LECTURE ONE

Sensors
Introduction
In this lecture we defined and explain characteristics and behaviour of a sensor. Also
different types of sensors and their categories are mentioned. Operation and applications of
some sensors are elaborated including simple circuits for practical uses.

Objectives:
At the end of this lecture you will be able to

• Define and explain the operation of different sensors

• Mention types and categorize groups of sensors
• Choose the suitable sensors for specific application
• Design circuits that are using sensors for respective applications

What is a sensor?
A sensor is a device which measures physical quantity and converts it into signal which can be
read by an observer/operator, or displayed by an instrument. A sensor is also known as a
detector. For example a liquid thermometer the measured temperature into expansion or
contraction of a liquid which can be read on the calibrated glass tube.

As a senor receive and responds to signal, it must have sensitivity. Its sensitivity shows how
much the sensor’s output changes with the change of measured quantity. For example if the
liquid in the thermometer expand by 1cm when the temperature changes by 10C, then its
sensitivity is 1cm / 0C.

Sensors which detect very small changes must have very high sensitivity.

Sensors are manufactured in macroscopic scale (macroscopic sensors) or microscopic scale

(microscopic sensors). Microscopic sensors have higher speed and sensitivity compared to
macroscopic sensor.

Any good sensor should obey the following rules;

1. Should be sensitive to the measured property

 2. Should be insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application.
3. Should not influence the measured property

Sensors are categorized into ideal sensors and non ideal sensors.

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple mathematical function of the
measurement. The output signal of such sensors is proportional to the value of the measured
property.

Non ideal sensors have deviations from the linearity. Those deviations are defined as errors.
Some errors observed are as follows.

1. The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is sensitive error
2. The output signal is non zero when the measured property is zero. This means that the
sensor has an offset or biased error
3. If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor. This is non linearity error
4. If the sensor has a digital output from the analogue input or digital output. The output is
essentially an approximation of the measured property. This is digitization error.
5. A sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example some sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment. This is called environmental error.

All these deviations and others which are not mentioned can be classified as systematic errors or
random errors. Systematic errors can be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration
strategy.

Types of sensors
Sensors may e classified according to their applications or conditions.

1. The following are some types of sensors classified due to their applications.
(i) Position sensors
(ii) Humidity sensors (iii) Flow rate sensors
(iv) Pressure sensors
(v) Temperature sensors

2. This group of sensors is classification according to their conditions

(i) Acoustic sensors (sound sensor, vibration sensor)
(ii) Automotive/mechanical sensors(speed sensor etc)
(iii) Chemical sensors(e.g. smoke sensor, oxygen sensor)
(iv) Electric/electronic sensors(ammeter, voltmeter)
(v) Environmental sensors(moisture sensor, humidity sensor)

(vi) Optical sensors(light sensor, image sensor)

 (vii) Level sensors

(i) Temperature Sensors

The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect temperature or heat. These
types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a
domestic heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can control complex process
control furnace plants.

We are familiar that the movement of molecules and atoms produces heat due to kinetic energy
and the greater the movement, the more heat that is generated. Temperature Sensors measure the
amount of heat energy that is generated by an object or system, allowing us to detect any physical
change to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.
There are many different types of temperature sensor available and all have different characteristics
depending upon their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of two basic physical types:
• Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor are required to be in
physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature.
They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of temperatures.

• Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor use

convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids
and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection
currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the form of infra-red
radiation (the sun).

The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be sub-divided
into the following three groups of sensors, Electro-mechanical, Resistive and Electronic and all
three types are discussed below.

The Thermostat

How does a thermostat work? Most things get bigger when they heat up and smaller when they
cool down for example water is notable to expand when it heats up and when it freezes too.
Mechanical thermostats use this idea which called thermal expansion to switch an electric
circuit on and off. The two most common types used are bimetallic strips and gas-filled.

The thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically
consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded
together to form a bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals
produce a mechanical bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating
an electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage tanks as well as in motor vehicle radiator cooling
systems.
The bi-metallic thermostat

A traditional thermostat has two pieces of different metals bolted or bonded together to form
what's called a bimetallic strip. The strip works as a bridge in an electrical circuit connected to
your heating system. When the strip gets hot, one of the metals expands more than the other so
the whole strip bends very slightly. Eventually, it bends so much that it breaks open the circuit.
The electricity instantly switches off, the heating cuts out, and the system starts to cool.

As the system cools the strip cools too and bends back to its original shape. Sooner or later, it
snaps back into the circuit and makes the electricity flow again, so the heating switches back on.
By adjusting the temperature dial, we could change the temperature at which the circuit switches
on and off.

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When it is
cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal
expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the
contacts preventing the current from flowing.
On/Off thermostat
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when subjected
to temperature changes. There are the “snap-action” types that produce an instantaneous
“ON/OFF” or “OFF/ON” type action on the electrical contacts at a set temperature point, and the
“creep-action” types that gradually change their position as the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the temperature set
point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be found on walls to control the
domestic heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up as the
temperature changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive to temperature
changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and thinner making them ideal
for use in temperature gauges and dials etc.
Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main disadvantage of the
standard snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature sensor, is that they have a large
hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open until when they close again. For example,
it may be set to 20oC but may not open until 22oC or close again until 18oC.
So the range of temperature swing can be quite high. Commercially available bi-metallic
thermostats for home have temperature adjustment screws that allow for a more precise desired
temperature set-point and hysteresis level to be pre-set.

A simple thermostat circuit

Observe:
 1. Temperature set or Dial enables you to set the temperature at which the thermostat switches on and
off.
2. The dial is connected through a circuit to the temperature sensor (a bimetal strip), shown here
colored, which switches an electrical circuit on and off by bending more or less.
3. The bimetal strip curves outward as the temperature rises.
4. The bimetal strip forms part of an electrical circuit. When the strip is cool, it straights, so it acts as
a bridge through which electricity can flow. The circuit is on and so is the heating. When the strip
is hotter, it bends and breaks the circuit, so no electricity can flow. Now the circuit is off.

Thermostat fire-alarm circuits

One of the simplest types of temperature-sensitive circuit is the thermostat-activated fire alarm.
The figure below shows a practical circuit of a relay-aided alarm of this type. Here, any desired
number of normally open thermostats are connected in parallel and then connected in series with
the coil of a relay, and one set of the relay’s normally open contacts are connected in series with
the alarm bell so that the bell operates if the relay turns on.

Simple relay-aided fire alarm

Normally, the thermostats are all open, so the relay and alarm bell are off. Under this condition,
the circuit consumes no current. At ‘overheat’ temperatures, on the other hand, one or more of
the thermostats closes, and thus turns on the relay and thence the alarm bell. We can add a
pushbutton switch in parallel with the thermostats, enabling the circuit to be tested by operating
the push-button if needed.

Practical example of constant temperature control circuit

A simple single phase motor temperature control circuit
The Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensors.
Thermocouples are popular used due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to
changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the widest
temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200oC to over 2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consist of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept at
a constant temperature called the reference, tailed end or cold junction, while the other the
measuring or hot junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is
developed across the junction or across the output terminals which is used to measure the
temperature.

Thermocouple Construction

A simplified circuit diagram of a thermocouple

The two wires are called thermo elements or legs of the thermocouple: the two thermo elements
are distinguished as positive and negative ones. The junction end is immersed in the environment
whose temperature say T2 has to be measured, which can be for instance the temperature of a
furnace, while the tail end is held at a different temperature T1, e.g. at room or ambient
temperature. Because of the temperature difference between junction end and tail end a voltage
difference can be measured between the two thermo elements at the tail end.
The arrangement below shows a tail end maintained in an ice bath made by crushed ice and
water in a flask: this produces a reference temperature of 0°C. All the voltage versus temperature
relationships for thermocouples is referenced to 0°C. The resulting measuring system required
for a thermocouple is as shown below.

Operating principle
The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple. When fused together the junction of the
two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a “thermo-electric” effect which
gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them. The voltage
difference between the two junctions is called the “Seebeck effect” as a temperature gradient is
generated along the conducting wires producing an emf. Then the output voltage from a
thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two junctions
is zero or no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are connected within a circuit
and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be detected relative to the difference in
temperature between the two junctions, V1 - V2 = Vo. This difference in voltage will increase with
temperature until the junctions peak voltage level is reached and this is determined by the
characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme temperatures
of between -200oC to over +3000 oC to be measured. With such a large choice of materials and
temperature range, internationally recognized standards have been developed with thermocouple
colour codes to allow the user to choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a particular
application. The British colour code for standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Codes Specification

Code
Type Conductors (+/-) Sensitivity Colour

Nickel Chromium /
E Constantan -200 to 900oC

Iron / Constantan 0 to 750oC

J

Nickel Chromium / -200 to 1250oC

K Nickel Aluminium

Nicrosil / Nisil 0 to 1250oC

N

-200 to 350oC
T Copper / Constantan
 Copper / Copper Nickel
U Compensating for 0 to 1450oC

"S" and "R"

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature measurement
are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and NickelChromium (Type K). The
output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change
in temperature difference and because of this small voltage output some form of amplification is
required.

Thermocouple Amplifier

The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an Operational Amplifier needs to be
carefully selected, because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the
thermocouple at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and instrumentation type of amplifier
preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
When a thermocouple (copper/constantan) is connected to a voltmeter with copper leads, two
active junctions are formed: one at the point of measurement (the measurement junction) and
another at a terminal near the voltmeter (the reference junction). The copper-to-copper junction at
the top screw of the terminal block is of no consequence because it is a junction of identical metals,
and as such generates no thermoelectric voltage:
The amount of voltage sensed by the voltmeter in this thermocouple circuit is equal to the
difference in voltages produced by the measurement and reference junctions:

Emeter = Emeas − Eref

Now consider another type of thermocouple connected to a copper-wire voltmeter. This is type J
thermocouple with iron constantan matals. Here we see there are three active junctions of
dissimilar metals:

E output = E iron – E constantan

Other temperature sensor types include, Semiconductor Junction Sensors, Infra-red and Thermal
Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers as to mention fie.

Another application for thermocouples is in the measurement of average temperature between

several locations. The easiest way to do this is to connect several thermocouples in parallel with
each other. The millivolt signal produced by each thermocouple will average out at the parallel
junction point. The voltage differences between the junctions drop along the resistances of the
thermocouple wires:
Unfortunately, though, the accurate averaging of these Seebeck voltage potentials relies on each
thermocouple’s wire resistances being equal. If the thermocouples are located at different places
and their wires join in parallel at a single location, equal wire length will be unlikely. The
thermocouple having the greatest wire length from point of measurement to parallel connection
point will tend to have the greatest resistance, and will therefore have the least effect on the
average voltage produced.

To compensate for this, an additional resistance can be added to each of the parallel
thermocouple circuit branches to make their respective resistances more equal. Without
customsizing resistors for each branch (to make resistances precisely equal between all the
thermocouples), it is acceptable to install resistors with equal values, significantly higher than the
thermocouple wires’ resistances so that those wire resistances will have a much smaller impact
on the total branch resistance. These resistors are called swamping resistors, because their
relatively high values overshadow or “swamp” the resistances of the thermocouple wires
themselves:
Because thermocouple junctions produce such low voltages, it is imperative that wire
connections be very clean and tight for accurate and reliable operation. Also, the location of the
reference junction (the place where the dissimilar-metal thermocouple wires join to standard
copper) must be kept close to the measuring instrument, to ensure that the instrument can
accurately compensate for reference junction temperature. Despite these seemingly restrictive
requirements, thermocouples remain one of the most robust and popular methods of industrial
temperature measurement in modern use.

Thermocouples, however, can be built from heavy-gauge wire for low resistance, and connected
in such a way as to generate high currents for purposes other than temperature measurement.
One of them is to generate electric power. Thermocouples may be connected in series as a
thermopile with alternating hot/cold temperatures with each junction to produce substantial
amounts of voltage and current:

With the left and right sets of junctions at the same temperature, the voltage at each junction will
be equal and the opposing polarities would cancel to a final voltage of zero. However, if the left
set of junctions were heated and the right set cooled, the voltage at each left junction would be
greater than each right junction, resulting in a total output voltage equal to the sum of all junction
pair differentials. In a thermopile, this is exactly how things are set up.

Visit as many as possible types of temperature sensors.

The Thermistor
The Thermistor is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a combination of the words
therm-ally sensitive res-istor. A thermister is a special type of resistor which changes its physical
resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or
cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-action
types is their speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that
is their resistance value goes down with an increase in the temperature, and of course there are
some which have a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value goes
up with an increase in temperature. Therefore thermistors are classified into two groups;
1. Negative temperature coefficient and
2. Positive temperature coefficient
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal oxide
technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material is generally
formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a relatively fast
response to any changes in temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25 oC), their time
constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with respect to the
current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with resistance values at
room temperature from 10’s of MΩ down to just a few Ohms, but for sensing purposes those types
with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through it to
produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in series with a
suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of resistor gives a
voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for example:

Example

The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10KΩ at 25oC and a resistance value of 100Ω
at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output voltage (Vo) for
both temperatures when connected in series with a 1kΩ resistor across a 10V power supply.
At 25oC, Vo = R2 x 10V = 1000 x 10 = 1.09V

R1 + R2 10000 + 1000

At 100oC, Vo = R2 x 10V = 1000 x 10V = 10.91V

R1 + R2 1000 + 100

It should be noted however, that thermistor’s are non-linear devices and their standard resistance
values at room temperature is different between different thermistor’s, which is due mainly to the
semiconductor materials they are made from. The Thermistor, have an exponential change with
temperature which expressed as Beta temperature constant (β) that can be used to calculate its
resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or Whetstone
Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied to the divider/bridge
network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across the resistor becomes linear
with temperature.
Application /use of thermistors
They are well suited for use in small probes with fast response, e.g. as current limiters in electronic
circuits and in medical thermometry, where good sensitivity is achieved over limited temperature
ranges.
PTC type; due to its characteristics it is used to protect circuits from overloads which function as
thermal switches or as ordinary thermometers.
NTC type; due to its characteristics it is often used for temperature control and indication as well as
current suppression.
Since resistances are large, generally several kilo ohms, 2-wire connections can usually be used without
significant error.
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly depends on temperature. The word
thermistor is a combination of words “thermal” and “resistor”. A thermistor is a
temperaturesensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material and sometimes mixture
of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large change in resistance
proportional to a small change in temperature. Pure metals have positive temperature coefficient
of resistance, alloys have nearly zero temperature coefficient of resistance and semi conductors
have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs. temperature except the
positive temperature coefficient ones at the middle range of temperature could exhibit almost
linear characteristics.

PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush
current refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first
turned on. Thermistors are available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest in size are the beads
with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm.

There are two fundamental ways to change the temperature of thermistor internally or externally.
The temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing the temperature of
surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting from a current flowing through the
device. The benefits of using a thermistor are accuracy and stability.

Simple fire alarm circuit using thermistor

This simple fire alarm circuit is based on thermistor and fire detection is possible through this
circuit.
 Simple Fire Alarm Circuit using Thermistor

This circuit is very useful in home security systems. This circuit works based on the principle of
switching property of the transistor. The thermistor and resistor R1 forms potential divider network
to drive the transistor. The semiconductor materials used for thermistors are sensitive to
temperature. The transistor is switched ON by the voltage drop through the resistor R1. Assume
the atmosphere’s temperature is around 25°C, and then the resistance of the thermistor changes,
then the voltage across the thermistor changes according to the principle of ohm’s law V = IR.
When the voltage across resistor R1 is low, then it is not sufficient to turn ON the transistor. When
the temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases, so that the drop across the resistor
R1 increases which turns ON the transistor. When the transistor is turned ON, the current from
Vcc starts to flow via 6V buzzer which generates a beep sound. The diode is used for enabling
unidirectional conduction and the capacitor removes sudden transients from the thermistor. The
following are some few examples of practical circuits using thermistor for detecting or controlling
temperature.

Resistive Temperature Sensors (RTD).

Another type of temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD. RTD’s are
precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper
or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature,
similar to that of the thermistor.

A resistive RTD
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity.
Like the thermistor, RTD’s are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through
the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with
temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100Ω at 0oC, increasing to about 140Ω
at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200 to + 600oC.

Operations of RTD

An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor. The current
experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced over the resistor.
Depending on the nominal resistance of the RTD, different supply currents can be used. To
reduce self-heating on the sensor the supply current should be kept low generally around 1mA or
less.

The more wires an RTD has the more accurate it is. The entire RTD assembly is not platinum.
Therefore constructing an RTD in that manner would for most purposes be expensive. As a
result, only the small RTD element itself is made of platinum. As a practical matter the
resistance value of the RTD element would be useless without a means to communicate that
resistance to an instrument. Accordingly, insulated copper wires typically connect the RTD
element to the measuring instrument. An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire
configuration. The two-wire configuration is the simplest and also the most error prone. In this
setup, the RTD is connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and the output voltage
is measured. The disadvantage of this circuit is that the two connecting lead wire resistances add
directly to the RTD’s resistance and an error is incurred.
Like platinum, copper has a resistance value. Resistance along the copper lead wires can impact
the resistance measurement determined by the instrument connected to the RTD. Two wire
RTDs do not have a practical means for accounting for the resistance associated with the copper
lead wires which reduces the extent to which the resistance measured can be accurately
correlated to the temperature of the RTD element. As a result, two wire RTDs are least
commonly specified and are generally used where only an approximate value for temperature is
needed.

Benefits of RTD

There are many options when considering contact temperature measurement; including
thermocouples, thermistor, and RTDs. While thermocouples can handle very high temperatures
and thermistors are inexpensive, there are many advantages of RTDs. Some of these advantages
include their accuracy, precision, long-term stability, and good hysteresis characteristics. Even
beyond these, there are advantages of thin film RTDs over wire wound, including smaller
dimensions, better response times, vibration resistance, and cheapness. New advancements have
made the thin film RTD more accurate as wire wound at higher temperature ranges.

Contact - liquid-in-glass thermometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are been in use for almost 300 years. Thermometer relies on the
expansion of a liquid with temperature. Liquid is contained in a sealed glass bulb and it expands
into the fine bore in the thermometer stem. Temperature is read using a scale etched along the
stem.

Advantages:
• Simple and stable
• Potable
• Cheaper than comparable system

Disadavantages:
• Limited accuracy and temperature range covered
• Requires visual reading and is not easy to automate

Contact - electrical thermometers

1. Resistance thermometers

Principle is that the electrical resistance of the sensors is strongly temperature dependent, and
changes with temperature in a predictable way.
Platinum Resistance

Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs)

These are the most accurate ones. In a thermometer, the high purity platinum wire sensor is
located near the tip of a closed protective tube to make a probe which can be inserted into the
measurement environment. Most sensors are made with two wires emerging from the instrument,
the resistance of these wires is included in the measurement and errors of a few °C may result.
Some compensation for the lead resistances can be achieved by connecting a third wire to one
side of the sensor (3-wire connection), or the best one requires four wires, two for passing the
current and two for sensing the voltage across the resistance.
Good sensitivity can be achieved: measurements routinely made with a precision of better than a
thousandth part of 1°C.

(ii) Position sensors

Position Sensor is a device that can be used to detect the movement of an object in a straight
line using Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using Rotational Sensors.

One method of determining a position is to use either “distance”, which could be the distance
between two points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point, or by
“rotation” (angular movement). For example, the rotation of a wheel to determine its distance
travelled along the ground.

The Potentiometer.

The most commonly used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the potentiometer because it is cheap
and easy to use. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either angular
(rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and which causes the resistance value
between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving an electrical signal output
that has a proportional relationship between the actual wiper position on the resistive track and
its resistance value. In other words, resistance is proportional to position.
 Potentiometer

Potentiometers come in different designs and sizes such as the commonly available round
rotational type or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a positional sensor the
moveable object is connected directly to the rotational shaft or slider of the potentiometer.

A DC reference voltage is applied across the two outer fixed connections forming the resistive
element. The output voltage signal is taken from the wiper terminal of the sliding contact as
shown in the figure below.

Potentiometer Construction

This configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which is
proportional to the shaft position. For example, if we apply a voltage of 10 V across the resistive
element of the potentiometer the maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply voltage
at 10 volts, with the minimum output voltage equal to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will
vary the output signal from 0 to 10 volts, with 5 volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its
half-way or centre position.

The output signal (V out) from the potentiometer is taken from the centre wiper connection as it
moves along the resistive track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.

A simple Positional Sensing Circuit

Resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages such as low cost, easy to use etc.
as a position sensor they also have many disadvantages, for example wear due to moving parts,
low accuracy etc.

But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range
of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to the
physical size of the potentiometer being used. Most types of potentiometers use carbon film for
their resistive track, but these types are electrically noisy and also have a short mechanical life.

Wire-wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound coil
resistive wire can also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems as their
wiper jumps from one wire segment to the next producing a logarithmic output resulting in errors
in the output signal. These too suffer from electrical noise.

For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer
film or cermets type potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth low friction
electrically linear resistive track giving them a low noise, long life and excellent resolution and
are available as both multi-turn and single turn devices. Typical applications for this type of high
accuracy position sensor are in computer game joysticks, steering wheels etc.

Inductive Position Sensors.

One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the “Linear
Variable Differential Transformer” (LVDT). This is an inductive type position sensor which
works on the same principle as the AC transformer that is used to measure movement. It is a very
accurate device for measuring linear displacement and whose output is proportional to the
position of its moveable core.
It consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the primary coil and the
other two coils forming identical secondary’s connected electrically together in series but 180o
out of phase either side of the primary coil.

A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core called an “armature” which is connected to the object
being measured, slides or moves up and down inside the tubular body of the LVDT. A small AC
reference voltage called the “excitation signal” is applied to the primary winding which in turn
induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent secondary windings.

If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings, “null
position”, the two induced e.m.f in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are
180o out of phase, so the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is displaced slightly to one
side or away from this null position, the induced voltage in one of the secondary’s will become
greater than that of the other secondary and an output will be produced.

The polarity of the output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the moving
core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central null position the greater will
be the resulting output signal. The result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly
with the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has both amplitude that is a linear function
of the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates direction of movement.
When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output
voltages changes from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the process changes
its phase angle by 180 degrees. This enables the LVDT to produce an output AC signal whose
magnitude represents the amount of movement from the centre position and whose phase angle
represents the direction of movement of the core.

A typical application of a linear variable differential transformer (LDVT) sensor would be as a

pressure transducer, was the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a
force. The force is then converted into a readable voltage signal by the sensor.

Advantages of the linear variable differential transformer compared to a resistive potentiometer

are that its linearity, which is its voltage output to displacement, is excellent, very good accuracy,
good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless operation. They are also sealed for use in
hostile environments.
Maximum Left

Null Position
 Maximum Right

Inductive Proximity Sensors.

Another type of inductive position sensor in common use is the inductive proximity sensor also
called an eddy current sensor. Basically these do not actually measure displacement or angular
rotation but they are mainly used to detect the presence of an object in front of them or within a
close proximity, hence they are called “proximity sensor”.

Proximity sensors are non-contact position sensors that use a magnetic field for detecting
position. In an inductive sensor, a coil is wound around an iron core within an electromagnetic
field to form an inductive loop.

When a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around the
inductive sensor, such as a ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance of the coil
changes significantly. The proximity sensors detection circuit detects this change producing an
output voltage. Therefore, inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Inductive proximity sensor

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components; The oscillator which produces the
electromagnetic field, the coil which generates the magnetic field, the detection circuit which
detects any change in the field when an object enters it and the output circuit which produces

the output signal, either with normally closed or normally open contacts. Inductive proximity
sensors allow for the detection of metallic objects in front of the sensor head without any
physical contact of the object itself being detected. This makes them ideal for use in dirty or wet
environments.

Proximity Sensor

Apart from industrial applications, inductive proximity sensors are also commonly used to
control the flow of traffic by changing of traffic lights at junctions and cross roads. Rectangular
inductive loops of wire are buried into the tarmac road surface.

When a car or other road vehicle passes over this inductive loop, the metallic body of the vehicle
changes the loops inductance and activates the sensor thereby alerting the traffic lights controller
that there is a vehicle waiting.

One main disadvantage of these types of position sensors is that they are “multi-directional”, that
is they will sense a metallic object either above, below or to the side of it.

(iii) Level sensors

Level measurements
In industry, liquids such as water, chemicals, and solvents are used in various processes. The
amount of such liquid stored can be found by measuring level of the liquid in a container or
vessel. The level affects not only the quantity delivered but also pressure and rate of flow in and
out of the container.

Level sensors detect the level of substances like liquids, granular materials, powders etc. The
substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g. a river or a
lake). The level measurement can be either continuous or point values.

Continuous level sensors: these measure the level to determine the exact amount of substance
in a continuous manner.
Point-level sensors: These indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point.
This is essential to avoid overflow or emptying of tanks and to protect pumps from dry run.

Level measurements are broadly classified in two groups:

• Direct methods
• Indirect methods
In direct methods, the level is indicated directly by means of simple mechanical devices. The
measurement is not affected by changes in material density. Some examples used in this method
are:

• Dip Stick
• Floats
• Ultrasonic
• Magnetic etc

Capacitive level switch operating principle

A capacitor is a two terminal device that consists of two conducting bodies separated by a non
conducting or material dielectric. A simple capacitor consists of two plates as shown below. A
simplified expression for the capacitance of this arrangement is:

To create a more usable geometry for sensors the plates or electrodes can be arrayed in a variety
of ways. However the overall relationship between the variables remains the same. Shown
below, the electrodes are arrayed on the same plane. This can be accomplished in numerous
ways. The electric field is projected away from the electrodes.
If the dielectric remains constant, the capacitance also remains constant. If the dielectric changes,
the capacitance naturally also changes. In capacitive proximity sensors, these two electrodes are
coupled together, and integrated in a high frequency oscillator. In the “no target” state the
oscillator is tuned to be resting. As a target enters the electric field, increasing the capacitance,
oscillation begins. When the amplitude reaches a high enough level, a change in signal state is
triggered.