Unit 5

Biodiversity
Q.1 Biodiversity and its levels
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms, including plants, animals, and
microorganisms, that exist on Earth. It encompasses the diversity of genes, species, and
ecosystems. Biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining the functioning of ecosystems,
providing essential ecosystem services, and supporting human well-being. Biodiversity is
typically categorized into three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
diversity.
1. Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genetic information within a
species. It encompasses the diversity of genes, alleles, and genetic traits within populations of
the same species. Genetic diversity is crucial for the long-term survival and adaptability of

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species, as it allows populations to evolve and respond to environmental changes, disease,
and other challenges.
2. Species Diversity: Species diversity refers to the variety and abundance of different species
within a specific geographic area or ecosystem. It is a measure of the number of species

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present and their relative distribution. Species diversity can be further divided into three

a. Species Richness: It represents the total number of different species present in a given area.
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b. Species Evenness: It refers to the relative abundance of different species in a community or
ecosystem.
c. Species Dominance: It identifies the occurrence of one or a few highly abundant species in
a community.
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High species diversity is generally associated with healthy ecosystems, as it enhances

ecosystem stability, resilience, and productivity.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: Ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of ecosystems and habitats
present in a particular region or on a global scale. It encompasses different types of terrestrial,
aquatic, and marine ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coral reefs, and
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freshwater bodies. Ecosystem diversity is crucial for supporting a wide range of ecological
processes, nutrient cycling, and the provision of ecosystem services such as clean air, water,
and food.
The three levels of biodiversity—genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
diversity—are interconnected and influence each other. Loss of biodiversity at any level can
have significant ecological and societal consequences, including the disruption of ecosystem
functioning, reduced resilience to environmental changes, and loss of valuable resources.
Conserving and protecting biodiversity is essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems,
sustaining biological resources, and ensuring the long-term well-being of both human and
non-human species.
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Q.2. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty established to
promote the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. It was opened for
signature at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, and it entered into force
on December 29, 1993. The CBD has been ratified by almost all countries in the world,
making it one of the most widely recognized and implemented environmental agreements.
Key objectives and provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity include:
1. Conservation of Biological Diversity: The CBD aims to conserve biological diversity,
including ecosystems, species, and genetic resources, and promote the restoration of
ecosystems. It recognizes the intrinsic value of biodiversity and the need to safeguard it for
future generations.
2. Sustainable Use of Biological Resources: The CBD emphasizes the sustainable use of
components of biodiversity, ensuring that utilization of species and ecosystems does not lead
to their decline or long-term degradation. It encourages the adoption of sustainable practices
in sectors such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and tourism.
3. Fair and Equitable Benefit-Sharing: The CBD promotes the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. It recognizes the rights of countries
over their genetic resources and the importance of ensuring that benefits derived from their
use are shared fairly with the provider countries.
4. Access to Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge: The CBD addresses access to
genetic resources and traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity. It emphasizes the

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need for prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms between the provider and user
countries or communities.
5. Biodiversity Planning and Reporting: The CBD calls for the development and
implementation of national biodiversity strategies and action plans by member countries. It

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also encourages regular reporting on biodiversity-related activities, targets, and progress
made in achieving conservation and sustainable use goals.
6. Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: The CBD recognizes the importance of
technology transfer and capacity building to support biodiversity conservation efforts,
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particularly in developing countries. It promotes cooperation and assistance in the areas of
research, technology development, and capacity-building initiatives.
7. Biosafety: The CBD includes the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which focuses on the
safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern
biotechnology, to protect human health and the environment.
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Q.3 Implementation of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) involves a range of
activities and efforts undertaken by member countries, international organizations, and other
stakeholders. The CBD provides a framework for countries to develop and implement
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national strategies and action plans for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Here
are some key aspects of the implementation of the CBD:
1. National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs): Member countries are
encouraged to develop and implement NBSAPs, which are comprehensive documents
outlining their strategies and actions for biodiversity conservation. NBSAPs typically include
targets, policies, and measures to address the CBD's objectives at the national level. These
plans are updated periodically to reflect changing priorities and emerging challenges.
2. Conservation and Protected Areas: CBD implementation involves the establishment and
management of protected areas to conserve ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.
Member countries are encouraged to designate protected areas and develop management
plans that take into account ecological connectivity, representativeness of different
ecosystems, and the needs of local communities.
3. Sustainable Use and Benefit-Sharing: The CBD emphasizes the sustainable use of
biodiversity and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from its utilization.
Member countries implement measures to promote sustainable practices in sectors such as
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and tourism. They also develop mechanisms and policies to
ensure that local communities and indigenous peoples receive a fair share of benefits from the
use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge.
4. Access to Genetic Resources: The CBD addresses access to genetic resources and the
sharing of benefits arising from their use. Implementation involves the development of
national legal frameworks and systems for regulating access to genetic resources, ensuring
prior informed consent, and establishing mutually agreed terms between provider and user
countries or communities. This includes the development of systems such as access and
benefit-sharing (ABS) frameworks.
5. Monitoring and Reporting: Member countries are encouraged to monitor and report on the

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status of biodiversity, implementation of NBSAPs, progress towards targets, and challenges
faced. Reporting mechanisms, such as the Global Biodiversity Outlook, assist in assessing
progress at the global level and identifying gaps in implementation.
6. Financial Resources and Capacity Building: Implementation of the CBD requires financial

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resources and capacity-building support. Member countries, international organizations, and
other stakeholders work together to mobilize resources for biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use. This includes financial mechanisms, technology transfer, and capacity-
building initiatives to support countries, particularly developing nations, in implementing the
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CBD effectively.
7. International Cooperation and Partnerships: The CBD encourages international cooperation
and partnerships among member countries, organizations, and stakeholders to share
experiences, knowledge, and best practices. Collaboration takes place through platforms such
as the CBD's Conference of the Parties (COP), regional initiatives, and partnerships with the
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private sector, civil society, and indigenous peoples and local communities.
Q.4 Farmer’s rights under FAO with reference to biodiversity
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recognizes the importance of farmers' rights in
relation to biodiversity conservation and sustainable agriculture. Farmers' rights refer to the
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collective and individual rights of farmers, particularly indigenous and traditional farmers, to
use, save, exchange, and sell farm-saved seeds, protect traditional knowledge, and participate
in decision-making processes that affect agricultural biodiversity. The FAO's work on
farmers' rights is closely tied to the conservation and sustainable use of agricultural
biodiversity. Here are the key aspects of farmers' rights under the FAO with reference to
biodiversity:
1. Access to Genetic Resources: Farmers' rights include the right to access and utilize genetic
resources for crop improvement and agricultural production. This recognizes the important
role that farmers, especially indigenous and local communities, play in conserving and
developing diverse crop varieties adapted to local conditions.
2. Protection of Traditional Knowledge: Farmers' rights encompass the protection and
promotion of traditional knowledge and practices related to agriculture and biodiversity. This
knowledge, accumulated over generations, is crucial for sustainable farming systems, crop
adaptation, and the conservation of genetic diversity.
3. Seed Systems and Crop Varieties: Farmers' rights acknowledge the importance of farmer-
managed seed systems and the conservation of diverse crop varieties. This involves
recognizing and supporting farmers' roles in conserving, developing, and distributing diverse
seed varieties, including locally adapted and traditional varieties.
4. Participation in Decision-Making: Farmers' rights emphasize the participation of farmers,
especially indigenous and local communities, in decision-making processes related to
agricultural policies, biodiversity conservation, and the sustainable use of genetic resources.
This includes recognizing the contributions and knowledge of farmers in shaping policies and
practices that affect agricultural biodiversity.
5. Benefit-Sharing: Farmers' rights also encompass the fair and equitable sharing of benefits

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derived from the use of agricultural biodiversity. This involves ensuring that farmers and
local communities receive a fair share of the benefits resulting from the commercialization of
crop varieties, products, and innovations developed from their traditional knowledge and
practices.

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6. Capacity-Building and Support: The FAO recognizes the need to build the capacity of
farmers, especially small-scale and marginalized farmers, to exercise their rights and engage
in sustainable agricultural practices. This includes providing technical support, training, and
access to information and resources to empower farmers to conserve biodiversity and
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sustainably manage their agricultural systems.
Q.5 The Patents and Intellectual Property Right with reference to biodiversity
Patents and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) play a significant role in the context of
biodiversity. They are legal instruments that grant exclusive rights to individuals or
organizations for their inventions or creations, encouraging innovation, and providing an
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incentive for research and development. In the context of biodiversity, patents and IPR can
impact several areas:
1. Bioprospecting and Biopiracy: Bioprospecting involves the exploration of biological
diversity to discover new compounds, genes, or organisms with potential commercial value.
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Patents can protect the novel discoveries made during bioprospecting, ensuring that the
inventors or organizations have exclusive rights to use, produce, and commercialize those
discoveries. However, concerns about biopiracy arise when traditional knowledge or genetic
resources are used without proper consent and benefit-sharing with the local communities
who hold this knowledge or resources.
2. Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge: Many indigenous and local
communities have unique knowledge of traditional uses of plants, animals, and
microorganisms. Patents can be a controversial issue when they grant exclusive rights to
genetic resources or traditional knowledge that have been in the public domain or used by
these communities for generations. In response, there are calls for mechanisms to protect
traditional knowledge, ensure fair benefit-sharing, and prevent the misappropriation of
genetic resources.
3. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Plant Varieties: Patents and plant
variety protection can be applied to genetically modified crops and new plant varieties
developed through breeding programs. These IPRs give breeders and developers exclusive
rights over the use, production, and sale of these plants for a certain period. While this fosters
innovation in agriculture and biotechnology, critics argue that it may limit farmers' access to
seeds and lead to dependence on a few major seed companies.
4. Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) Agreements: ABS agreements are legal
frameworks designed to ensure that the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources and
traditional knowledge are fairly and equitably shared with the providers of those resources
and knowledge. These agreements often accompany bioprospecting activities or patent
applications related to biodiversity.
5. Biological Inventions: In some cases, patents have been granted for biological
inventions, such as genetically engineered organisms, bioinformatics algorithms, or

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biotechnological processes. These patents stimulate research and investment in the
biotechnology sector, but they also raise ethical and societal considerations regarding the
commodification of life and potential consequences for the environment and human health.
International agreements and treaties, like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and

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the Nagoya Protocol, aim to address the challenges and concerns related to patents and IPR in
the context of biodiversity. These agreements promote fair and equitable access to genetic
resources, benefit-sharing with local communities, and the protection of traditional
knowledge.
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Balancing the need for innovation and protection with ethical considerations and
sustainability remains an ongoing challenge in the application of patents and IPR for
biodiversity-related inventions and discoveries. As such, policymakers continue to work
towards frameworks that promote both scientific advancement and the conservation of
biodiversity and cultural heritage.
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Patents and IPR for Biodiversity with examples

Example 1: Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica): The neem tree is native to the Indian
subcontinent and has been traditionally used for various medicinal and agricultural purposes.
In the 1990s, the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) granted a patent to
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W.R. Grace for a method of controlling fungi using neem extracts. This sparked controversy
and protests as neem had been used in India for centuries, and granting a patent on its
traditional use raised concerns of biopiracy. Eventually, the patent was successfully
challenged, and the case highlighted the importance of considering traditional knowledge and
prior art in the patenting process.
Example 2: Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Turmeric, a popular spice in many cuisines, also has
medicinal properties and has been traditionally used in India for various purposes. In the
1990s, two United States patents were granted to researchers at the University of Mississippi
for the use of turmeric in wound healing and for its antioxidant properties. Once again, this
raised concerns about biopiracy and the exploitation of traditional knowledge. In response to
the outcry, the Indian government and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) successfully challenged the patents, leading to their eventual revocation.
Example 3: Basmati Rice: Basmati rice is a traditional long-grain aromatic rice variety
originating from the Indian subcontinent. In the 1990s, a Texas-based company, RiceTec Inc.,
was granted a patent by the USPTO for a hybrid variety of basmati rice. This patent claimed
exclusive rights to specific traits of the rice variety, which led to disputes over biopiracy and
accusations of misappropriating traditional knowledge. Eventually, the patent claims were
narrowed down, and certain key claims were rejected to avoid conflicts over the use of the
term "basmati."
Example 4: Enola Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris): The Enola bean is a type of yellow bean native
to Mexico. In the 1990s, a US company, Pod-Ners LLC, was granted a patent on a strain of
yellow bean that was purportedly different from the traditional Enola bean. This patent
became controversial as it raised concerns about the misappropriation of traditional Mexican
bean varieties. In response to the public outcry and pressure from Mexico, the patent was
eventually revoked by the company.

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Example 5: Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus): The rosy periwinkle is a tropical plant
species with medicinal properties, including the production of compounds used in cancer
treatment. In the 1950s, researchers at Eli Lilly and Company obtained a patent for the
isolation of vinblastine and vincristine from the rosy periwinkle. These compounds became

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essential in cancer chemotherapy. The company, however, recognized the importance of the
plant's traditional knowledge and worked with researchers from Madagascar to ensure
equitable benefit-sharing, leading to an agreement known as the "fair trade agreement."
Q.6 Indigenous Knowledge in terms of biological diversity
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Indigenous knowledge, also known as traditional knowledge, is the collective knowledge,
practices, and beliefs developed and passed down through generations by indigenous and
local communities. It encompasses their understanding of the natural world, including
biodiversity and the ecosystems they inhabit. Indigenous knowledge systems have evolved
over centuries and are deeply rooted in the relationship between communities and their
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environments. When it comes to biological diversity, indigenous knowledge holds significant

value and can contribute to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Here are some key
aspects of indigenous knowledge in terms of biological diversity:
1. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): Indigenous communities possess intricate
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knowledge about local ecosystems, species, and their interactions. Traditional Ecological
Knowledge (TEK) encompasses the understanding of ecological processes, phenology,
behavior, and distribution of plant and animal species, as well as the relationships between
different species and their habitats. This knowledge can inform conservation efforts,
sustainable resource management, and ecological restoration.
2. Medicinal and Nutritional Knowledge: Indigenous communities have extensive knowledge
about the medicinal properties of various plants and organisms found in their surroundings.
Traditional medicine systems, based on indigenous knowledge, often rely on the use of local
plant species for healing and treating various ailments. Indigenous knowledge also includes
information about nutritional properties and the sustainable harvesting of wild edible plants
and traditional crops.
3. Agroecological Practices: Indigenous communities have developed diverse and sustainable
agricultural systems that incorporate traditional knowledge about local soil types, climate,
crop varieties, and farming practices. These agroecological practices often promote
biodiversity conservation, soil fertility, water management, and resilience to environmental
changes.
4. Land and Resource Management: Indigenous knowledge includes practices and systems
for managing lands and natural resources sustainably. Traditional land-use practices,
community-based resource management, rotational grazing, and sacred groves are examples
of indigenous knowledge-based approaches that help conserve biodiversity and protect
important habitats.
5. Fire Management: Many indigenous communities possess sophisticated knowledge and
practices related to controlled burning and fire management. Traditional fire management
techniques, such as prescribed burning, have been used for generations to maintain healthy
ecosystems, promote biodiversity, control invasive species, and reduce the risk of
uncontrolled wildfires.

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6. Ethical and Cultural Perspectives: Indigenous knowledge systems are deeply rooted in
cultural, spiritual, and ethical values. Indigenous communities often view themselves as
stewards of the land and have traditional practices and beliefs that emphasize the
interconnectedness of all living beings. This worldview fosters a holistic approach to

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biodiversity conservation that recognizes the intrinsic value of nature and promotes
sustainable relationships between humans and the environment.
Q.7 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
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A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) is a comprehensive document
that outlines a country's strategic approach to conserving its biodiversity and promoting
sustainable use of its natural resources. The development and implementation of an NBSAP
are key obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) for member
countries. Here are some important aspects of a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
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Plan:
1. Objectives: An NBSAP sets out the specific objectives and goals that a country aims to
achieve in terms of biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of natural resources, and fair
and equitable benefit-sharing. These objectives are aligned with the broader goals of the
CBD.
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2. Biodiversity Assessment: An NBSAP typically includes an assessment of the country's

biodiversity status, highlighting the key ecosystems, species, and genetic resources present,
as well as the threats and challenges facing biodiversity conservation. The assessment
provides a baseline understanding of the country's biodiversity and helps identify priority
areas for action.
3. Strategic Actions: The NBSAP outlines a set of strategic actions that the country intends to
undertake to address the identified challenges and achieve the stated objectives. These actions
can include policy reforms, legislative measures, institutional strengthening, capacity
building, awareness-raising, research and monitoring, and on-ground conservation and
restoration initiatives.
4. Targets and Indicators: The NBSAP includes specific targets and indicators to track
progress in implementing the strategic actions and achieving the stated objectives. These
targets and indicators help measure the effectiveness of the actions taken and guide decision-
making and resource allocation.
5. Cross-Cutting Themes: An NBSAP often integrates cross-cutting themes, such as
mainstreaming biodiversity considerations into sectoral policies (e.g., agriculture, forestry,
fisheries), gender mainstreaming, traditional knowledge and indigenous peoples' rights,
climate change adaptation, and sustainable development. These themes ensure that
biodiversity conservation is integrated into various sectors and that the plan aligns with
broader national and international goals.
6. Stakeholder Engagement: The development of an NBSAP involves a participatory process,
including the engagement of relevant stakeholders, such as government agencies, indigenous
and local communities, civil society organizations, academia, and the private sector.
Stakeholder consultations and involvement help ensure that different perspectives and
expertise are considered and that the plan reflects the needs and aspirations of all

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stakeholders.
7. Monitoring and Reporting: An NBSAP includes mechanisms for monitoring and reporting
on the progress made in implementing the strategic actions and achieving the targets set out
in the plan. Regular monitoring and reporting help assess the effectiveness of the plan and

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guide adaptive management approaches, making necessary adjustments as needed.
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