.01 4.40 3.38 0.69 0.23
(DO) (mg/l)
Total Hardness (TH) 100
567.60 1243.0 794.26 208.87 69.63
(mg/l)
Acidity (mg/l) 12.10 33.90 17.93 7.73 2.57 6.5-9.5
Alkalinity (mg/l) 40.0 722.0 51.14 10.28 3.43 100
Nitrate (mg/l) 6.36 13.67 9.54 2.88 0.96 50mg/l
Nitrite (mg/l) 0.03 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.01 3.0
Phosphate (mg/l) 0.01 0.53 0.21 0.18 0.06 5.0
Sulphate (mg/l) 147.60 461.0 255.73 103.92 34.64 200mg/l
Arsenic(As) (mg/l) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01
Cadmium (Cd) (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.0 <0.01 0.003
Calcium (Ca)(mg/l) 56.76 220.03 123.94 56.0 18.67 200
Copper (Cu) (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.3
Chromium (Cr) (mg/l) 0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.05
Iron (Fe) (mg/l) 0.121 1.11 0.46 0.38 0.13 0.3
Lead (Pb) (mg/l) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01
Manganese(Mg) (mg/l) 0.04 0.41 0.13 0.12 0.04 0.5
Magnesium(Mn) 25
98.12 168.03 116.99 22.59 7.53
(mg/l)
Nickel(Ni) (mg/l) 0.01 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.003
Zinc(Zn) (mg/l) 0.01 0.13 0.07 0.04 0.01 0.2

Spatial distribution of Physicochemical parameters and Heavy metals (Mean±SD, Range); of water

samples from Igbologun axis of Badagry Creek

The result of physicochemical analysis and heavy metals in this study shows remarkable

variabilities on the basis of sample station (spatial), being differentiated by attributes of different

anthropogenic activities as shown in table 2, water samples have been classified into
Upstream:SampleStation1(SS1); Midstream:Sample Station 2 (SS2); Downstream:Sample

Station 3 (SS3)

Spatial mean value of water physicochemical parameter indicates that pH at 250C ranged

between 6.9 and 7.1, SS1 recorded the highest value (7.1±0.24), while the lowest value

(6.9±0.24) was observed in SS2. Total suspended solids ranged between 19.0 and 33.0, SS2 had

the highest mean value (33.0±35.4) while the lowest value (19.0±13.9) was observed in SS1.

Turbidity ranged between 21.5 and 25.4, SS2 had the highest mean value (25.4±18.8) while the

lowest value (21.5±7.16) was recorded in SS1. Salinity ranged between 3.2 and 3.74, SS2 had

the highest mean value (3.74±1.7) while the lowest value (3.2±0.92) was observed in SS1.

dissolved oxygen ranged between 2.82 and 3.7 , SS1 had the highest mean value (3.7±0.66)

while the lowest value (2.82±0.75) was recorded in SS2. Total hardness ranged between 737.3

and 858.57, SS2 had the highest mean value (858.57±347.3) while the lowest value

(737.3±174.9) was observed in SS1. Acidity ranged between 15.87 and 19.5, SS2 had the

highest mean value (19.50±12.5) while the lowest value (15.87±0.32) was recorded in SS 3.

Alkalinity ranged between 48.5 and 54.8, SS1 had the highest mean value (54.8±16.1) while the

lowest value (48.5±7.6) was observed in SS2. Nitrate ranged between 8.53 and 10.5, SS1 had

the highest mean value (10.5±3.6) while the lowest value (8.53±1.89) was recorded in SS2.

Nitrite ranged between 0.04 and 0.05, SS2 had the highest mean value (0.05±0.03) while the

lowest value (0.04±0.02) was observed in SS1and SS3. Phosphate ranged between 0.18 and 0.25,

SS1 had the highest mean value (0.25±0.16) while the lowest value (0.18±0.17)was recorded in

SS3. Sulphate ranged between 219.6 and 3.74, SS2 had the highest mean value (3.74±1.7) while

the lowest value (3.2±0.92) was observed in SS1. Arsenic was 0.0. Cadmium was <0.01.

Calcium ranged between 115.93 and 137.23, SS2 had the highest mean value(137.23±81.7)while
the lowest value (115.93±53.5) was recorded in SS1. Copper was <0.01. Chromium was 0.01.

Iron ranged between 0.37 and 0.54, SS1 had the highest mean value ( 0.54±0.5) while the lowest

value (0.37±0.19) was observed in SS3. Lead was < 0.01. Manganese ranged between 0.074 and

0.22, SS1 had the highest mean value ( 0.22±0.18) while the lowest value ( 0.074±0.05) was

recorded in SS 3. Magnesium ranged between 108.02 and 124,42, SS2 had the highest mean

value (124.42±37.8) while the lowest value (108.02±14.1) was observed in SS1. Nickel ranged

between 0.0193 and 0.03, SS2 had the highest mean value (0.03±0.0) while the lowest value

(0.0193±0.02) was recorded in SS1. Zinc ranged between 0.05 and 0.084, SS1 had the highest

mean value (0.084±0.02) while the lowest value (0.05±0.03) was observed in SS3.
Table 2: Spatial distribution of Physicochemical parameters and Heavy metals (Mean±SD,

Range); of water samples from Igbologun axis of Badagry Creek

 Parameters Upstream (SS1) Midstream (SS2) Downstream(SS3) WHO
Limit
pH (at 25°C) 7.1±0.24 6.90±0.24 7.09±0.13
6.5-8.5
(6.81 – 7.25) (6.72 – 7.18) (7.02 – 7.24)
Total Suspended Solids 19.0±13.9 33.0±35.4 20.67±20.2
-
(mg/L) (10 – 35) (8.0 – 58.0) (8.0 – 44.0)
Turbidity (NTU) 21.5±7.16 25.4±18.8 23.12±12.7
5NTU
(16.08 – 29.6) (5.68 – 43.0) (15.48 –37.8)
Salinity (ppt) 3.2±0.92 3.74±1.7 3.42±0.65
35ppm
(2.3 – 4.13) (2.18 – 5.59) (2.79 – 4.09)
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 3.7±0.66 2.82±0.75 3.61±0.49
5.0
(3.1 – 4.4) (2.01 – 3.5) (3.04 – 3.9)
Total Hardness (mg/L) 737.3±174.9 858.57±347.3 786.9±110.5
100
(568.8 – 918.0) (567.7 – 1243.0) (696.6 – 910.0)
Acidity (mg/L) 18.4±8.49 19.50±12.5 15.87±0.32
6.5-9.5
(12.2 – 28.1) (12.1 – 33.9) (15.5 – 16.1)
Alkalinity (mg/L) 54.8±16.1 48.5±7.6 50.1±8.54
100
(40.0 – 72.0) (41.1 – 56.2) (40.3 – 56.0)
Nitrate (mg/L, NO3-) 10.5±3.6 8.53±1.89 9.57±3.73
50mg/l
(6.49 – 13.35) (6.85 – 10.57) (6.36 – 13.67)
Nitrite (mg/L, NO2-) 0.04±0.02 0.05±0.03 0.04±0.01
3.0
(0.03 – 0.06) (0.03 – 0.08) (0.03 – 0.05)
Phosphate (mg/L) 0.25±0.16 0.19±0.29 0.18±0.17
5.0
(0.1 – 0.41) (0.008 – 0.53) (0.07 – 0.38)
Sulphate (mg/L) 219.6±62.2 253.83±117.5 293.7±146.3
200mg/l
(156.4 – 280.8) (147.6 – 380.0) (189.7 – 461.0)
Arsenic (mg/L) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.01
Cadmium (mg/L) 0.001±0.004 0.00±0.0 0.0008±0.0004
0.003
(0.0006 – 0.001) (0.0007 – 0.0016) (0.0005 – 0.0012)
Calcium (mg/L) 115.93±53.5 137.23±81.7 118.67±51.09
200
(57.28 – 162.0) (56.76 – 220.3) (61.92 – 161.0)
Copper (mg/L) 0.006±0.002 0.01±0.0 0.006±0.002
1.3
(0.005 – 0.008) (0.007 – 0.009) (0.004 – 0.008)
Chromium (mg/L) 0.013±0.04 0.01±0.0 0.013±0.002
0.05
(0.01 – 0.017) (0.009 – 0.011) (0.011 – 0.015)
Iron (mg/L) 0.54±0.5 0.47±0.52 0.37±0.19
0.3
(0.21 – 1.11) (0.121 – 1.07) (0.228 – 0.6)
Lead (mg/L) 0.0008±0.004 0.00±0.0 0.0009±0.0003
0.01
(0.0005 – 0.001) (0.0006 – 0.0018) (0.0006 – 0.001)
Manganese (mg/L) 0.22±0.18 0.11±0.03 0.074±0.05
0.5
(0.06 – 0.41) (0.08 – 0.147) (0.041 – 0.14)
Pearson’s correlation matrix

Pearson’s correlation matrix for heavy metal pairs with strong positive correlation suggest that

such metals may affect the occurrence or existence of each other. (Nduka et al., 2010). Udosen

and Benson (2006) reported that metals with significant positive correlation coefficient indicate

co-accumulation relation of both metals in surface water while Ndukwu (2016) reported that

significant positive correlation between heavy metals suggest possibility of common source or

origin which may be anthropogenic.

In table 3, Strong correlation existed between salinity and total hardness with ( r= 0.993)

followed closely by a positive relationship between TSS and phosphate with r= 0.948, TH and

sulphate r= 0.806, Acidity and Nitrate r= 0.872, Nitrate and TSS r= 0.866, TSS and Turbidity r=

0.827. However salinity and phosphate were negatively correlated r= 0.810 Turbidity and

salinity r= 0.869, turbidity and TH r= 0.819

In table 4, calcium and iron were most negatively correlated (r= -0.855), however nickel and

cadmium were the most positively correlation with r= 0.935. Also, high correlation existed

between Iron and lead with r= 0.866, Cadmium and Iron r= 0.866.
Table 3: Correlation Matrix between physicochemical parameters among the

selected sites of Igbologun axis of Badagry Creek, Apapa, Lagos

pH TSS Turb Salinity DO TH Acid Alk NO-2 NO-3 SO-24 PO-

3
4
*. Corre
pH 1 significa

- level (2
TSS 1
0.567
-
Turbidity 0.827** 1
0.767*
-
Salinity 0.618 -0.690* 1
0.869**
DO 0.264 -0.341 -0.069 -0.268 1
- -
TH 0.579 -0.602 **
0.993** 1
0.819 0.366
- -
Acidity *
0.815** 0.662 -0.676* -0.624 1
0.688 0.246
- -
Alkalinity 0.094 -0.003 -0.073 -0.048 0.113 1
0.273 0.245
-
Nitrate 0.431 -0.683* -0.527 0.392 0.693* 0.307 -0.555 1
0.192
- - -
Nitrite 0.868** 0.598 -0.457 -0.368 0.872** .045 1
0.540 0.606 0.790*
- - - -
Phosphate 0.948** 0.810** -0.801** 0.810** 0.190 0.793* 1
0.534 0.159 0.735* 0.595
- -
Sulphate .417 -.593 -.732* 0.820** .806** -.519 .0054 0.586 -0.521 1
0.020 0.714*
 Ars. Cd Ca Cu Cr Fe Pb Mn Mg Nickel Zinc

Arsenic 1

Cadmium a 1

Calcium a -0.813** 1

Copper a -0.086 0.481 1

Chromium a -0.507 0.345 -0.055 1

Iron a 0.885* -0.855* -0.375 -0.458 1

Lead a 0.866** -0.773* -0.261 -0.665 0.866* 1

-
Manganese a 0.020 -0.037 -0.441 0.475 0.197 1
0.057

- 0.12
Magnesium a -0.286 0.623 0.104 0.036 -0.393 1
0.307 0

0.06
Nickel a 0.935* -0.745* -0.181 -0.517 0.829** 0.916* -0.136 1
1

0.06
Zinc a 0.463 -0.279 0.195 -0.349 0.590 0.560 -0.420 0.364 1
0

Table 4 : Correlation between Heavy metals among the selected sites of Igbologun axis

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Physicochemical parameters and heavy metal in sediment

Result of the spatial mean value of physicochemical parameters and heavy metal in sediment in

table 5 indicate that pH at 250C ranged between 6.03 and 7.06, SS 2 had the highest mean value

(7.06±0.62) while the lowest value (6.03±1.06) was in SS 1. For Salinity, it range observed

between 1.98 and 2.71, SS 1 had the highest mean value (2.71±1.42) which the lowest value

(1.98±1.18) was observed in SS3. Arsenic ranged between 0.03 and 0.04 . SS 1 had the highest

mean value(0.04±0.01), while the lowest mean value (0.03±0.03) was observed in SS 2.

Cadmium ranged between 0.67 and 0.79 SS 2 and SS3 had the highest mean value( 0.79±0.29)

while the lowest mean value (0.67±0.12) was observed in SS1. Copper ranged between 0.12 and

0.14 . SS 2 had the highest mean value(0.14±0.06), while the lowest mean value (0.12±0.02) was

observed in SS 1 and SS 3. Chromium ranged between 0.65 and 0.69 SS 3 had the highest mean

value(0.69±0.13) while the lowest mean value (0.65±0.31) was observed in SS 2. Iron ranged

between 46.21 and 60.09 . SS 2 had the highest mean value (60.09±40.58), while the lowest

mean value (46.21±45.2) was observed in SS 1. Lead ranged between 0.36 and 0.51,SS 2 and

SS3 had the highest mean value( 0.79±0.29) while the lowest mean value (0.67±0.12) was

observed in SS 1. Manganese ranged between 47.19 and 59.28 . SS 1 had the highest mean

value(59.28±55.5) , while the lowest mean value (47.19±38.45) was observed in SS 2. Nickel

ranged between 0.66 and 0.80 SS 3 had the highest mean value(0.80±0.31) while the lowest

mean value (0.66±0.30) was observed in SS 2. Zinc ranged between 3.52 and 5.30 SS 2 had the

highest mean value(3.52±2.391) while the lowest mean value (5.30±1.95) was observed in SS 1
Table 5: Spatial distribution of Physicochemical parameters and Heavy metals (Mean±SD,

Range); in sediment samples from Igbologun axis of Badagry Creek, Apapa, Lagos

Parameters Upstream Midstream Downstream WHO

Limit
pH (at 25°C) 6.03±1.06 7.06±0.62 6.70±1.24
6.5-8.5
(5.23 – 7.25) (6.36 – 7.53) (5.28– 7.52)
Salinity (ppt) 2.71±1.42 2.03±1.29 1.98±1.18
37ppm
(1.1 – 3.79) (0.56 – 3) (0.85 – 3.2)
Arsenic (mg/kg) 0.04±0.01 0.03±0.03 0.04±0.02
0.001
(0.02 – 0.05) (0.01 – 0.07) (0.03 – 0.06)
Cadmium (mg/kg) 0.67±0.12 0.79±0.29 0.79±0.18
0.003
(0.59 – 0.81) (0.47 – 1.03) (0.63– 0.99)
Copper (mg/kg) 0.12±0.02 0.14±0.06 0.12±0.02
1.3
(0.09 – 0.13) (0.07 – 0.19) (0.1– 0.14)
Chromium (mg/kg) 0.66±0.11 0.65±0.31 0.69±0.13
0.05
(0.56 – 0.78) (0.38 – 0.99) (0.55 – 0.8)
Iron (mg/kg) 46.21±45.2 60.09±40.58 47.27±28.09
0.03
(17.2 – 98.23) (31.6 – 106.5) (28.99– 79.61)
Lead (mg/kg) 0.51±0.21 0.47±0.12 0.36±0.08
0.01
(0.3 – 0.72) (0.35 –0.59) (0.27 – 0.43)
Manganese (mg/kg) 59.28±55.5 56.66±38.74 47.19±38.45
0.05
(6.4 – 117.1) (14.2 – 90.09) (7.39 – 84.13)
Nickel (mg/kg) 0.74±0.39 0.66±0.30 0.80±0.31
0.003
(0.33– 1.1) (0.38 – 0.98) (0.45 – 1.04)
Zinc (mg/kg) 5.30±1.95 3.52±2.39 4.64±3.34
0.2
(3.2 – 7.05) (1.41 – 6.12) (1.6 – 8.22)
Result of the spatial mean value of heavy metal in fish in table 6 indicate Arsenic ranged

between 0.0 and 0.07 . SS3 had the highest mean value(0.07±0.00), while the lowest mean value

(0.0±0.0) was observed in SS1. Cadmium was 0.02. Copper ranged between 0.17 and 0.21 . SS 2

and ss3 had the highest mean value(0.21±0.14), while the lowest mean value (0.17±0.1) was

observed in SS 1 . Chromium ranged between 0.02 and 0.03 ss1 and SS 3 had the highest mean

value(0.03±0.02) while the lowest mean value (0.02±0.03) was observed in SS 2. Iron ranged

between 7.47 and 7.75 SS1 had the highest mean value(7.75±2.85), while the lowest mean value

(7.47±2.38) was observed in SS3.Lead was 0.01. Magnesium ranged between 0.53 and 0.73. SS

2 had the highest mean value(0.73±0.23), while the lowest mean value (0.53±0.48) was observed

in SS 3 . Nickel ranged between 0.01 and 0.03 SS2 and SS 3 had the highest mean

value(0.02±0.01) while the lowest mean value (0.01±0.01) was observed in SS 1. Zinc ranged

between 8.71 and 9.73. SS 3 had the highest mean value(9.73±5.92), while the lowest mean

value (8.71±6.38) was observed in SS 1

Table 6: Spatial distribution of Heavy metals (Mean±SD, Range); in fish samples

from Igbologun axis of Badagry Creek, Apapa, Lagos

Parameters Tilapia Catfish Tilapia WHO

Arsenic (mg/kg) 0.0±0.0 0.06±0.00 0.07±0.00

0.001
(0 - 0) (0.06 – 0.06) (0.07 – 0.07)
Cadmium (mg/kg) 0.02±0.01 0.02±0.01 0.02±0.02
0.5
(0.01 – 0.03) (0.01 – 0.03) (0.01 – 0.04)
Copper (mg/kg) 0.17±0.1 0.21±0.14 0.21±0.15
0.6
(0 .06– 0.26) (0.05 – 0.33) (0.06 – 0.35)
Chromium (mg/kg) 0.03±0.02 0.02±0.03 0.03±0.02
3.0
(0 .01– 0.04) (0 – 0.05) (0.01 – 0.05)
Iron (mg/kg) 7.75±2.85 7.59±2.70 7.47±2.38
2.0
(5.27 – 10.86) (5.28 – 10.55) (5.27 – 10.0)
Lead (mg/kg) 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.01 0.01±0.01
0.001
(0.01 – 0.02) (0 .01- 0.02) (0.01 – 0.03)
Manganese (mg/kg) 0.63±0.3 0.73±0.23 0.53±0.48
0.5
(0.41 – 0.98) (0.6 – 0.99) (0.07 – 1.02)
Nickel (mg/kg) 0.01±0.01 0.02±0.01 0.02±0.02
0.003
(0 .01– 0.03) (0.01 – 0.03) (0.01 – 0.04)
Zinc (mg/kg) 8.71±6.38 9.35±5.72 9.73±5.92
100
(4.54 – 16.05) (5.08 – 15.85) (5.53– 16.5)
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

According to Akponine and Ugwumba (2014), water quality of a particular aquatic ecosystem

either river, lagoon or brackish water is controlled by its physical, chemical and biological

indices; which interact with one another to influence it productivity. The physicochemical

parameters and heavy metal components of Igbologun axis of Badagry creek are greatly

influenced by inter-tidal variations, water transportation, fishing activities, sand mining, crude &

black oil discharge and domestic waste dislodge.

Physicochemical parameters and heavy metals studied are pH, total suspended solid, turbidity,

salinity, dissolved oxygen, total hardness, acidity, alkalinity, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulphate,

arsenic, cadmium, calcium, copper, chromium, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel, zinc.

pH is one of the most important water quality parameters. The pH of the water sample at the

three station were within the WHO recommended limit (6.5-8.5). In the sediment samples, the

upstream pH (SS1) was below the minimum acceptable limit which is corrosive to the water and

to the organism and this agrees with the findings of Gupta et al (2009) who stated that pH is the

most important in determining the corrosive nature of water and opined that the lower the pH,

the higher the corrosive nature of water. Ekubo and Abowei (2001) also mentioned a pH with the

range of 4.0 - 6.5 as stress to the fish. pH correlated with Salinity (r= 0.618), Dissolved

oxygen( r= 0.264, Total hardness (r= 0.567), Sulphate (r= 0.417) and Nitrate(r= 0.431) and these

differed significantly(P< 0.05) between the selected stations of the creek. The mean value of

Total suspended solid (TSS) was 20.56 of water sample at the three selected sample stations. The
results obtained shows a maximum TSS of 58.0 (SS2) and the minimum of 8.0 (SS3). The

maximum total suspended solid is higher using the USEPA recommended limit of 10mg/l. High

concentrations of TSS have several negative effects, such as decreasing the amount of light that

can penetrate the water, thereby slowing photosynthetic processes which in turn can lower the

production of dissolved oxygen; high absorption of heat from sunlight, low visibility which will

affect the fish ability to hunt for food and prevent the development of egg and larva. It can also

be an indicator of higher concentration of bacteria, nutrients and pollutants in the water

(Philminaq, 2014). TSS strongly correlated with Acidity, Nitrate, Turbidity, Phosphate, and

weakly correlated with alkalinity.

It has been studied that turbidity can affect the growth rate of algae and other micro aquatic

plants in the water. Increased turbidity can lead to a decrease in aquatic plant growth due to a

decrease in the amount of light for plants to perform photosynthesis. (Leziart et al., 2019) The

mean turbidity value (23.3±12.0) of water sample measured at all selected sites slightly varied.

The results obtained shows maximum turbidity value of 43.3 NTU which is higher than the

recommended WHO limit of 5.0 NTU. High turbidity could suppress photosynthesis by

obstructing sunlight. Reduced photosynthesis hampers the survivability of plants, including other

aquatic animals through the reduction in dissolved oxygen output (Andrulewicz et al., 2008;

USEPA 2012). It has been reported that the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water is not

constant, but fluctuate depending on temperature, depth, wind and amount of biological activities

such as organism degradation (Ibrahim et al., 2009). In this study DO correlated strongly with

pH and weakly correlated with nitrite. This may be due to discharge of organic wastes at such

period, which led to biological respiration and decomposition processes, which in turn reduced
the concentration of DO in the water bodies. This agrees with the findings of Micheal (2006),

who opined that water with high organic or inorganic materials may have very little oxygen in

them. According to Riche and Garling (2003), the preferred DO for optimum growth of tilapia is

above 5 mg/L. The mean value of dissolved oxygen (3.38±0.69, 2.01 - 4.4). This is below the

recommended WHO limit(5.0mg/l).It also shows the inability for fish to survive in the mid-

stream station (SS2). Similarly, lower DO was recorded at Woji river, in the report of Abuloma

and Azuabie who attributed oxygen depletion to flooding and municipal drain (organic,

inorganic, debris).

Alkalinity correlated with TSS, Acidity, Nitrite, Phosphate and Sulphate. These correlated

parameters are the sum total of components in the water that tend to elevate the pH of the water

above a value of about 4.5. Examples of commonly occurring materials in natural waters that

increase the alkalinity are carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphates and hydroxides. The maximum

value of alkalinity content in all sampling stations have been found to be higher in the upstream

(SS1) (722.0 mg/l) than the WHO recommended limit (100mg/l) .This is due to the black oil

discharge in the upstream and the domestic waste. Alkalinity is important for fish and other

aquatic life in freshwater systems because it buffers pH changes that occur naturally as a result of

photosynthetic activity of the chlorophyll-bearing vegetation. The mean value of acidity (17.93)

with the maximum range ( 33.9) in SS2 and minimum range (12.10) in SS2 observed for three

month are shown to be higher than the WHO recommended limit (6.5-9.5). The most serious

chronic effect of increased acidity in surface waters appears to be interference with the fish

reproductive cycle. Calcium levels in the female fish may be lowered to the point where she

cannot produce eggs or the eggs fail to pass from the ovaries or if fertilized, the eggs and/or
larvae develop abnormally (EPA, 1980). Acidity strongly correlated with TSS, nitrite, and

phosphate and correlate with turbidity and alkalinity.

The mean value of total hardness was (794.26) with the maximum (1243) and minimum of

(567.60) as reported in SS2. Total hardness strongly correlated with Salinity and correlated with

pH, Nitrate, Sulphate. The mean salinity value (3.46±1.05) of water sample measured for the

three selected sites is shown to have a maximum salinity of 5.59 which is lower than the

recommended WHO limit of <37ppm. Estuarine species of fish are tolerant of salinity changes

ranging from fresh to brackish to sea water. Anadromous species likewise are tolerant although

evidence indicates that the young cannot tolerate the change until the normal time of migration .

Other aquatic species are more dependent on salinity for protection from predators or require

certain minimal salinity for successful hatching of eggs. The oyster drill cannot tolerate salinity

less than 12.5ppt. Therefore, Estuarine segments containing salinity below about 12.5ppt

produce most of the seed oysters for planting (Rounsefell and Everhart, 1953).

The Nitrate of the water sample at the three station were lower than the WHO recommended

limit (<50 m/l). This leads to lack of nutrient, growth, reproduction, and the organism will not

survive. Nitrates contributes to freshwater through discharge of sewage and industrial wastes

and run off from agricultural fields (Solanki, 2012). Nitrate correlated with pH, Salinity, Total

hardness and Sulphate. Nitrite of the water samples at the three station were lower than the WHO

recommended limit (3.0 m/l). It is an invisible killer of fish because it oxidizes heamoglobin to

methemoglobin in the blood, turning the blood and gills brown damaging the nervous system,
liver, spleen, kidneys of the fish (Bhatnagar and Devi 2005). Nitrite strongly correlated with total

suspended solid, Turbidity, Alkalinity and weakly correlated with Phosphate.

The mean value of phosphate was (0.21±0.18) of water sample at the three selected stations. The

results obtained shows a maximum of 0.53(SS3) which is higher when compared to EPA

recommended limit (0.1). High levels of the observed phosphate level can lead to eutrophication,

which increases algae growth and ultimately reduces dissolved oxygen levels in the water

(Murdoch et al., 2012). According to Stone and Thomford (2002), the phosphate level of 0.06

mg/L is desirable for fish culture. The range 0.05 - 0.07 mg/L is optimum and productive; 1.0

mg/L is good for plankton/shrimp production (Bhatnagar et al.,2005). Phosphate strongly

correlated with turbidity, acidity, weakly correlated with nitrite. The mean sulphate value

(255.73±103.92) of water sample measured at all selected sites greatly varied. The results

obtained shows a maximum sulphate of 461.0 which is lower than the recommended WHO limit

of (500mg/l), but higher than the EDWQ acceptable limit(250). Sulphate causes scaling in

industrial water supplies, odour and corrosion problems due to its reduction to hydrogen

sulphide. Sulphate strongly correlated with salinity and total hardness.

The value of arsenic throughout the selected water sample stations were recorded (0.0). Although

arsenic was higher in sediment (0.07) than WHO permissible limit(0.001). Arsenic is far less

toxic to fish and other vertebrates than most other metals. (Washington, DC, USA: 2005).

The cadmium result obtained throughout the three selected water samples station were less than

0.01 but greater than the WHO limit (0.003mg/kg) in all the recorded sediment samples. Most

fresh waters contain cadmium less than 0.01 (Fleischer et al., 1974). Cd is introduced by paints,
pigments, plastic stabilizers, mining and smelting operations, and other industrial operations such

as electroplating and fossil fuel, fertilizer, and sewage sludge disposal (Hanaa et al., 2005).

The mean calcium value (123.94±56.0) of water sample measured at all selected sites varied.

The results obtained shows maximum value of 220.02 in midstream (SS2) which is higher than

the recommended WHO limit of (200mg/l). Fish absorbs Calcium from the surrounding aquatic

environment via gills, gastrointestinal tract and integument; however, the gills represent the

major site of Ca uptake. The absorption and metabolism of Ca depends not only on its

concentration in the surrounding water, but it is affected by species differences and their

homeostasis by the endocrine system, biological availability from diet ( Hardy R.W. 2021).

Copper is known to induce oxidation stress, olfactory impairment, increased plasma ammonia

and disturbed acid–base balance( Lanno R.P, 1985). Copper was less than 0.01 throughout the

water samples for three months, but were below the WHO recommended limit (1.3mg/l, 0.6mg/l)

in sediment and fish samples. Low concentrations of Copper(Cu) affects the hatching of fish

eggs by inactivating chlorination activity, which causes osmotic disturbances and also affects the

muscular movements necessary to break the eggshell (Hilton J.W, 1985).

The Chromium result obtained from the three sediment samples shows a maximum in

downstream (0.99) which is above the WHO recommended limit (0.05). Ellis (1989) reported

that having mainly excessive amounts of chromium are of special concern because they produce

water or chronic poisoning in aquatic animals. Some specific studies on the effect of Cr in fish

have been related to its role in metabolism , growth and toxicity (Shiau, 1993; Jain K.K.,1994).

Throughout the three month samples, the maximum iron value occurred in upstream of water

(0.54±0.5), midstream of sediment (60.09±40.58) and in Tilapia sample(7.75±2.85). Iron was

observed to be higher in all the samples than WHO recommended limit(0.3, 0.3, 2.0). The

European In1and Fisheries Advisory Commission (1915) recommended that iron concentrations

not exceed 1.0 mg/l in waters to be managed for aquatic life. The major effects of Fe toxicity are

reduced growth, poor feed utilization, feed refusal and increased mortality. Iron toxicity occurs

from excessive Fe exposure of fish in water, which interferes with Fe homeostatic regulation by

causing Fe overload in tissues (Bury N.R 2012). Excess Fe in the water is known to cause

respiratory disruption due to physical clogging of the gills (Dalzell D.J.B., 1999).

Lead is observed to be higher in the upstream of the sediment(0.51±0.21) than the WHO

recommended limit(0.3). The accumulation of these elements has direct consequences for

flora and fauna in aquatic ecosystems. Barbour et al (1999) observed the higher mean value in

the sediments during dry and rainy seasons confirmed that pollutants accumulate and remain

in sediments over long periods of time, according to their chemical persistence and the

physicochemical and biochemical characteristics of the substrata . Sediment is also the major

depository of metals in some cases, holding more than 99% of the total amount of a given metal

present in the aquatic system (Odiete, 1999). Effects of lead in fish include changes in

morphology, metabolism and enzymatic activity, increased mucous formation, delayed

embryonic development, suppressed reproduction, inhibition of growth, and fin erosion (Rashed,

2001). Manganese uptake from fresh water has been demonstrated from the gills and

gastrointestinal tract (Miller D.W. 1980). The highest mean sediment occurred in the

upstream(59.28±55.5) at the three selected sample stations. The results obtained was higher than

the WHO recommended limit(0.5). The mean value of manganese was( 0.13±0.12) of water

sample at the three selected sample stations. The results obtained shows a maximum manganese
of 0.41 (SS1) and the minimum of 0.14 (SS3). The maximum manganese is lower than WHO

recommended limit of 05mg/l. Brown trout exposed to low concentrations of Mn readily

accumulated this metal in the blood and other tissues (gills, epidermal mucus, liver, kidney,

viscera, skeleton and brain) (Rouleau et al., 1995). High concentrations of Mn caused sodium

imbalance, reduced the absorption of Calcium, affected carbohydrate metabolism, impaired the

immune functions of fish, oxidative stress, tissue damage, inflammation, and disruption of

homeostasis of other metals in fish (Vieira M.C, 2012).

The mean value of magnesium was 116.99±22.59 of water sample at the three selected sample

stations. The results obtained shows a maximum magnesium of 168.03 (SS2) and the minimum

of 98.12 (SS1). The maximum is higher than the WHO recommended limit of

25mg/l. .Magnesium correlated with Calcium, Copper, Chromuim, Manganese. High magnesium

leads to reduced growth in chlorophyll which causes the reduction of phytoplankton .

Deficiency of Mg in carp, catfish, hybrid tilapia, eel and rainbow trout may include one or more

of the following signs: anorexia, reduced growth, sluggishness, high mortality and reduced

magnesium content (The National Academies Press;USA, 2011). Throughout the three month

selected sites, The Nickel in sediment is found to be higher than in water and fish. Nickel

toxicity decreases with increased hardness. Toxicity of nickel increases as pH decreases. Bio-

concentration of nickel is not a significant problem in aquatic environments (ANZECC and

ARMCAN, 2000). Nickel strongly correlated with Cadmium, Iron, Lead, and weakly correlated

manganese. At pH > 6, nickel adsorbs with iron, manganese and can also adsorb to suspended

organic matter (Rashid 1974, Richter & Theis 1980). At pH < 6, adsorption is minor and nickel
is considered to be highly mobile (CCREM 1987). In aerobic waters, and in the presence of

microorganisms, nickel can be remobilised from bottom sediments (Stokes & Szokalo 1977).

The mean value of zinc was (0.07) with the maximum in midstream 0.13(SS2) and minimum in

upstream of 0.01(SS1). The maximum value is lower using then WHO recommended limit of

0.2mg/l. Zn deficiency caused reduced growth rate, increased mortality, retardation of growth,

low body weight, skeletal deformities, cataracts and fin and skin. Nucleic acid and protein

metabolism disorders were also observed in salmonids due to reduced activity of Zn-requiring

enzymes and widespread histological changes to many organs, but not to gills (Ramseyer et al.,

1999). Zinc correlated with Cadmium, Copper, Iron, Lead, Manganese and Nickel.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals of water, sediment and fish

samples from the creek varied greatly in most of the measured parameters amongst the different

sites. The highest variable values was observed in the mid-stream (SS2) at P< 0.05 when

compared with other sample stations (upstream and downstream areas). This may be due to

Industrial effluent discharge, black oil residues from jetty, jetty operations, oil spillage and other

anthropogenic activities.

The concentration of different studied physicochemical parameters and heavy metals such as

Turbidity, Total suspended solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Alkalinity, Acidity, Total hardness,

Calcium, Chromium, Iron, Lead, Manganese and Magnesium were above the recommended

WHO limit. These may have a serious adverse effect on the ecology of the water, growth and

survival of fish and other fauna.The continued discharge of effluent into the creek will render the

water useless for fishing.

Therefore, government agencies (FMH and LASEPA) and non governmental organization

(FAO) should intensify effort to reduce the amount of oil spillage, dislodge of petrochemicals

and other zenobiotics to enhance the survival and growth of flora and fauna. Further study to be

conducted on the physical, chemicals and the biological parameters of significant health concern

and identify potential sources of contaminant in the Badagry creek.

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