The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2018) 96:21–38

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1538-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Advance on friction of stamping forming

Gui Li 1,2,3 & Xiaoyu Long 1,2 & Peng Yang 1,2 & Zhongkai Liang 1,2

Received: 22 August 2017 / Accepted: 26 December 2017 / Published online: 17 January 2018
# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Stamping forming is a method of pressure processing that has been widely applied to automotive manufacturing, household
electrical appliance production, aviation, and other fields. Stamping friction plays a substantial role in the quality of stamping
forming and the service life of the die. However, the problem of friction in stamping forming has not yet been solved due to
several critical difficulties. In particular, with the application of hot forming technology and new lightweight materials in
stamping forming, such as advanced high-strength steel sheets, aluminum alloy sheets, and carbon fiber materials, stamping
friction has become more complex. Therefore, it is of paramount practical significance to study stamping friction. In this paper,
state of the art research concerning the mechanism and factors influencing friction in stamping forming is reviewed.
Investigations of the friction mechanism are described, starting by introducing the development process of traditional and modern
friction theory. The present friction mechanism fails to adequately describe the frictional process occurring in stamping forming
due to complex and variable factors. A survey of existing works reveals several gaps in the study of factors that influence
stamping forming: the friction model is very fragile; the accuracy is not high because only a few factors are considered; and more
importantly, some important factors are often ignored, such as temperature and coating. Therefore, different dynamic friction
models with multifactor coupling should be established for different stamping processes and materials to fully reflect the
characteristics and mechanisms of stamping friction. The present review is aimed at providing an insight into the shortcomings
of the existing research background, and it demonstrates the enormous potential for further investigation and innovation in the
field of friction of stamping forming.

Keywords Stamping forming . Friction mechanism . Friction model . Influence factors

1 Introduction forming and material flow are caused by non-linear sliding

Stamping forming of sheet metal is an important plastic pro-
cessing method that has been widely used in the manufacture
of automobiles, particularly in automotive stamping, as well
as in home appliances, aviation, and other fields. Plastic
* Gui Li
leegui2030@wust.edu.cn
1
Key Laboratory of Metallurgical Equipment and Control
Technology, Ministry of Education, Wuhan University of Science
and Technology, Wuhan 430081, People’s Republic of China
2
Hubei Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission and
Manufacturing Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and
Technology, Wuhan 430081, People’s Republic of China
3 the friction mechanism and influencing factors of friction.
State Key Laboratory of Material Processing and Die & Mould
Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, People’s Republic of China
contact between the sheet metal and tool under external pres-
sure acting on the stamping die. Friction is an important
boundary condition in the process, and its causative process
and mechanism are very complex, which has an impact on the
stamping formability, surface quality, and service life of the
die. Currently, problem of friction in stamping forming has not
been effectively solved. As reported by Avitzur [1], friction
has become one of the ultimate bottlenecks in the field of
stamping forming. With the application of high-strength steel
sheet, coated steel sheet, aluminum alloy sheet, carbon fiber,
and other materials in automotive stamping, the impact of
friction on stamping forming quality has become increasingly
prominent. Therefore, the study of stamping friction has im-
portant theoretical and practical significance.
Stamping friction mainly involves two considerations:
Coulomb friction theory and adhesion theory are the two
theories that hold the greatest influence on the traditional
22
view of mechanical friction, and they are also the basis of
modern friction theory. Stamping friction has its own par-
ticularities relative to traditional mechanical friction and
other plastic forming friction phenomena. In the process
of sliding contact with the die, substantial plastic defor-
mation and material flow occur in the sheet metal; thus,
the surface quality of the stamping parts is high. Friction
plays a key role in the process of plastic deformation and
is influenced by various macro- and microscopic factors.
Friction also affects the plastic strain capability of sheet
metal, as well as the surface quality of the die and
stamping parts. The friction mechanism is not fully under-
stood, and the influence of various factors on friction also
lacks corresponding research. The friction model is not
comprehensive. Accordingly, it is very difficult to study
stamping friction. The mechanical properties, stamping
process parameters, and interface state of the sheet metal
should be taken into consideration in stamping friction,
which is a multifactor non-linear coupling dynamic con-
tact friction process. Therefore, an effective way to settle
the problem of stamping friction is to establish a dynamic
friction model with multifactor coupling. In this paper, the
research background and current situation of stamping
friction are reviewed, and the development trends defining
the future of stamping friction theory and the associated
model are analyzed in conjunction with the latest
stamping forming technology. This review provides some
reference for stamping forming and the associated friction
research.
2 Friction mechanism in stamping forming
Friction theory has long been studied, as shown in Fig. 1,
progressing from the initial exploration of the friction phe-
nomenon to the formation of the classical theory of friction
and from the establishment of prevailing friction theory to the
development of friction theory in various fields. In the assid-
uous study of friction by scholars, it is not difficult to find it
imperative to study friction. Friction theory is undergoing
continued improvement. The process of friction forming is
likewise becoming more sophisticated owing to changes in
Fig. 1 Development history of friction theory
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
materials and the forming process. Therefore, the study of
friction is ongoing.
2.1 Classical friction theory
Stamping friction is an important branch of friction science. In
the earliest study of friction, Davinci proposed that the degree
of concavity or convexity of a solid surface is the fundamental
cause of friction. In contrast, Amontons [2] attributed the fric-
tion force to the relative sliding of convex and concave contact
surfaces when they are mutually fitted, as shown in Fig. 2.
Subsequently, the Amontons-Coulomb friction model was put
forward by Coulomb [3] on the basis of the above theory,
which is widely used in the numerical simulation of stamping
forming. However, the theory of mechanical interlocking can
only explain the cause of friction within a specified range, and
it cannot explain the phenomenon by which smooth surface
contact also produces substantial friction. Therefore,
Desaguliers [4] proposed the theory of molecular adsorption,
which states that when the contact surface is smooth, the mo-
lecular spacing is very small and the intermolecular interaction
force is enhanced so that contact friction increases. Although
this theory was able to supplement the deficiencies of mechan-
ical interlocking theory, it cannot explain the phenomenon by
which rougher friction surfaces on the friction pair correspond
to a greater friction force. The adhesive deformation theory
combines the above two theories and considers that the con-
tact surface will adhere and deform under loading. For a rough
contact surface, deformation resistance is the main factor caus-
ing friction; while for a smooth contact surface, adhesive re-
sistance is the main factor. The deformation and adhesion of
asperities on the contact surface also provide a theoretical
explanation for the cases of sheet metal and die with different
roughnesses.
2.2 Modern friction theory
The adhesion theory proposed by Bowden and Tabor [5] is
one of the representative modern theories of friction, as shown
in Fig. 3. According to this theory, the real contact area of
friction pairs under external pressure is much smaller than
the nominal contact area. Thus, in those areas, it is easy to
engender plastic deformation and adhesion phenomena, and
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
the cold-weld nodes form at those positions because of the
extreme pressure incurred at the contact surfaces with peak
profiles. Moreover, a hard convex surface embeds further into
a soft surface and forms furrows in the soft surface as it slides,
as shown in Fig. 4. The sum of the shear forces required to
destroy cold-weld nodes and form furrows on the soft surface
provides the friction resistance. Adhesion theory can explain
many friction phenomena, so it is accepted by most scholars.
However, adhesion theory simplifies the friction process and
ignores the elastic-plastic deformation of steel sheets and the
influence of interfacial temperature change. However, for
high-strength steel sheets that require greater forming force,
this effect cannot be ignored. Suh [6] proposed the
deformation-furrow-adhesive friction theory based on the
comprehensive results of previous studies. This theory pro-
poses that friction is the result of the combined action of as-
perity deformation, asperity, and abrasive plowing effects on
the metal surface and adhesion effects. Compared with the
adhesion theory, this theory takes into account the elastic-
plastic behavior of the sheet metal and the effects of wear on
friction. The above research results suggest that the study of
friction theory has always been an important subject in the
field of mechanical engineering.
Because of the complex variability of the friction formation
process, the above studies cannot fully explain stamping fric-
tion. The non-local friction theory proposed by Eringen [7, 8]
and Edelen [7] can explain the friction phenomena that cannot
be explained by the traditional elasticity theory, and this ex-
planation is extended by non-local plasticity theory. Oden [9]
revised the friction theory of Coulomb and established the
corresponding non-local friction theory. Pires and Trabucho
[10] applied non-local friction theory to the slippery field
problem of metal contact surfaces. Mathrenhaltz et al. [11]
also used this theory to address the friction problem in rolling,
and it was found that the results obtained were reasonable and
effective compared with the local friction theory. Therefore,
non-local friction theory is an effective method for the study
of friction, but microscopic friction, lubrication friction, and
wear are not considered. Stamping entails intermittent contact
sliding friction between die and steel sheet. Each stamping
process incurs friction between the fully new surface of the
sheet and the worn surface of the die, so the effects of wear on
friction cannot be ignored.
Fig. 2 Mechanical interlock friction model: a sliding model of mechanical interlocking, b microscopic model of mechanical meshing
23
2.3 Study of stamping friction
Unlike the friction state of the contact interface in traditional
mechanical metal processing, the friction interface of the fric-
tion pair in the stamping process experiences a mixture of
friction and lubrication, and the typical contact model is
shown in Fig. 5.
Friction occurs in four zones of the contact surface: the
adhesion area (A), the boundary lubrication area (B), the
plowing area (C), and the lubrication pond area (D).
Asperities on the surface of the friction pairs in the adhe-
sive zone produce plastic deformation and molecular mo-
tion under the action of an external force, resulting in in-
stantaneous high temperature and forming adhesion nodes,
which are shared in the subsequent contact sliding. The
reciprocating process in which adhesion nodes are formed
and sheared creates adhesion effects. Rough peaks of hard
metal in the plow zone are embedded in soft metal and
push the soft metal in plastic flow to form an obvious
groove, which is known as the plow effect. Because a lu-
bricant is rarely used in actual stamping, friction forces in
the boundary lubrication area and the lubrication pond area
are very small. Therefore, stamping friction is mainly
caused by the adhesion and plowing effects [12].
With the application of new lightweight steels such as
advanced high-strength steel sheet, coated steel sheet, and
aluminum alloy steel sheet, the stamping contact condition
is increasingly complex. Because of its low yield strength,
easy adhesion, and strong alloying ability, aluminum alloy
steel more easily adheres to the die surface during
stamping, resulting in more severe adhesive wear, and a
plastic forming friction that is a boundary friction or mixed
friction between fluid friction and Coulomb friction. For
galvanized high-strength steel, the higher pressure and
sliding friction produce higher interface temperatures dur-
ing stamping. Small particles are formed due to the
sintering of the exfoliated and powdered zinc coating un-
der the action of higher temperatures at the contact inter-
face. During sliding, these small particles increased the
plowing effect. Therefore, the friction force obtained by
considering only adhesion effects is clearly erroneous.
The stamping friction mechanism of these new steel mate-
rials remains to be studied further.
24
Fig. 3 Adhesion model: a sketch (a)
map of concave convex contact
point, b diagram plastic
deformation adhesion of asperity
2.4 Influence of wear on friction
Stamping is a reciprocating process in which the surface
of the sheet metal is always a raw surface without contact,
but the die surface is always in a state of dynamic contact.
As a result, surface materials from the die are lost and
transferred continuously in the process, the surface topog-
raphy of the die changes, and some small particles are
produced between the contact surfaces, which effectively
increase the friction force [13]. As the degree of wear
increases and more small particles are produced, the fric-
tion and plowing effect become more obvious. The plastic
deformation caused by asperities occurs because the local
pressure exceeds the yield strength of the material,
resulting in the formation of an adhesive layer. Then, fa-
tigue wear, adhesion wear, and abrasive wear occur at the
contact interface, which affects the formation of friction.
The material, surface strength and hardness, contact state,
stamping speed, stamping frequency, and other processing
parameters are the decisive factors affecting the wear of
the stamping die. Thus, friction and wear are closely re-
lated and interact with each other.
As shown in Fig. 6, the study of wear has a long his-
tory dating back to the fifteenth century, and it is a rela-
tively independent research area. Through the efforts of
relevant scholars [14–18], a complete system of wear the-
ory has been developed. According to investigation, 70%
of tool replacement is attributable die wear that intensified
friction. Therefore, there is a close connection between
wear and friction. Consequently, the study of wear forma-
tion mechanisms is of great significance to the study of
Fig. 4 Plow model
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
(b)
C A D B
stamping friction. However, at present, wear mechanisms
have not been considered in the current friction mecha-
nism, which is not comprehensive or complete enough. In
summary, a perfect friction mechanism with higher accu-
racy and wider application must be explored in the future
study of stamping friction.
In summary, the processes that determine friction during
stamping are very complex, many factors must be considered,
and the relationship between those factors cannot be ignored.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider all influencing factors
comprehensively and establish a corresponding multifactor
coupling dynamic friction model for different stamping pro-
cesses and sheet metals and to deeply understand the mecha-
nisms of stamping friction.
3 Influence factors of stamping friction
There are many factors that affect the development of friction
in cold stamping, which can be divided into three major cat-
egories including characteristics of friction pairs, parameters
of the stamping process, and contact interface state, as shown
in Fig. 7. Many of these factors are non-linear and interrelated,
which makes the development of stamping friction more com-
plicated. Although scholars have studied the process for many
years, and some achievements have been realized (for exam-
ple, many friction models have been proposed on the basis of
the classical Coulomb friction), many problems remain un-
solved. In the ensuing discussion, these research achievements
and problems will be outlined in detail.
3.1 Influence of frictional pair characteristics
3.1.1 Surface hardness of die
The main friction pairs involved in stamping are dies and
sheet metal, whose characteristics, including the surface
hardness and roughness of dies and the strength and coating
of sheet material, have a great influence on the mechanism
of stamping friction. The effects of adhesion and plowing
and the friction between the contact surfaces decrease be-
cause the deformation resistance of asperities on the die
surface increase and the production of the small particles
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
Fig. 5 Microscopic model of contact between die and sheet surface
decreases when the surface hardness of die increases. Thus,
the hardness of die surface is an important factor that is
especially prominent when the stamping parts are high-
strength steel. Coating is one effective means to improve
the surface hardness of dies. The commonly used coatings
in the industry include PVD, CVD and TD coatings, DLC
coatings, and plasma nitriding. The damage characteristics
of P1000 were studied Cora et al. [19] with different sub-
strate materials (DC53, SKD11, DRM3, DRM51) and dif-
ferent surface coatings (PVD, CVD, and TD coatings) using
a plate-slider test. The results show that the anti-damage
performance of the TD coating was the best, and the wear
rates of DRM3 and DRM 51 mold samples with TD coat-
ings were lowest, as shown in Fig. 8. An experiment per-
formed by Wang et al. [20] found that the average friction
coefficient, wear resistance, and surface hardness of dies
treated by TD were superior to those conferred by tradition-
al heat treatment and nitriding treatment, as shown in Fig. 9.
DLC coatings also showed good frictional behavior in re-
search performed by Zeng et al. [21], Banerji et al. [22], and
Morita et al. [23]. These experiments all demonstrated that
hard coatings can significantly promote the wear resistance
of the die and improve the frictional state.
3.1.2 Surface roughness of the frictional pairs
The surface roughness (Ry) of the frictional pair has an impact
on the formation of friction. The theory that large- and small-
scale roughness is harmful to the reduction of friction between
contact surfaces is acknowledged by most scholars. The rea-
son for this harmful effect is that plowing will be increased
between the friction pairs. When Ry is too large, the adhesive
force is enhanced by decreased molecular spacing and the
lubricating oil cannot fully penetrate between the contact sur-
faces when Ry is too small. To evaluate this theory, the
Fig. 6 Development history of wear theory
25
influence of surface roughness on friction was studied in an
experiment performed by Lee and Keum [24], and a friction
model was proposed, as shown in Eq. (1). An investigation of
the interaction between surface roughness and adhesion force
performed by Achanta et al. [25] found that as the roughness
changed, the adhesive force fluctuated instead of decreasing,
as shown in Fig. 10, which also demonstrates the validity of
the theory. However, if Ry is within a suitable range, the fric-
tion will decrease with decreasing Ry, as confirmed in the
experiment performed by Cristino et al. [26], the details of
which are shown in Fig. 11. Similar studies were also per-
formed by Feng et al. [27], Podgornik and Jerina [28], and
Leu [29]; the results show that reasonable Ry can effectively
reduce friction and improve wear resistance.
μ ¼ 0:24λ2 −0:246λ þ 0:252 ð1Þ
where μ is the friction coefficient and λ is the surface rough-
ness (mm).
3.1.3 Strength and hardness of the steel sheet substrate
Friction is also impacted by the strength and hardness of the
sheet substrate. The work hardening capacity is higher for a
steel substrate with low strength, which leads to reduced plas-
ticity and toughness of the sheet and enhances the effects of
plowing due to the increased number of small particles. Much
research in this area has been undertaken by scholars. An
experiment that studied the effect of sheet strength on its
surface friction coefficient was carried out by Michal et al.
[30], in which friction was reduced for steel substrates with
greater strength. This result was confirmed by sliding friction
tests [31], as shown in Fig. 12. The relationship between
friction and the strength of the steel substrate was established
by Wang et al. [32], as shown in Eq. (2). Further pin-on-disk
26 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38

Fig. 7 Friction influence factors

Fig. 8 Comparison of wear resistance: a different surface coatings (PVD, CVD, and TD coatings), b different substrate materials (DC53, SKD11,
DRM3, DRM51)

experiments were performed by Eriksson et al. [33]; the re- where A, B, and C are constants; σ0 is the yield stress; Pm is
sults of which show that the hardness of the steel substrate the nominal contact pressure; and f the friction factor.
has a profound influence on the wear of the coating. The
coating was not difficult to break and scratch because the 3.1.4 Influence of the coating
low hardness of the steel substrate determined the bearing
capacity, which affected the friction characteristics of the Galvanized steel sheet has a zinc coating on the steel substrate
coating and increased the friction coefficient, as shown in surface, which confers strong corrosion resistance. This sheet-
Fig. 13. These effects become more pronounced as the ing is widely used in the stamping of automotive panels. At
strength of the steel increases. Therefore, increasing the present, galvanized steel sheet accounts for more than 40% of
strength and hardness of steel substrate can effectively reduce automotive panels. Generally, the coating thickness is very
friction and wear. small, and it is easily ignored on the macroscale compared
     with the substrate thickness, but it has a fatal impact on the
f σ0 σ0 pm
μe ¼ pffiffiffi ⋅ A þ B ⋅ln þC ð2Þ stamping friction of the sheet metal [34]. The coating process,
3 pm pm σ0
mechanical properties and interface bonding characteristics

Fig. 9 Surface morphology of showing wear resistance with different coating: a quenched/tempered, b nitrided, c TD treatment
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
Fig. 10 Relationship between roughness and adhesive force
are important factors affecting the friction of the contact inter-
face. If these factors cannot be coordinated well, they lead to
cracking and powdering of the coating, which enhances the
effects of plowing and adhesion. The flat die tribometer test
and the stretch bending test, used to examine the influence of
the iron content of the coating on the friction coefficient, were
performed by Garza et al. [35]. The friction coefficient de-
creased with increasing iron content in the coating, as shown
in Fig. 14. Moreover, the effects of the elastic and plastic
behavior of the coating on the formability and friction charac-
teristics of galvanized sheet were investigated by Lee et al.
[36]. The results show that the elastic and plastic behavior of
the coating influences the friction, as shown in Fig. 15. This
influence is attributed to the elastic and plastic behavior of the
coating, which has a definite resistance to the exterior bound-
ary pressure that reduces the internal stress of the steel sheet.
The interfacial bonding force is an important parameter to
determine the cracking and powdering of the coating.
Therefore, it is of crucial practical significance to study the
binding force and binding energy between the coating and
substrate. A single pendulum impact scratch test (SPIST)
Fig. 11 Relationship between
coefficient of friction and
roughness
27
Fig. 12 Comparison between GA-DP590 and BARE-DP590 under the
same friction test conditions
was performed by Duan et al. [32], which was used to deter-
mine the relationship that describes the adhesion between dif-
ferent substrates and different coatings, which would be ben-
eficial for the development of more suitable coating and sub-
strate materials.
The characteristics of the friction pairs not only influence
the friction but also influence the contact force and stress
distribution of the steel sheet, thus affecting the accuracy of
the numerical simulation of springback [37]. Moreover,
springback is the most difficult bottleneck in the application
of high-strength steel, and friction increases the uncertainty of
springback prediction. Research on the springback of sheet
metal has made some progress [38–40]. However, the rela-
tionship between friction and springback needs to be further
studied. Thus, it can be seen that there are many deficiencies
in the study of the characteristics of the friction pairs; for
example, the damage mechanism, mechanical properties, fric-
tion mechanism, and model of the coating are not clear and
definite, and the bonding form and the energy transfer process
between the coating and the steel substrate also lack relevant
28
Fig. 13 Influence of coating rupture on friction coefficient
research. Moreover, the size scale effect and the crystal scale
effect caused by changes in the length, width, and thickness of
the steel sheet are not considered in friction. The scale effect
makes the forming performance and deformation law of the
material completely different from the traditional stamping
process, and the impact of this effect on friction also requires
further exploration.
3.2 Influence of stamping technological parameters
Stamping is a dynamic contact process between the steel sheet
and the die. The related technological parameters controlling
the movement of these elements, such as sliding speed, pres-
sure, shape, and position of drawbeads, have substantial influ-
ence on the friction during the contact process [41]. Therefore,
it is necessary to study the influence of these parameters on the
stamping friction. It was found that the friction coefficient de-
creased with the increase of sliding velocity and positive pres-
sure and ultimately trended toward a constant value in an ex-
periment reported by Wang et al. [31, 40], as shown in Fig. 16.
Equation (3) describing the relationship between sliding veloc-
ity and friction force was established by Kobayashi et al. [42],
Fig. 14 Relationship between friction coefficient and iron content of coating: a flat die tribometer testing, b bending-under-tension test
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
from which the effect of sliding velocity on friction can also be
determined. Equation (4) providing the relationship between
pressure and friction force was determined by Lee et al. [36].
In addition, in the uniaxial tensile test performed by
Trzepieciński and Fejkiel [43], the friction coefficient also de-
creased with increasing nominal pressure, as shown in Fig. 17.
In addition, the same conclusion was achieved in a deep draw-
ing test performed by Karupannasamy et al. [44]. Different
drawbead shapes (the radius of entrance) had a great influence
on the friction behavior of the material surface, which was
obtained through experiments and the finite element method
under the efforts of Samuel [45]. Likewise, many other scholars
studied how technological parameters impacted friction, such
as Kim et al. [46], Yanagida and Azushima [47], Figueiredo
et al. [48], and Dilmec and Arap [49]. From the above discus-
sions, we can easily see that technological parameters have
noticeable effects on friction.
2 hvi
f t ¼ −μ⋅f n ⋅ arctan ð3Þ
π d
where d is a constant, ν is the sliding velocity, and f is the
friction for
(   1 = )
ΔP 2
μ¼ 1 þ 1 þ πβα =πβ ð4Þ
ΔN
where α is the drawing ratio, β is a constant between 1.5 and
3.0, ΔP is the punching load, and ΔN is the blank holding
force.
3.3 Influence of contact interface state
In the stamping process, the friction pairs release heat due to
sliding contact friction under pressure, which causes the inter-
face temperature to rise; this temperature increase then affects
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
Fig. 15 Relationship between friction coefficient and coating: a one-layer model, b multiple-layer model
the friction behavior of the friction pairs. The temperature can
be reduced by applying a lubricant to the contact interface, and
more importantly, the friction and wear between the friction
pairs can also be decreased in the same way. Thus, it is impor-
tant to study how the characteristics of lubricants (oil film
thickness, viscosity, thermal stability etc.) affect friction. The
relationship between the lubricant film thickness and friction
was presented by Wilson et al. [50], as shown in Eq. (5). The
relationship between contact area ratio and lubricant film
thickness was also obtained through an experiment completed
by Wang et al. [51], the details of which are shown in Fig. 18,
and the friction was strongly related to the contact area ratio.
Figure 19 shows that the surface friction coefficient of hot dip
galvanized steel decreases gradually with the increase of lu-
bricant viscosity in an experiment performed by Abotani et al.
[52] and Gong et al. [53]. In addition, the same results were
likewise obtained by Velkavrh and Kalin [54] and
Karupannasamy et al. [55]. All of the above studies show that
the characteristics of lubricating oil have an effect on friction,
Fig. 16 Comparison of friction coefficient under the different friction test conditions for BARE-DP590: a influence of varying pressure on friction
coefficient, b influence of varying sliding velocity on friction
29
although the use of lubricants in actual stamping is very rare.
8
< μðU 1 −U 2 Þ=h ðh > 10σÞ
τ f ¼ ψ f μðU 1 −U 2 Þ=h ð30σ > h > 10σÞ ð5Þ
:
τ α A þ τ p A þ τ h ð1−AÞ ðh < 3σÞ
where h is the thickness of the lubricating oil film, σ is the
surface roughness, and A is a constant.
The interface temperature in cold stamping is very low rela-
tive to hot stamping, which is frequently ignored, but large var-
iations of temperature affect the friction and mechanical proper-
ties of the steel sheet. However, with the application of advanced
high-strength steels (AHSSs), the interface temperature is higher
because the required forming force increases. A stamping test
was performed by Pereira and Rolfe [56] to study interface tem-
perature during the cold stamping of high-strength steel sheet.
The interface temperature increased as the strength of the steel
sheet and die increased; their maximum temperatures reached
approximately 180 and 109 °C, respectively, as shown in
30
Fig. 17 Relationship between frictional coefficient and nominal pressure in different friction conditions: a test was carried out in dry friction conditions,
b test was carried out in lubricated conditions
Fig. 20. In the dry sliding test performed by Gåård et al. [57],
temperature had an obvious influence on the adhesion of contact
surfaces, and adhesion wear tended to be serious with increasing
temperature. Okonkwo et al. [58] investigated the effect of tem-
perature on paired steel materials by a pin-on-disk test. The
results show that wear is minimized between 50 and 100 °C
and that it may be possible to reduce the wear of tool steel by
operating within a particular temperature range. Similar studies
were also conducted by Kim et al. [59], Groche et al. [60], and
Yan [61]. The results showed that changes of temperature had an
obvious impact on the wear mechanism. Therefore, the interface
temperature should not be ignored in cold stamping when study-
ing the mechanism of stamping friction and wear. Especially
with the AHSSs widely used in stamping, the impact of temper-
ature on friction should be considered.
At present, there are many studies on the impact of stamping
technological parameters, lubricants, and temperature on fric-
tion. However, these studies and related friction models are
completed on the basis of experiments, and the experimental
methods and frictional mechanisms also have many
Fig. 18 Relation between contact pressure and contact area (TL is the film
thickness)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
shortcomings. For example, friction based on uniaxial tensile
experiments cannot fully reflect the results of a multidirectional
deformation model. Moreover, due to the complexity of the
friction mechanism, simplified processing makes it difficult to
reach agreement between experimental conditions and actual
stamping forming. In addition, the correlation between the fac-
tors is not effectively reflected in the experiment, and the results
exhibit some deviation. The friction mechanism and the friction
model cannot fully reflect the evolution process of stamping
friction. Accordingly, it is necessary to study the experimental
setup of dynamic friction models with multifactor coupling.
4 Development trends of stamping
and friction
Lightweight technology is an important automotive develop-
ment trend that helps vehicles meet energy saving, emission
reduction, and fuel economy requirements. However, innova-
tion in stamping materials is important as an intrinsic driver of
lightweight technology. Currently, high-strength steels and alu-
minum alloy sheet are the main lightweight materials.
Additionally, carbon fiber will be used in automotive
manufacturing in the near future [62]. Compared with tradition-
al stamping, the stamping forming process and methods asso-
ciated with these new materials are quite different, such as hot
stamping forming. Thus, the frictional properties of these ma-
terials and methods are different from those of their predeces-
sors. In view of their application value and development pros-
pects, the study of stamping friction of lightweight materials is
an important research trend in the field of stamping.
4.1 Friction of hot stamping forming
Hot stamping is a new forming method used for AHSSs, one of
whose characteristics is high forming temperature. Thus, the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
Fig. 19 Relationship between frictional coefficient and viscosity of lubricant: a Abotani’s experiment, b Gong’s experiment
mechanical characteristics of the die and material are different
from those encountered in cold stamping, and the characteristics
of friction are also quite different [63, 64]. Therefore, some
scholars have studied the influence of high temperature on fric-
tion. The friction and wear behaviors of different tool steels slid-
ing against Al-Si-coated high-strength steel at elevated tempera-
tures have been investigated by Hardell and Prakash [65] using a
high-temperature version of the Optimol SRV reciprocating fric-
tion and wear tester at temperatures of 40, 400, and 800 °C. The
results show that both the friction and wear are temperature de-
pendent, as shown in Fig. 21. Friction decreased with increasing
temperature, whereas the wear of the tool steel increased with
temperature. A hot strip drawing simulator was developed by
Yanagida et al. [47, 66] to measure friction during hot stamping.
Tian et al. [67] also used this device to study the friction coeffi-
cient under different high temperature conditions, as shown in
Fig. 22. The results show that the friction coefficient remains
almost unchanged until temperature reaches 500 °C. The friction
coefficient then increases sharply as the temperature increases
from 500 to 600 °C. The dominant wear mechanism is groove
cutting at temperatures between room temperature and 500 °C,
which changes to adhesive wear at temperatures above 500 °C.
Fig. 20 Relationship between maximum temperature and material strength
31
Other scholars study the influence of high temperatures on fric-
tion and wear, such as Hardell et al. [68], Kondratiuk and Kuhn
[69], and Meng et al. [70]. The above research results clearly
show that temperature is a decisive parameter affecting friction
during hot stamping. However, the mechanisms of these changes
and their influence on the friction process are unclear, and further
studies are necessary to fully explain these mechanisms.
4.2 Friction during stamping forming of aluminum
alloy sheet
The mechanical properties of aluminum alloy sheet are different
from those of steel sheet and include the advantages of low
density, corrosion resistance, specific strength, and high specific
stiffness. Therefore, the material constitutive model, mechanical
properties, and friction model of steel sheet cannot be applied to
aluminum alloy sheet, for which die sticking is the most impor-
tant problem. Furthermore, die sticking is a key factor in friction
and wear. Therefore, the friction of aluminum alloy sheet is more
significant and more complex than that of other steel sheets. The
friction and wear of aluminum alloy sheet have been investigated
by many scholars. Experiments consisting of measurements of
32
Fig. 21 Relationship between friction coefficient and temperature
Fig. 22 Relationship between friction coefficient and temperature
the strength of the adhesive junctions formed and the coefficients
of friction between AA5182 aluminum alloy sheet and different
friction pairs were conducted by Riahiet and Alpas [71]. The aim
of these experiments was to identify suitable stamping tools for
Fig. 23 Result of the experiments. a Average friction coefficients of disk specimens sliding against aluminum alloy 5052 pin specimens. b Specific wear
rates of the disk specimens and their paired pin specimens. A negative value for a specific wear rate means an increase in the volume of the disk specimen
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
aluminum alloy due to its die sticking characteristics, which
make stamping friction more complicated. The results showed
that the DLC coating provided superior performance. A similar
conclusion was obtained by Horiuchi et al. [72]. Another exper-
iment was also performed to develop low friction and low wear
rate extrusion die materials for aluminum alloy 5052 by
Murakami et al. [73], as shown in Fig. 23. The friction properties
of materials are closely linked to their surface characteristics.
Therefore, using a non-contact synthesis measuring profilometer,
profile measurement and topography modeling of the aluminum
alloy sheet surface were performed by Zhang and Li [74] in order
to study the laws governing its contact and friction behavior.
Other research based on a crystalline plasticity model and using
electron backscatter diffraction was carried out by Liao and Chen
[75] to explore the influence of the roughness and surface pro-
files of aluminum alloy sheet on the friction between contact
surfaces. Thus, from the above studies, it is not difficult to deter-
mine the complex friction characteristics of aluminum alloy.
4.3 Friction during carbon fiber stamping forming
Carbon fiber composite is a lightweight thermoforming mate-
rial. As the preferred material for the future automotive indus-
try, it has the advantages of high strength, good impact resis-
tance [76], good plasticity, fatigue resistance, corrosion resis-
tance, energy saving, and environmental protection, as shown
in Table 1. Recently, an innovative car frame made of carbon
fiber has been created by Magna International Inc. and Ford
Motor Company, conferring a weight reduction of 34% com-
pared with stamped steel, which fully demonstrates the light-
weight quality of carbon fibers. Of course, there are some
disadvantages, such as high development cost, long forming
cycle, and poor numerical simulation technique. However, the
application of this material in automotive manufacture and
other fields is a general trend because of its incomparable
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38 33

Table 1 Lightweight material weight loss and relative cost Compared to traditional stamping steel sheets, the materials
Materials Cost of Part Weight loss discussed above, especially carbon fiber, have significant ad-
material cost rate/% vantages in strength, wear resistance, impact resistance, and
weight, which will bring a revolution to the stamping industry
Mild steel 1.0 1.0 COMPREF in the future. However, forming technology and the numerical
High-strength steel 1.1 1.0 10 simulation of these materials are not yet mature, the related
Aluminum alloy sheet 4.0 2.0 40–50 characteristics are not understood thoroughly, and their friction
GFRP (glass fiber reinforced 3.0 0.8 25–35 mechanisms and models are quite different from existing ones,
plastic)
requiring further development and improvement. Therefore, it
CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced 10# 2.5 50–60
plastic) is urgent to study the stamping friction of these materials.

5 Discussions and conclusions

advantages. Therefore, it is of great practical significance to
study the characteristics of these materials, especially their
friction characteristics. At present, some researchers have con-
sidered the friction characteristics of these materials.
According to experiments performed by Friedrich [77] and
Guo et al. [78], carbon fibers can reduce the wear rate and
coefficient of friction of polymers, mainly because of excel-
lent their load-bearing capacity, as shown in Fig. 24. These
findings were further supported by the experiment performed
by Abadi et al. [79]. The relationship between the frictional
properties of carbon fiber composites and temperature has
been investigated, and the results show that the friction coef-
ficient increases with increasing temperature and carbon fiber
content (wt%), while the wear rate decreases, as shown in
Fig. 25. Similar studies were also performed by Zeng [80],
Zhang et al. [81], and Zhou et al. [82]. From these studies, the
conclusion is drawn that carbon fibers can greatly improve the
wear resistance of composites. Therefore, the development of
carbon fiber polymers is highly promising. The study of car-
bon fiber materials will be a hot research area in the future.
Friction as fundamental research, friction as the basic re-
search, and mechanisms and models of friction should be the
research directions of greatest concentration for carbon fiber
stamping.
In summary, although great progress has been achieved in the
study of stamping friction, because of the complex dynamic
friction, the forming process is difficult to fully describe
through simple contact friction conditions, and the mechanism
of friction and the friction model still have many unsolved
problems. The influence of the relevant parameters on friction
is at the macrolevel, and the indefinite factors in the model are
difficult to determine in reality, making friction too complex
and difficult to apply in practice. Therefore, in recent years,
progress in the study of stamping friction has been slow, and
stamping friction research has been insufficient, especially for
new materials and new processes. Therefore, for macro- and
microstamping friction mechanisms that remain to be studied
further, it is necessary to summarize and develop the existing
stamping friction mechanism, perfect the existing relatively
mature friction model, and establish a dynamic friction model
of multi factor coupling suitable for different stamping
methods and materials.
Table 2 provides a summary of the current status and de-
velopment trend of stamping friction. Since the development
of adhesion and plowing theory, stamping friction mechanism
has not shown greater creativity. Although there are some
similarities between stamping friction phenomena at the

Fig. 24 The effect of carbon fiber specific gravity on the wear resistance and friction coefficient of polymers: a wear rate, b friction coefficient
34 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38

Fig. 25 Relationship between frictional property of composites and temperature, carbon fiber (wt%): a relationship between temperature, carbon fiber
(wt%), and friction coefficient of composites, b relationship between carbon fiber (wt%) and wear rate of composites

macroscale, the main factors determining the friction mecha-
nisms of different materials and methods are different upon
microscopic analysis. Therefore, the study of friction mecha-
nisms should be based on the general theory, and detailed and
in-depth study should be applied to improve mechanisms suit-
able for specific materials and methods.
However, refinement and numerical simulation are the cur-
rent development focus relevant to stamping, and the friction
model is the core technology. The friction model that can be
applied to the numerical simulation of stamping is highly de-
ficient, except for the well-known Coulomb friction model,
which has been unable to meet the needs of current refined
numerical simulations. Therefore, it is urgent to build an ac-
curate dynamic friction model that can be applied to numerical
simulation. Friction is a dynamic, complex process with mul-
tiple factors, and the model must be able to accurately reflect
the process. Most friction models have been proposed to ac-
count for single factors, such as the friction models that con-
sider pressure and velocity. However, they have not been
coupled with many factors, so they have not been applied
effectively in the numerical simulation of stamping forming.
Table 3 provides an analysis of the importance of macro-
scopic influencing factors on stamping friction. The results
show that almost all parameters have different effects on fric-
tion, and the most complicated case is galvanized steel sheet.
The existence of a zinc coating makes the stamping friction
fundamentally different from other types of friction, and
stamping surface damage has become one of the first prob-
lems to be solved in applications using high strength galva-
nized steel. There are many areas that require improved or
more extensive research. Figure 26 provides an example of a
stamping friction mechanism study for the most widely used
advanced high strength galvanized steel sheet, which is a com-
plex and comprehensive process. Based on macro- and micro-
methods, the plastic deformation mechanism and mechanical
properties of galvanized steel sheet should be studied, and an
interface bonding model and interface failure model between
the zinc coating layer and steel substrate should be
established. Further analysis should consider the zinc coating
layer and steel substrate in the stamping deformation of the
surface morphology, plastic flow under the relationship be-
tween friction and roughness, surface temperature, pressure,

Table 2 Development trends of

friction mechanisms Stamping method and Friction mechanism Deficiencies and trends
sheet material

Cold stamping Adhesion and plowing effect Wear is not considered

Hot stamping
Low carbon steel sheet
High strength steel sheet
Galvanized steel sheet
Aluminum alloy sheet
Carbon fiber sheet
Undefined
Adhesion and plowing effect
Required correction based on
the adhesion and plowing effect
Required correction based on
the adhesion and plowing effect
Required correction based on
the adhesion and plowing effect
Undefined
Friction mechanism at ultra-high
temperature and wear
Wear is not considered
Influence of temperature under
high pressure and wear
Influence of coating under high
pressure, high temperature and wear
Influence of die sticking and wear
Temperature, material properties, etc.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38 35

Table 3 Analysis of the importance of macroscopic influencing factors on stamping friction

Influencing factors Cold stamping Hot Low carbon High-strength Galvanized steel sheet Aluminum alloy sheet Carbon
stamping steel sheet steel sheet fiber sheet

Deformation (strength) ★★ ★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★

Temperature ★ ★★★ ★ ★★★ ★★★ ★ ★★★
Coating ◊ ◊ ◊ ◊ ★★★ ◊ ◊
(Steel sheet)
Pressure ★★ ★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★ ★
Velocity ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★
Hardness ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★★ ★★
Roughness ★★ ★★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★
Wear ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★ ★

★★★—very important, must be considered, ★★—greater influence, ★—little influence, ◊—negligible

Fig. 26 Technical route of research on friction mechanism of galvanized advanced high-strength steel sheet

velocity, hardness, roughness, and wear, with the ultimate
purpose of establishing a dynamic friction model of multi
factor coupling. The friction mechanism of other stamping
materials and methods must also consider a combination of
macroscopic and microscopic factors to reflect the dynamic
process of friction comprehensively.
The establishment of a dynamic coupled friction model
is the ultimate goal of the study of stamping friction.
Stamping tests should be performed by changing the pa-
rameter variables individually, and the laws describing the
influence of the variation of single parameter on friction
should be summarized. The relationship between friction
and each single influencing factor can be deduced, as
shown in Fig. 27. There is a lack of research on the in-
teractions and connections among various influencing fac-
tors. Coupling is needed according to the degree of

Fig. 27 Establishment method of friction model

36
association between the factors. According to the laws
describing the influence of single factors on friction, a
multifactor coupling friction model can be established.
Therefore, further study remains for the macro- and
microstamping friction. It is necessary to summarize and de-
velop the existing stamping friction mechanism, perfect the
existing relatively mature friction model, and establish a dy-
namic multifactor coupling friction model suitable for differ-
ent stamping methods and materials.
Acknowledgments We express our thanks to Guangdong Kelon Mould
Co., Ltd. for their great support during the project.
Funding information This work is supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (grant number 51505348), Open Research
Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die &
Mould Technology (Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
grant number P2016-15), Open Research Fund of the Key Laboratory
of Metallurgical Equipment and Control Technology, Ministry of
Education (Wuhan University of Science and Technology, grant number
2015B08), and the Science and Technology Planning Project of Ronggui
(grant number RGJF(2017)27H-8).
References
1. Avitzur B (1990) A personal look on my involvement in the recent
history of metal forming research. Advanced Technology of
Plasticity 4. http://www.metalforming-inc.com/Publications/
Papers/ref168/ref168.shtml
2. Amontons G (1699) De la resistance causée dans des machines, tant
par les frottements des parties que les composent, que par la roideur
des cordes qu’on y employe, et la maniere de calculer l’un el’autre.
Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, France, Troiséme (1732)
edition: 206-222
3. Coulomb CA (1821) Théorie des machines simples, en ayant égard
au frottement de leurs parties età roideur des cordages. Imprimerie
de Huzard-Courcier, Rue du Jardinet, No 12, Paris, France,
Nouvelle Édition edition
4. Desaguliers JT (1763) A Course of Experimental Philosophy, third
edition, London: Printed for A. Millar , VoL 4
5. Bowden FP, Tabor D (1951) The friction and lubrication of solids.
Am J Phys 19(7):428. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1933017
6. Suh NP (1981) Update on the delamination theory of wear in fun-
damentals of friction and wear of materials. American Society for
Metals, Ohio US
7. Eringen AC, DGB E (1972) On nonlocal elasticity. Int J Eng Sci
10(3):233–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7225(72)90039-0
8. Eringen AC (1983) Theories of nonlocal plasticity. Int J Eng Sci
21(7):741–751. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7225(83)90058-7
9. Oden JT, Pires EB (1983) Nonlocal and nonlinear friction laws and
variational principles for contact problems in elasticity. J Appl
Mech 50(1):67–76. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3167019
10. Pires EB, Trabucho L (1990) The steady sliding problem with non-
local friction. Int J Eng Sci 28(7):631–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0020-7225(90)90091-V
11. Mahrenholtz O, Appeltauer J, Bontcheva N, Brzozowski M (1996)
Nonlocal friction-application to rolling with spread. J Appl Math
Mech-ZAMM 76(s4):603–605
12. Goryacheva IG (1998) Contactmechanics in tribology. Solid Mech
Its Appl 51(2):135–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9048-8
13. Lee EJ, Hwang HJ, Lee WG (2010) Morphology and tough-
ness of abrasive particles and their effects on the friction
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
and wear of friction materials: a case study with zircon
and quartz. Tribol Lett 37(3):637–644. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11249-009-9561-0
14. Archard JF (1953) Contacts and rubbing of flat surfaces. J Appl
Phys 24(8):981–988. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1721448
15. Goddard J, Wilman H (1962) A theory of friction and wear during
the abrasion of metals. Wear 5(2):114–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0043-1648(62)90235-1
16. Suh NP (1977) An overview of the delamination theory of wear.
Wear 44(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(77)90081-3
17. Wallbridge NC, Dowson D (1987) Distribution of wear rate data
and a statistical approach to sliding wear theory. Wear 119(3):295–
312. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(87)90037-8
18. Attia H (2009) A generalized fretting wear theory. Tribol Int 42(9):
1380–1388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2009.04.010
19. Cora ON, Ağcayazı A, Namiki K, Sofuoğlu H, Koç M (2012) Die
wear in stamping of advanced high strength steels—investigations
on the effects of substrate material and hard coatings. Tribol Int
52(3):50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2012.02.016
20. Wang W, Zheng X, Hua M, Wei X (2016) Influence of surface
modification on galling resistance of DC53 tool steel against gal-
vanized advanced high strength steel sheet. Wear 360-361:1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2016.04.021
21. Zeng Q, Yu F, Dong G (2012) Mechanism analysis of improved
DLC films friction behaviors with liquid sulfidation treatment. Appl
Surf Sci 259(15):83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.06.
105
22. Banerji A, Bhowmick S, Alpas AT (2014) High temperature tribo-
logical behavior of W containing diamond-like carbon (DLC) coat-
ing against titanium alloys. Surf Coat Tech 241(3):93–104. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2013.10.075
23. Morita T, Hirano Y, Asakura K, Kumakiri T, Ikenaga M, Kagaya C
(2012) Effects of plasma carburizing and DLC coating on friction-
wear characteristics, mechanical properties and fatigue strength of
stainless steel. Mat Sci Eng A-Struct 558(51):349–355. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2012.08.011
24. Lee BH, Keum YT, Wagoner RH (2002) Modeling of the friction
caused by lubrication and surface roughness in sheet metal forming.
J Mater Process Tech 130-131(02):60–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0924-0136(02)00784-7
25. Achanta S, Drees D, Celis JP (2007) Investigation of friction on
hard homogeneous coatings during reciprocating tests at micro-
Newton normal forces. Wear 263(7–12):1390–1396. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.wear.2006.12.013
26. VAM C, PAR R, Martins PAF (2011) Surface roughness and mate-
rial strength of tribo-pairs in ring compression tests. Tribol Int
44(2):134–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2010.10.002
27. Feng D, Shen MX, Peng XD, Meng XK (2017) Surface roughness
effect on the friction and wear behaviour of acrylonitrile-butadiene
rubber (NBR) under oil lubrication. Tribol Lett 65:10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11249-016-0793-5
28. Podgornik B, Jerina J (2012) Surface topography effect on galling
resistance of coated and uncoated tool steel. Surf Coat Tech
206(11–12):2792–2800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.
11.041
29. Leu DK (2011) Modeling of surface roughness effect on dry contact
friction in metal forming. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 57(5–8):575–
584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3305-7
30. Michal GM, Paik DJ (2001). The effect of forming velocity, and
stain path on the performance of galvannealed sheet steels,
Galvatech’ 2001:73–80
31. Wang W, Hua M, Wei X (2012) A comparison study of sliding
friction behavior between two high strength DP590 steel sheets
against heat treated DC53 punch: hot-dip galvanized sheet versus
cold rolled bare sheet. Tribol Int 54(1):114–122. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.triboint.2012.05.005
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
32. Duan D, Li S, Zhang R, Hu W, Hu WY, Li SZ (2006) Evaluation of
adhesion between coating and substrate by a single pendulum im-
pact scratch test. Thin Solid Films 515(4):2244–2250. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tsf.2006.06.014
33. Eriksson J, Olsson M (2011) Tribological testing of commercial
CrN, (Ti,Al)N and CrC/C PVD coatings—evaluation of galling
and wear characteristics against different high strength steels. Surf
Coat Tech 205(16):4045–4051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.
2011.02.053
34. Li B, Kang Y, Zhu G, Gao Y (2012) Effects of substrate strength on
friction coefficient of galvannealed auto steel sheets. J Mater Eng
2(8):14–18. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-4381.2013.06.001
35. Garza LG, CJV T (2007) Friction and formability of galvannealed
interstitial free sheet steel. J Mater Process Tech 187-188:164–168.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.11.062
36. Lee S, Joun M, Kim D, Lee J (2016) Effect of elastic-plastic be-
havior of coating layer on drawability and frictional characteristic of
galvannealed steel sheet. J Mech Sci Technol 30(7):3313–3319.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-016-0640-5
37. Menezes PL, Kumar K, Kishore KSV (2009) Influence of friction
during forming processes-a study using a numerical simulation
technique. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 40(11–12):1067–1076.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1425-5
38. Li G, Liu Y, Du T, Tong H (2014) Algorithm research and system
development on geometrical springback compensation system of
advanced high strength steel parts. Int J Adv Manuf Technol
70(1–4):413–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-013-5230-4
39. Leu DK (2015) Position deviation and springback in v-die bending
process with asymmetric dies. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 79(5–8):
1095–1108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6532-x
40. Wang H, Zhou J, Zhao T, Tao Y (2016) Springback compensation
of automotive panel based on three- dimensional scanning and re-
verse engineering. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 85(5–8):1187–1193.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-8042-x
41. Darendeliler H, Akkök M, Yücesoy CA (2002) Effect of variable
friction coefficient on sheet metal drawing. Tribol Int 35(2):97–104.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-679X(01)00099-8
42. Kobayashi S, Oh SI, Altan T, Chaudhary A (1990) Metal forming
and the finite element method. J Mater Shaping Technol 8(1):65–
65. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02834794
43. Trzepieciński T, Fejkiel R (2017) On the influence of deformation of
deep drawing quality steel sheet on surface topography and friction.
Tribol Int 115:78–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2017.05.007
44. Karupannasamy DK, Hol J, Rooij MBD, Meinders T, Schipper DJ
(2014) A friction model for loading and reloading effects in deep
drawing processes. Wear 318(1–2):27–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wear.2014.06.011
45. Samuel M (2002) Influence of drawbead geometry on sheet metal
forming. J Mater Process Tech 122(1):94–103. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0924-0136(01)01233-X
46. Kim H (2008) Prediction and elimination of galling in forming
galvanized advanced high strength steels (AHSS) (Ph.D. thesis),
Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, The
Ohio State University
47. Yanagida A, Azushima A (2009) Evaluation of coefficients of fric-
tion in hot stamping by hot flat drawing test. CIRP Ann-Manuf
Techn 58(1):247–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2009.03.091
48. Figueiredo L, Ramalho A, Oliveira MC, Menezes LF (2011)
Experimental study of friction in sheet metal forming. Wear
271(9):1651–1657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2011.02.020
49. Dilmec M, Arap M (2016) Effect of geometrical and process pa-
rameters on coefficient of friction in deep drawing process at the
flange and the radius regions. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 86(1–4):
747–759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-8225-5
37
50. WRD W, Hsu TC, Huang XB (1995) A realistic friction model for
computer simulation of sheet metal forming processes. J Eng Ind
117(2):202–209. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2803295
51. Wang Z, Tamotsu N, Kuniaki D, Obika T (2003) FEM analysis of
contact mechanism in press-forming of lubricant precoated steel
sheet. J Mater Process Tech 140(1–3):514–519. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0924-0136(03)00790-8
52. Abotani K, Hirohata K, Kiyasu T (2003) Hot-dip galvanized sheet
steel with excellent press formability and surface quality for the
automotive panels. Kawasaki Steel Techn Rep 48:17–22
53. Gong HY, Lou ZL, Zhang ZL (2004) Studies on the friction and
lubrication characteristics in the sheet steel drawing process. J
Mater Process Tech 151(1–3):328–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2004.04.082
54. Velkavrh I, Kalin M (2012) Comparison of the effects of the
lubricant-molecule chain length and the viscosity on the friction
and wear of diamond-like-carbon coatings and steel. Tribol Int
50(4):57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2012.01.008
55. Karupannasamy DK, Hol J, Rooij MBD, Meinders T, Schipper DJ
(2012) Modelling mixed lubrication for deep drawing processes.
Wear 294-295(31):296–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2012.
06.006
56. Pereira MP, Rolfe BF (2014) Temperature conditions during 'cold'
sheet metal stamping. J Mater Process Tech 214(8):1749–1758.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.03.020
57. Gåård A, Hallbäck N, Krakhmalev P, Bergström J (2010)
Temperature effects on adhesive wear in dry sliding contacts. Wear
268(7–8):968–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2009.12.007
58. Okonkwo PC, Kelly G, Rolfe BF, Pereira MP (2012) The effect of
temperature on sliding wear of steel-tool steel pairs. Wear 282-
283(8):22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2012.01.017
59. Kim H, Altan T, Yan Q (2009) Evaluation of stamping lubricants in
forming advanced high strength steels (AHSS) using deep drawing
and ironing tests. J Mater Process Tech 209(8):4122–4133. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.10.007
60. Groche P, Nitzsche G, Elsen A (2008) Adhesive wear in deep
drawing of aluminum sheets. CIRP Ann-Manuf Techn 57(1):295–
298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2008.03.042
61. Yan W (2010) Deformation and frictional heating in relation to wear
in sheet metal stamping. Steel Res Int 81(9):713–716. https://doi.
org/10.1002/srin.201190002
62. Friedrich K, Almajid AA (2013) Manufacturing aspects of ad-
vanced polymer composites for automotive applications. Appl
Compos Mater 20(2):107–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-
012-9258-7
63. Karbasian H, Tekkaya AE (2010) A review on hot stamping. J
Mater Process Tech 210(15):2103–2118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2010.07.019
64. Kalkan H, Hacaloglu T, Kaftanoglu B (2017) Experimental inves-
tigation of friction in deep drawing. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 92(9–
12):3311–3318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0401-3
65. Hardell J, Prakash B (2008) High-temperature friction and wear
behavior of different tool steels during sliding against Al-Si-
coated high strength steel. Tribol Int 41(7):663–671. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.triboint.2007.07.013
66. Yanagida A, Kurihara T, Azushima A (2010) Development of tribo-
simulator for hot stamping. J Mater Process Tech 210(3):456–460.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2009.10.007
67. Tian X, Zhang Y, Li J (2012) Investigation on tribological behavior
of advanced high strength steels: influence of hot stamping process
parameters. Tribol Lett 45(3):489–495. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11249-011-9908-1
68. Hardell J, Kassfeldt E, Prakash B (2008) Friction and wear behav-
iour of high strength boron steel at elevated temperatures of up to
800 °C. Wear 264(9–10):788–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.
2006.12.077
38
69. Kondratiuk J, Kuhn P (2011) Tribological investigation on friction
and wear behaviour of coatings for hot sheet metal forming. Wear
270(11):839–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2011.02.011
70. Meng B, MW F, Wan M (2015) Drawability and frictional behavior
of pure molybdenum sheet in deep-drawing process at elevated
temperature. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 78(1–4):479–499. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6698-2
71. Riahi AR, Alpas AT (2007) Adhesion of AA5182 aluminum sheet
to DLC and TiN coatings at 25 °C and 420 °C. Surf Coat Tech
202(4):1055–1061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2007.07.085
72. Horiuchi T, Yoshihara S, Yu I (2011) Dry deep drawability of
A5052 aluminum alloy sheet with DLC-coating. Wear 286-
287(7):79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2011.07.005
73. Murakami T, Kajino S, Nakano S (2013) High-temperature friction
and wear properties of various sliding materials against aluminum
alloy 5052. Tribol Int 60(7):45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
triboint.2012.10.015
74. Zhang AW, Li Z (2006) Profile measuring and topography model-
ing of aluminum alloy sheet surface. Proc SPIE-The In Socr Optical
Eng 6357:63571Y–635715. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.716992
75. Liao KC, Chen CL (2010) Investigation of surface roughness of
aluminum alloy sheet based on crystalline plasticity model. Comp
Mater Sci 49(1):S47–S53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.
2010.03.038
76. Ishikawa T (2015) Overview of carbon fiber reinforced composites
(CFRP) applications to automotive structural parts—focussed on
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2018) 96:21–38
thermoplastic CFRP. Int J Jpn S Prec Eng 81(6):489–493. https://
doi.org/10.2493/jjspe.81.489
77. Friedrich K (1986) Wear of reinforced polymers by different abra-
sive counterparts. Compos Mater Ser 1:233–287. https://doi.org/10.
1016/B978-0-444-42524-9.50012-0
78. Guo QB, Rong MZ, Jia GL, Lau KT, Zhang MQ (2009) Sliding
wear performance of nano-SiO2/short carbon fiber/epoxy hybrid
composites. Wear 266(7–8):658–665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wear.2008.08.005
79. SBK A, Khavandi A, Kharazi Y (2010) Effects of mixing the steel
and carbon fibers on the friction and wear properties of a PMC
friction material. Appl Compos Mater 17(2):151–158. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10443-009-9115-5
80. Zeng J (2010) Tensile and friction properties of tin bronze matrix
composites reinforced by carbon fibers. Tribol Lett 40(3):311–317.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-010-9670-9
81. Zhang XR, Pei XQ, Wang QH (2009) Friction and wear studies of
polyimide composites filled with short carbon fibers and graphite
and micro SiO2. Mater Design 30(10):4414–4420. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2009.04.002
82. Zhou S, Zhang Q, Wu C, Huang J (2013) Effect of carbon fiber
reinforcement on the mechanical and tribological properties of
polyamide6/polyphenylene sulfide composites. Mater Design 44:
493–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.08.029