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Acute toxicity of crude oil water accommodated fraction on marine copepods:

The relative importance of acclimatization temperature and body size

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Marine Environmental Research 81 (2012) 12e17

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Acute toxicity of crude oil water accommodated fraction on marine copepods:

The relative importance of acclimatization temperature and body size
Zhibing Jiang, Yijun Huang, Quanzhen Chen, Jiangning Zeng*, Xiaoqun Xu
Key Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, No. 36 Northern Baochu Road, 310012 Hangzhou, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recent oil spillage accidents around the world greatly increase harmful risks to marine ecology. This
Received 21 June 2012 study evaluated the influences of petroleum water accommodated fraction (WAF) on 15 typical species of
Received in revised form marine copepods collected from a subtropical bay in East China Sea at different seasons. Copepods
1 August 2012
showed impaired swimming ability, restlessness, loss of balance, anoxic coma, and even death when they
Accepted 3 August 2012
were acutely exposed to the crude oil WAF under laboratory conditions. The LC50 values (expressed in
total petroleum hydrocarbon concentration) indicated that the tolerances of copepods to WAF decreased
Keywords:
significantly (P < 0.05) with increased exposure duration and natural water temperatures (acclimati-
Crude oil
Water accommodated fraction
zation temperature). The sensitivity of the copepods was species-specific (P < 0.01), and there was
Copepods a significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation between the 48-h LC50 and body size. Therefore, the small
Toxicity copepod species confront more survival challenges under oil contamination stress, especially in the
Temperature warm months or regions.
Body size Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2011). Thus, oil WAF utilization is the recommended exposure

With the rapid economic development and energy demand
around the world, marine petroleum exploitation and trans-
portation increase steadily, causing frequent catastrophic oil spills
(e.g., Prestige, Deepwater Horizon, and Bohai Bay accidents in 2002,
2010, and 2011, respectively). The increasing coastal oil pollution
progressively poses risks to marine ecology. The well known
adverse effects of oil spills include serious acute and chronic
damages to marine ecosystems. The potential harm to wildlife is
also much longer and more severe than previously assumed (Esler
et al., 2010; Peterson et al., 2003).
Petroleum (crude oil) in the sea experiences a series of processes
including physical, chemical and biological diversifications. Petro-
leum finally partially dissolves or is accommodated in seawater,
and the remaining part is physically transferred (e.g., evaporation,
adsorption, and sedimentation) and biologically decomposed (Jiang
et al., 2010). The highest concentration of dissolved petroleum
hydrocarbons is in the water accommodated fraction (WAF)
(Faksness et al., 2008), which usually consists of aliphatic
compounds and aromatic hydrocarbons, such as polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Consequently, WAFs contain the
most toxic substances in oil to aquatic species (Abbriano et al.,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 571 81963227; fax: þ86 571 88073309.
E-mail addresses: jzb1217@126.com, jiangningz@126.com (J. Zeng).
medium in toxicity experiments, and is very useful in evaluating
the oil contamination risk for aquatic organisms (Singer et al.,
2000).
Marine copepods are a major group of the second producers that
play a key role in the cycling of nutrients and energy in marine
ecosystem by forming a trophodynamic link between primary (e.g.,
phytoplankton) and tertiary (e.g., planktivorous fish) production.
The petroleum hydrocarbons (e.g., PAHs) can be quickly incorpo-
rated into the coastal planktonic food web due to accumulation of
the oil fraction in the phytoplankton and zooplankton (Carls et al.,
2006; Graham et al., 2010). The accumulation can increase expo-
sure to higher-trophic-level organisms with potentially delayed
negative effects (Wolfe et al., 1998). However, previous reports also
suggest that copepods can possibly metabolize PAHs and play
a significant role in the fate of PAHs in water columns (Berrojalbiz
et al., 2009). Marine copepods, as important invertebrate marine
model organisms, can also be an excellent tool for evaluating the
impacts of marine pollution (e.g., oil) throughout coastal regions
(Raisuddin et al., 2007). This function is attributed to their impor-
tant ecological functions, short life cycles, mini-space and -equip-
ment requirements, as well as easy harvesting and culturing (Kusk
and Wollenberger, 2007). As a consequence, the influence of the oil
pollution on marine copepods, as a good model organism and the
key role in marine ecosystem, needs to be studied, including the
acute, sub-acute and chronic effects.

0141-1136/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2012.08.003
 Author's personal copy
Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Environmental Research 81 (2012) 12e17
An earlier study on oil toxicity in copepods describes the
physical obstacle of oil fractions, which act as barriers to oxygen
transfer between air and water (Kontogiannis and Barnett, 1973).
Previous studies have focused on the impact of oil pollutants to the
survival (Calbet et al., 2007; Faksness et al., 2012), reproduction
(Suderman and Marcus, 2002), egg viability (Calbet et al., 2007),
feeding behavior (Saiz et al., 2009), development (Bejarano et al.,
2006), as well as genetic transcription and expression (Hansen
et al., 2008, 2009) of certain copepod species. Acute oil WAF
exposure can lead to decreased activity and non-polarity narcotic
coma, even to death, by affecting the lipid membrane fluidity of
copepods as well as interrupting the operation of physiological and
biochemical systems (Barata et al., 2002; Di Toro et al., 2000; van
Wezel and Opperhuizen, 1995). And sub-acute and chronic oil
WAF exposure disturbs copepod feeding, spawning, hatching,
growth, development, and behavior (Barata et al., 2002; Bellas and
Thor, 2007; Calbet et al., 2007; Hjorth and Nielsen, 2011). The
results are long-term negative effects on population activity and
continuity (Bejarano et al., 2006). Others studies have evaluated the
photo-induced or photo-enhanced toxicity of fresh and weathered
oils under ultraviolet radiation (Duesterloh et al., 2002; Saco-
Álvarez et al., 2008). Recent studies are starting to pay more
attention to the toxic effects of potential oil pollution on polar or
sub-polar marine organisms due to increasing oil exploitation and
transportation (Barron and Ka’aihue, 2003; Camus and Olsen,
2008; de Hoop et al., 2011; Frantzen et al., 2012; Hansen et al.,
2011; Hjorth and Nielsen, 2011; Olsen et al., 2007, 2008). These
effects are closely associated with temperature (climate change)
influences. However, toxicity data on the effects of oil pollution on
coastal copepods do not take into account many different species.
Few studies have considered seasonal and species-specific differ-
ences, and little is known about the effects of acclimatization
temperature and body size of marine copepods on oil pollution
(Harris et al., 1977).
In the present study, 15 typical species of Chinese coastal
copepods were collected during different seasons from a subtrop-
ical bay. The acute toxicities of crude oil WAF to these copepods
were evaluated. The purpose was to determine the influences of oil
pollution on different marine copepod species. The effects of
natural water temperature (acclimatization temperature) and body
length on the sensitivity of copepods to oil WAF were also assessed.
The investigation of these effects may address some of the issues
concerning the population sustainability and dynamics of marine
copepods under the stresses of oil pollution and global warming.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Copepods collection and maintenance
The following 15 species of marine copepods were collected
from a subtropical bay (Yueqing Bay; 28 190 N, 121090 E), East China
Sea, with a 505 mm mesh silk: Acartia pacifica, Acartia spinicauda,
Calanopia thompsoni, Calanus sinicus, Centropages dorsispinatus,
Eucalanus subcrassus, Euchaeta concinna, Euchaeta marina, Harpac-
ticus uniremis, Labidocera euchaeta, Paracalanus aculeatus, Para-
calanus parvus, Sinocalanus tenellus, Tortanus spinicaudatus and
Tortanus vermiculus. At each sampling time (Sep. 2008, Nov. 2008,
Jan. 2009, Mar. 2009, and May 2009) the natural water tempera-
tures were 31.2, 16.5, 8.5, 12.5, and 22.5  C, respectively. The
samples were stored in several 60 L aerated isotherm tanks and
immediately transported to the laboratory. The animals were
placed into a 1000 L tank filled with aerated filtered seawater from
the Yueqing Bay and maintained at ambient temperature for 2 days.
During this period, they were fed with the microalgae Dicrateria
inornata (Parke). The carnivorous animals were also fed with the
13
small copepods such as P. parvus and P. aculeatus. Dead copepods
and dejecta were removed, and culture water was replenished
twice, exchanging 2/3 of the water with the same temperature.
Culture containers were exposed to the identical lighting condi-
tions with 1000  50 lux in a 16 h:8 h light/dark cycle. After 48 h of
maintenance, the species were sorted out by a pipette and main-
tained for 24 h in several 40 L aerated tanks. The seawater quality
parameters measured during maintenance are shown in Table 1.
2.2. Toxicity experiments
The WAF of oceanic Lufeng crude oil (from eastern South China
Sea), whose composition has been described by Tao (1998), was
prepared and modified according to Anderson et al. (1974) and
Singer et al. (2000), respectively. One part of the crude oil was
mixed with nine parts of filtered seawater in a 5 L glass mixing
chamber for 24 h, and then left to settle for 3 h. The aqueous phase
was collected and stored at 46  C, and used as the stock solution
for subsequent experiments. The WAF level, expressed in total
petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentration, was measured by UV
spectrophotometry (l ¼ 225 nm) using a high-performance UV/Vis/
NIR instrument (Perkin Elmer Co.) according to the specification for
China marine monitoring GB/T 17378-2007.
To determine the ranges of WAF tolerances of the experimental
copepods, preliminary tests were performed at the TPH levels of
about 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 30 mg L1. Different TPH concentrations
(0.17e30.54 mg L1) were prepared for the different species
according to the preliminary tests. The TPH concentration gradient
for experimental copepods at different acclimatization tempera-
tures are described in the Supplementary information. To maintain
the same experimental temperatures, 500 mL glass jars containing
400 mL of filtered water with different concentrations of WAF were
placed in a 40 L tank for bathing at the acclimatization temperature.
The toxicity experiments were started by transferring 20 healthy
adult copepods (the same species) from the 40 L aerated mainte-
nance tanks into each glass jar. The male-to-female ratio was not
taken into account according to a previous experiment (Jiang et al.,
2009b). The experimental conditions and processes of preliminary
tests were the same as mentioned before.
The experimental water in each group was changed every 12 h
with the same concentration. Dead records were taken at 6, 12, 24,
36, 48, 60, and 72 h. Dead copepods and dejecta were removed. The
critical point was established when the copepod showed no reac-
tivity in 15 s after stimulation with a pipette. The copepods were
not fed during the toxicity tests. The lighting condition, light/dark
cycle, and water quality were identical to those during the main-
tenance period. The control groups were treated the same but
without WAF. The experiments were run in triplicate. At the end of
the experiment, the body lengths of each copepod species (n ¼ 15)
was measured by an optical microscopy system (Leica MZ 16, Leica
Microsystems). The data of the measured body lengths are given in
the Supplementary information.
2.3. Data analysis
The mortalities at 24, 48, and 72 h were determined according
to the formula M ¼ (M0  C)/(1  C), where M is the rectified
Table 1
Quality of experimental seawater at different times. DO: dissolved oxygen.
Parameters Sep. 2008 Nov. 2008 Jan. 2009 Mar. 2009 May 2009
Temperature ( C) 31.2 16.5 8.5 12.5 22.5
Salinity 25.23 25.67 25.32 25.18 24.20
pH 8.20 8.20 8.37 8.10 8.20
DO (mg L1) 9.02 9.05 9.78 9.21 9.18
 Author's personal copy

14 Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Environmental Research 81 (2012) 12e17

mortality, M0 is the observational mortality, and C is the mortality and the body gradually lost balance, flipped and spun, become
of the control groups. The median lethal concentration (LC50) comatosed, and even died.
based on TPH was calculated by the method of probit units using
SPSS 13.0. The mortalities of the control groups in summer were
3.2. Sensitivity differences between species
lower then 15%, and the mortalities of the control groups in the
rest of seasons were less than 10%. So the LC50 values were
The LC50 values (in mg TPH L1) of the 15 copepod species are
effective. Two-way (species and exposure duration) ANOVA was
shown in the Supplementary information. Four to six species were
used to test for significant differences at different acclimatization
collected with a different species composition at each sampling
temperatures. Prior to ANOVA, all variables were tested for
time (Fig. 1). The tolerances of copepods acutely exposed to oil
normality (KolmogoroveSmirnov test) and homogeneity (Levene
pollution stress had significant (P < 0.01) differences among
test). Data that did not satisfy the assumptions of normality and
species at the same exposure duration and acclimatization
homogeneity were subjected to the KruskaleWallis (H) test. The
temperature (Table 2). For example, in the winter experiments
effects of acclimatization temperature on the same copepod
(8.5  C acclimatization temperature), the 72-h LC50 of E. marina,
species under different exposure durations were performed by the
T. spinicaudatus, L. euchaeta, S. tenellus, H. uniremis, and
H test. The relationship between 48-h LC50 and body size of
C. dorsispinatus were 14.28  0.65, 10.81  0.43, 10.87  0.34,
copepod species at different acclimatization temperatures was
5.72  0.24, 3.77  0.10, and 3.26  0.20 mg TPH L1, respectively
determined by the Spearman rank correlation test. A P value of
(Fig. 1).
0.05 was considered statistically significant for all the above-
Besides, the LC50 values of the experimental copepod species
mentioned tests.
increased with increased body size at the same acclimatization
temperature. For example, during the winter experiments at 8.5
3. Results and 12.5  C, the medium- and large-sized species (i.e., coastal
dominant species C. sinicus and L. euchaeta, as well as the common
3.1. Toxic symptoms species E. marina, T. spinicaudatus, and T. vermiculus) were more
tolerant to oil WAF than the small ones (i.e., C. dorsispinatus and
When the experimental copepods were acutely exposed to oil P. aculeatus). There was a significant (P < 0.05) positive correlation
WAF for 24 h, some floc and brown adhesive materials appeared between LC50 and the body length of the experimental copepod
around their limbs and tails. The activities of individuals decreased, species, except for the 12.5  C group (Fig. 2). The correlation and

35 16

30 a Water temperature = 8.5 C 14 c Water temperature = 16.5 C

24 h 12
25
48 h
LC50 (mg L-1)

10
20 72 h
8
15
6
10
4
5 2

0 0
Euch Torta Labid Sino Harp Centr Cala E L C A C
aeta n o ca a o nus s uchaeta abidoce alanopia cartia pa entropa
marin us spinic cera euc lanus te cticus un pages d inicu conc ra eu ges d
a a udatu h aeta n ellus irem orsis s inna chae thompso cifica orsis
s is p in atus ta n i pinatu
s
25 14 6

b Water temperature = 12.5 C 12 d Water temperature = 22.5 C

5
e Water temperature = 31.2 C
20
10
4
LC50 (mg L-1)

15 8
3
6
10
2
4
5 1
2

0 0 0
Torta Labid Cala P Cala L Para Para Euca L A P
nus s aracalan nus s abidoce c c lanus abidocer cartia sp aracalan
nus v o
ermic cera euc inicu us ac inicu ra eu alanus a alanus p subc a eu inica u
ulus h aeta s u leatu s c h aeta c u leatu a r v us r assu c h aeta uda s aculea
s s s tus
Copepod species Copepod species Copepod species

Fig. 1. LC50 of marine copepods to crude oil WAF (expressed in TPH concentration) under different acclimatization temperatures.
 Author's personal copy

Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Environmental Research 81 (2012) 12e17 15

Table 2
Results of two-way ANOVA (F) and KruskaleWallis (H) tests for species and exposure duration at different acclimatization temperatures. Superscripts indicate the significant
level, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.

Variance 8.5  C 12.5  C 16.5  C 22.5  C 31.2  C

Species F(5,53) ¼ 68.0*** H36 ¼ 18.4*** H51 ¼ 16.2** H36 ¼ 26.7*** H36 ¼ 17.8***
Exposure time F(2,53) ¼ 121.0*** H36 ¼ 15.1*** H51 ¼ 24.6*** H36 ¼ 7.4* H24 ¼ 4.1*

corresponding coefficients are shown in Fig. 2. Hence, the smaller
species were relatively more sensitive to oil WAF than the larger
ones.
3.3. Effect of exposure duration
The 24, 48, and 72-h LC50 values of each species from different
seasons and at various acclimatization temperatures are shown in
Fig. 1. For the same species, the LC50 values showed the trend 72-h
LC50 < 48-h LC50 < 24-h LC50. Table 2 shows that the tolerances of
copepods exposed to oil WAF decreased significantly (P < 0.05)
with increased exposure duration.
3.4. Effect of temperature
The tolerances of copepods to oil WAF decreased with increased
natural water temperature (Fig. 1). Except for the C. dorsispinatus,
the tolerances of the same copepod species were significantly
(P < 0.05) different in the different acclimatization temperatures
(Table 3). For example, the 48-h LC50 of L. euchaeta (a typical
common coastal copepod present in all seasons in China) at
different acclimatization temperatures were 13.45  0.07 (8.5  C),
12.12  0.31 (12.5  C), 10.64  0.61 (16.5  C), 6.17  0.23 (22.5  C),
and 2.33  0.18 (31.2  C) mg TPH L1, respectively.
4. Discussion
The copepod experiments showed that crude oil pollution leads
to decreased activity, impaired swimming ability, and loss of
balance. Eventually, the animals become comatosed and even died,
similar to a previous report on shrimps (Ekanem et al., 2011). Crude
oil WAF has been suggested as able to interfere with steroid
25
8.5 C rs = 0.97, N = 6, P < 0.01
12.5 C rs = 0.56, N = 4, P > 0.05
20 16.5 C rs = 0.89, N = 6, P < 0.05
22.5 C rs = 1.00, N = 4, P < 0.01
48-h LC50 (mg L )
metabolism in crustaceans by influencing membrane lipid fluidity
and the normal operation of physiological as well as biochemical
systems (Di Toro et al., 2000; Barata et al., 2002). Most oil WAFs
were lipophilic (van Wezel and Opperhuizen, 1995), and copepods
have high body lipid contents (Lee et al., 2006). Therefore, the
organic compounds (especially PAHs) of oil WAF can easily accu-
mulate in the animals via the feeding behavior and surface con-
tacting (Carls et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2010).
Even copepods exposed to low concentrations of oil WAFs also
behave abnormally with decreased feeding rate (Barata et al., 2002;
Carls et al., 2006) and increased oxygen consumption (Smith and
Hargreaves, 1984). These conditions affect the composition of
carbohydrates, protein, and fat, as well as the activity of the elec-
tronic energy transfer system, further leading to energy balance
loss (Olsen et al., 2007, 2008). The results are abnormal growth and
development, as well as decreased growth and feeding rates
(Bejarano et al., 2006; Bellas and Thor, 2007). Bejarano et al. (2006)
have found that the effects of crude oil on copepod development
are delayed at high doses and enhanced at low ones, which may
result from growth hormesis disruption.
In the present study, the LC50 (TPH) values of copepods to WAFs
had a wide range depending on the exposure duration and test
species. This finding was consistent with the reports of Holdway
(2002) and Jiang et al. (2010). The variances in the oxygen
consumption rates, lipid contents, antioxidant levels, and relevant
detoxification abilities possibly led to the species-specific sensi-
tivity of copepods to oil WAF (de Hoop et al., 2011; Hansen et al.,
2011; Jiang et al., 2010). However, body size and acclimatization
temperature should also be considered according to the results of
the present acute toxicity test.
The toxicities of oil WAF on copepods generally increased with
decreased body size (Fig. 2). This result was consistent with an
earlier oil toxic test (Harris et al., 1977), which shows a significant
positive correlation between copepod tolerance and body size
measured as dry weight and total lipid content. Jiang et al. (2009a)
have also found a positive relationship between the LC50 and body
size, signifying that small-bodied copepods (e.g., P. aculeatus,
A. pacifica, and A. spinicauda) are more sensitive to residual chlorine
than large-bodied ones (e.g., C. sinicus, L. euchaeta, E. subcrassus, and
E. concinna). This finding suggests that the metabolic activity of
marine copepods, which is expressed as a function of the body size

31.2 C rs = 0.95, N = 4, P < 0.05

-1

15 (Ikeda et al., 2001), is an important parameter affecting the

vulnerability to oil pollution. Similarly, a strong positive linear
relationship between the LC50 and cell volume of phytoplankton
10 species was also observed by Echeveste et al. (2010) during the
PAHs toxicity test. The results of Echeveste et al. and our study both

5
Table 3
Results of the KruskaleWallis (H) test for the effects of acclimatization temperature
0 on the same copepod species under different exposure durations. Superscripts
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 indicate the significant level, ns no significant, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01.

Body length (mm) Variance L. euchaeta C. sinicus P. aculeatus C. dorsispinatus

24-h LC50 H15 ¼ 13.5** H9 ¼ 6.5* H9 ¼ 7.2* H6 ¼ 2.3ns
Fig. 2. Relationship between the 48-h LC50 and body size of the experimental copepod 48-h LC50 H15 ¼ 13.2** H9 ¼ 7.2* H9 ¼ 7.2* H6 ¼ 0.1ns
species at different acclimatization temperatures. 8.5  C: solid, 12.5  C: dotted, 16.5  C: 72-h LC50 H12 ¼ 10.4* H9 ¼ 7.2* H6 ¼ 3.9* e
medium dash, 22.5  C: dash-dot, 31.2  C: long dash.
 Author's personal copy
16 Z. Jiang et al. / Marine Environmental Research 81 (2012) 12e17
can be explained that for smaller species, the higher surface-to-
volume ratios would increase the rates of toxicants incorporation.
In the oil-polluted areas, small-sized species (populations)
apparently confront more survival challenges. Smaller species
encounter more competition stresses in population sustainability
in the case of oil pollution. Nevertheless, in contrast to the toxicant-
stressed results, the body size of copepods did not frequently
correlate with the animal adaptive capabilities under other
different environmental conditions. For instance, the thermal
tolerance of calanoid copepod species is enhanced with a larger
body size (Jiang et al., 2009b). By studying the LC50 values of 10
oceanic zooplankton species at low pH, Yuichiro and Tsutomu
(1999) have found that the relationship between pH sensitivity
and the zooplankton size is not significant.
The acclimatization temperature is another important factor
affecting the oil WAF toxicities, although its effects are not often
reported (de Hoop et al., 2011). In the present study, the tolerances of
copepods to oil WAF decreased with increased natural water
temperature (Fig. 1). This finding agreed with a previous study
suggesting a negative correlation between copepod retention and
temperature (Harris et al., 1977). Similarly, as reported in the acute
toxicity test of Hansen et al. (2011) wherein two closely related and
morphologically similar copepod species are compared, the Arctic
copepod (Calanus glacialis, adapted to 2  C) appears less sensitive
than the temperate-boreal species (Calanus finmarchicus, adapted to
10  C). The temperature also evidently affects the oil toxicity to the
two above-mentioned Calanus species in terms of fecal pellet and
egg production (Hjorth and Nielsen, 2011). This phenomenon can be
attributed to two possible reasons, namely reduced oil compounds
uptake rates (Hansen et al., 2011) and deficient oxygen requirements
for copepods. Copepod oxygen consumptions increase with
increased acclimatization temperatures (Li et al., 2004), and oil WAF
leads to a further increase in the oxygen requirements of copepods
(Kontogiannis and Barnett, 1973; Smith and Hargreaves, 1984) by
the influence of oil toxicity. Consequently, the oxygen demand of
copepods increases rapidly, whereas oxygen cannot be sufficiently
provided. The ultimate results are hypoxia, coma, and even death.
The experimental results of Claireaux and Davoodi (2010) shown
that the cardio-respiratory responses of fish (Solea solea) were
depressed under oil exposure and were unable to meet the
temperature-driven increase in tissues oxygen demand. This finding
profoundly indicated that the coastal copepod community
encounters extra challenge in oil-contaminated waters under
seawater temperature elevation caused by global warming.
More recently, many researchers have become concerned with
the toxic effects of potential oil pollution to polar or subpolar
marine organisms (Barron and Ka’aihue, 2003; de Hoop et al., 2011;
Frantzen et al., 2012; Hansen et al., 2011; Hjorth and Nielsen, 2011;
Olsen et al., 2007, 2008, 2011), as well as the seawater temperature
elevation by global warming. Risk assessments for polar marine
species or ecosystems are mostly based on toxicity data obtained
for temperate species (de Hoop et al., 2011; Hansen et al., 2011).
However, whether toxicity data of temperate organisms are
representative of polar species and ecosystems remains unclear.
The results of the present study and those of Hansen et al. (2011)
reveal that the sensitivities of marine copepods to oil pollution
significantly differ among different geographical (polar, subpolar,
temperate, and subtropical) zones, because of the large tempera-
ture discrepancies. Nevertheless, de Hoop et al. (2011) have
concluded that the sensitivities of polar and temperate species do
not differ significantly. Their conclusion is based on the construc-
tion of species sensitivity distributions from published acute
toxicity data of taxonomic groups (arthropods, chordates, and
echinoderms) to oil contamination. Hence, this disagreement
requires further confirmation.
In conclusion, the present study revealed that except for the
factors of exposure duration and species specificity, the tolerances
of copepods to oil WAF significantly decreased with increased
acclimatization temperature, but positively correlated with the
body length. Therefore, in oil-polluted waters, the small-sized
copepod species (populations) confront more survival challenges,
especially in warm months and regions. This findings aid the
assessment of the ecological effects of marine copepods suffering
from oil spillage and pollution. More toxicity studies at the pop-
ulation level should be performed to provide a comprehensive
overview on how copepod populations response to oil pollution.
Acknowledgments
We thank Qilang Xie, Xueliang Chai and Xiaoyong Li etc. at
Zhejiang Mariculture Research Institute for supports and facilities.
And we also thank Hangzhou Petrochemical Company Limited,
Zhejiang, China, for providing the experimental oceanic Lufeng
crude oil. This work was supported by the grants from the Major
State Basic Research Development Program of China (973 Program)
(2010CB428903), National Marine Public Welfare Research Project
(200805069 and 200905011), Basic Scientific Research of SIO, SOA
(JG0921 and JG1222), Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang
Province (Y5110131), Youth Science Foundation of SOA (2011106),
and National Natural Science Foundation of China (41176142).
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2012.08.003.
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