Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Effect of parameters on the melting performance of triplex tube heat

exchanger incorporating phase change material
Kun Yang a, b, *, Neng Zhu c, d, Yongzhao Li a, b, Na Du c, d
a
Heibei Province Low-carbon and Clean Building Heating Technology Innovation Center, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, 066006, China
b
Key Laboratory of Green Construction and Intelligent Maintenance for Civil Engineering of Hebei Province, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, 066004,
China
c
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
d
Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy, MOE, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, a two-dimensional mathematical model of a phase change material (PCM) melting in a
Received 7 October 2020 triplex tube heat exchanger (TTHX) unit was developed. Based on two parameters, exergy efficiency and
Received in revised form heat storage rate, the effects of the operating conditions and unit configurations on the thermal storage
6 April 2021
performance of the investigated TTHX unit were numerically studied. The results indicate that the in-
Accepted 9 April 2021
Available online 24 April 2021
crease in heat transfer fluid (HTF) inlet temperature improves the heat storage rate but reduces the
exergy efficiency. The HTF mass flow rate in the inner and outer tubes should be minimized under the
premise that the flow states in both tubes are turbulent. If the flow states in both tubes are turbulent and
Keywords:
Phase change material (PCM)
the HTF mass flow rate remains unchanged, then the HTF mass flow rate in the inner tube should be
Triplex tube heat exchanger (TTHX) decreased for higher exergy efficiency. When the PCM radius varies from 30 mm to 70 mm under the
Melting same operating conditions, the exergy efficiency increased by 15.6%, while the heat storage rate
Exergy efficiency decreased by 36.8%. If the HTF mass flow rate is large, the variation in TTHX length has a slight influence
Heat storage rate on the exergy efficiency, but it significantly affects the heat storage rate.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Motivation
With the rapid development of the social economy, energy
shortages and environmental degradation have become increas-
ingly prominent, which has driven researchers to develop renew-
able energy resources and energy efficiency systems [1,2].
Distributed energy systems (DESs) have attracted attention owing
to their advantages of improving the energy utilization efficiency
and achieving synergetic complementarity between renewable
energy and fossil energy [3,4]. However, uncertainty issues, such as
the intermittent and irregular renewable energy generation and
dynamic energy demand, have seriously affected the reliability and
flexibility of the system [5e7]. The coupling of a multi-energy
complementary DES with a thermal energy storage (TES) unit can
eliminate the energy generationeconsumption discrepancy,
thereby improving its energy utilization efficiency [8]. Three main
* Corresponding author. School of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Yanshan
University, Qinhuangdao, 066004, China.
E-mail address: yangkun@ysu.edu.cn (K. Yang).
methods are used for TES: sensible, latent, and thermal-chemical
heat storage [9]. Among these three different TES methods, the
latent heat TES (LHTES) system has received considerable attention
owing to its relatively high latent heat capacity and nearly
isothermal storage performance [10].
1.1. Background and relevant literature
In the study of the LHTES system, the following main areas
attract the attention of researchers: (1) selection of the phase
change material (PCM) for a given application [11,12]; (2) design of
the LHTES heat exchanger [13,14], (3) analysis of the PCM melting/
solidification performance [15,16]; (4) enhancement of the heat
transfer process [17,18]; and (5) evaluation and optimization of the
LHTES system [19,20]. Once the optimal PCM for a specific appli-
cation is determined, the type of heat exchanger should be selected
for an excellent heat storageerelease property. There is no clear
classification of LHTES heat exchangers, and various types,
including the shell and tube, concentric-cylinder, packed bed, plate
type, and triplex tube heat exchanger (TTHX) have been used in
LHTES systems [21,22]. Among these different types, the shell and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.04.051
0960-1481/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Nomenclature t0 time (s) R1 =U1

U1 flow rate in the inner tube (m/s)
U2 flow rate in the outer tube (m/s)
Abbreviations U21 dimensionless velocity U2 =U1
DES distributed energy system W mechanical energy (J)
FVM finite volume method x axial coordinate (m)
HTF heat transfer fluid X dimensionless axial coordinate
HP heat pipe
LHTES latent heat thermal energy storage Superscripts
PCM phase change material k iteration k
SCD simultaneous charging and discharging o old value
TTHX triplex tube heat exchanger
TES thermal energy storage Subscripts
a ambient
Symbols e effective
a discrete equation coefficients f HTF
c specific heat capacity (J/kg$K) f1 HTF in the inner tube
C constant in Eq. (5) f2 HTF in the outer tube
Ex exergy (W) i inner
g acceleration of gravity (m/s2) in inlet
h1 local convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner l liquid
tube surface (W/m2$K) m melting
h2 local convection heat transfer coefficient on the n; s; w; e north, south, west and east faces of control volumes
middle tube surface (W/m2$K) out outlet
l length of the TTHX (m) o outer
L dimensionless length p PCM
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) P; N; S; W; E the center, north, south, west and east nodes
n constant in Eq. (5) s solid
Nu Nusselt number tm the time required for completing the melting process
Pr Prandtl number
Q heat (J) Greek letters
q heat storage rate (W) Dt time step (s)
r radial coordinate (m) DX dimensionless axial space step
R1 inner tube radius (m) DR dimensionless radial space step
R2 outer tube radius (m) a thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
Rp middle tube radius (m) b thermal expansion coefficient (1/K)
Ra Rayleigh number d melt layer thickness (m)
Re Reynolds number f local liquid fraction
R dimensionless radial coordinate h exergy efficiency
RN dimensionless radius Rp R1 =ðR22  R2p Þ l thermal conductivity (W/m$K)
Rp1 dimensionless radius Rp =R1 n kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
R21 dimensionless radius R2 =R1 r density (kg/m3)
St Stanton number t dimensionless time
Ste Stefan number L specific heat capacity ratio
T temperature (K) P thermal diffusion ratio
t time (s) Q dimensionless temperature1 Introduction
tm the time required for completing the melting process
(s)

tube heat exchanger has intrigued researchers owing to its good
functionality at high pressures and temperatures, robust and
rugged mechanical construction, and straightforward geometry
and maintenance [23]. Compared to the shell and tube heat
exchanger, the TTHX, which augments the heat exchange surface
and accelerates the charging/discharging process, has recently
received significant attention [24,25].
Good application of the LHTES system in a practical program can
be achieved only if its thermal behavior is investigated in detail.
Accordingly, both numerical simulation and experimental studies
have been devoted to investigating the thermal behavior of the
PCM within a TTHX. Different heating methods, including single
inner tube heating, single outer tube heating, and heating in the
inner and outer tubes (in both tubes) can be realized in a TTHX.
Through a numerical study of the three different heating methods,
the heating in both tubes method is considered to be effective in
decreasing the time required to complete the melting process
[26,27]. Under the method of heating in both tubes, the effects of
the operating parameters, including the inlet temperature and
mass flow rate of the heat transfer fluid (HTF), on the melting/so-
lidification process of the PCM within a TTHX unit have been
numerically and experimentally investigated by some researchers
[24,27,28]. The results demonstrated that, compared with the HTF
inlet temperature, the variation in mass flow rate has a slight in-
fluence on the heat storage process. In addition, the role of natural
convection during PCM melting has been emphasized [29].

360
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al.
Furthermore, some scholars have investigated heat transfer
enhancement techniques in TTHXs incorporating a PCM. Mahdi and
Nsofor [30,31] numerically investigated the effect of adding nano-
particles to the PCM in a TTHX on the charging/discharging process.
From the analysis, the results showed that the phase change pro-
cess was promoted by adding nanoparticles to the PCM. Mahdi and
Lohrasbi et al. [32] investigated the improvement in TTHX perfor-
mance using a new fin configuration during the simultaneous
charging and discharging (SCD) process. The results indicated that
the proposed optimal fin structure was superior to the addition of
nanoparticles to the PCM with the same system volume. Beyond
the conventional TTHX with one inner tube, Esapour et al. [33]
studied the effects of the number of inner tubes, arrangement
mode, and porosity of the metallic foam on the heat storage and
release characteristics of the LHTES unit. The results demonstrated
that increasing the number of inner tubes and adding a metallic
foam can significantly improve the charging and discharging rates.
From a review of the literature, it can be concluded that the
research on the effect of the variation in unit configuration on the
thermal behavior is absent, and the numerical simulation of the
PCM melting/solidification performance in a TTHX unit is mainly
limited to that using commercial software (e.g., ANSYS Fluent).
Considering that the code of commercial software is closed, it is
difficult for researchers to know the specific details of the model
and algorithm. Meanwhile, there is a lack of in-depth under-
standing of the basic numerical method and its physical signifi-
cance. Therefore, the establishment of physical and mathematical
models of PCM melting in a TTHX unit based on the basic theory of
numerical heat transfer and the development of a calculation
program for the numerical simulation of the heat storage unit are
helpful for an in-depth understanding of the phase change heat
transfer process and the numerical simulation method. This is one
of the main purposes of this study.
Once the energy storage and release characteristics of the LHTES
system are known, its performance can be evaluated from the
viewpoints of energy and exergy. From the perspective of energy,
different evaluation indexes are proposed to assess the LHTES
system: energy efficiency [34,35], energy efficiency ratio [36,37],
TES rate density [38] and heat storage ratio [39]. However, the
conventional energy analysis completely ignores the quality of the
heat stored during the charging process. Compared to the energy
analysis, the exergy analysis has been proven to be an effective tool
for performance assessment and optimization of the LHTES system
because it considers the loss of availability and heat temperature
during the heat transfer process [40,41]. Therefore, an exergy
analysis is recommended for LHTES evaluation.
In contrast to the evaluation based on the energy analysis,
limited work has been carried out on the LHTES system based on
the exergy analysis. Li et al. [40] analyzed the influence of melting
temperatures and the number of PCM1 and PCM2 heat transfer
units, which were constructed using two PCM storage systems, on
the overall exergetic efficiency. The results showed that the overall
exergetic efficiency can achieve an improvement of 19.0%e53.8%
using two PCMs compared with a single PCM, and the melting
temperature and number of PCM1 and PCM2 heat transfer units
have different influences on the overall exergetic efficiency.
Kousksou et al. [42] numerically investigated a solar system
coupled with an encapsulated PCM TES unit based on energy and
exergy analyses. The results emphasize the influence of the melting
temperature of the PCM on the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
system. Erek and Dincer [43] developed a novel approach for
determining the energy and exergy efficiency and effectiveness to
analyze a shell-and-tube LHTES system in its charging process.
From the analysis of the effect of operating conditions and design
parameters on the phase change performance, it can be concluded
361
Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371
that the energy and exergy efficiency and effectiveness are signif-
icant tools for the evaluation and optimization of the LHTES system.
Kumar and Saha [44] numerically investigated the effect of porosity
and pore diameter on the net useful energy stored/released in a
shell-and-tube LHTES system during the charging and discharging
processes from the viewpoint of energy and exergy. The results
showed that with a decrease in porosity, the energy and exergy
efficiency increased for the charging/discharging process, while the
effect of pore diameter on the energy and exergy efficiency is
insignificant. Song et al. [45] developed a two-dimensional physical
model of a heat pipe (HP) receiver integrated with an LHTES system
to investigate its energy and exergy characteristics during the PCM
melting process, and the key parameters were then optimized to
maximize the exergy efficiency based on the genetic algorithm.
Solomon and Oztekin [46] analyzed six different TES systems to
determine the benefits of a system employing multiple PCMs based
on exergy analysis. The results indicated that a cascaded multi-PCM
system outperforms the corresponding single PCM-based system,
and a 2-PCM system is considered to be the optimal choice. From a
review of the literature, it can be concluded that the exergy analysis
is a useful tool for the evaluation and optimization of LHTES sys-
tems. However, the evaluation of the PCM melting in a TTHX unit
from the viewpoint of exergy is absent.
From the discussion above, the main deficiencies of the previous
studies that focused on the phase change performance and evalu-
ation of the TTHX incorporating PCM include the following aspects:
(1) the performance evaluation of TTHX units incorporating PCM
from the viewpoint of exergy is limited; (2) the numerical simu-
lation of TTHX units incorporating PCM based on self-developed
code is limited; (3) the effect of the unit configuration on the
charging performance of TTHX units incorporating PCM has not
been investigated.
1.2. Contribution
The present work is an extension of the study in Ref. [15], which
numerically studied the effects of inlet temperature and mass flow
rate of the HTF on the charging performance, including the liquid
fraction versus time, average temperature versus time, heat stored
versus time, and variation in exergy efficiency ratio when the PCM
completes the melting process. In contrast with the previous study,
the major novelties and contributions of this study are as follows:
(1) The PCM melting in a TTHX unit was physically and mathe-
matically modeled.
(2) The governing equations are nondimensionalized to obtain
more general results, and the numerical simulation of the
investigated TTHX unit during the melting process was car-
ried out by implementing a self-developed Fortran code.
(3) The effects of the operation conditions and unit configura-
tions on the heat storage performance of the investigated
TTHX unit were studied based on evaluation indexes,
including the exergy efficiency and heat storage rate.
1.3. Paper organization
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 develops
the physical and mathematical model. Section 3 presents the
evaluation parameters for determining the influence of the oper-
ating conditions and unit configurations on the heat storage per-
formance of the investigated TTHX unit. Section 4 presents the
numerical procedure, and the results are validated by comparison
with the numerical and experimental results previously published
in the literature. Section 5 analyzes the effects of the operating
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

conditions and unit configurations on the heat storage performance    

vTp v vT 1 v vTp vf
of the investigated TTHX unit. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the ðrcÞp ¼ lp p þ r lp  rp H (2)
conclusions. vt vx vx r vr vr vt

where f is the melting fraction of the PCM, which can be estimated

as
2. Physical and mathematical model 8
< f ¼ 0; Tp < Tm ; solid
0 < f < 1; Tp ¼ Tm ; mushy (3)
2.1. Physical model :
f ¼ 1; Tp > Tm ; liquid
Fig. 1 shows a schematic representation of the investigated
and lp represents the local thermal conductivities of the PCM. It can
TTHX unit, which has an inner tube with a radius of 0.01 m, a
be expressed as follows:
middle tube with a radius of 0.04 m, and an outer tube with a radius
of 0.05 m. The HTF, water, flows through the inner and outer tubes
lp ¼ fle þ ð1  fÞlps (4)
and exchanges heat with the PCM filling the middle tube of the
investigated TTHX unit. Ba(OH)2$8H2O, which is considered a In Eq. (4), le is the effective thermal conductivity, which can be
promising PCM for heat storage, was chosen as the PCM in the obtained according to Ref. [36] as follows:
current study. The PCM realizes storage and release of heat through
the melting and solidification processes, respectively. The length of le
¼ CRan (5)
the investigated TTHX unit was 1.00 m. The thermophysical prop- lpl
erties of water and Ba(OH)2$8H2O can be obtained from Ref. [15].


3
gbp Tf ;in  Tm d
Ra ¼ (6)
apl npl
2.2. Mathematical model
The one-dimensional energy equation for the HTF that flows
2.2.1. Energy conservation equations through the outer tube is expressed as follows:
To simplify the mathematical model, the assumptions in
 vT

vTf 2 f2
Ref. [15] are adopted. The computational domain is composed of ðrcÞf p ¼  ðrcÞf p R22  R2p U2  2h2 pRp Tf 2  Tp
the following three parts: the HTF, which flows through both the vt vx
inner and outer tubes, and the PCM, which fills the middle tube. The (7)
melting process of the TTHX unit is shown in Fig. 2. The initial and boundary conditions are given as follows:
The enthalpy method [47] was employed to formulate the PCM
solideliquid transformation process mathematically. The energy t ¼ 0 : Tf 1 ¼ Tp ¼ Tf 2 ¼ Tp;initial (8)
conservation equations for the HTF in both tubes and the PCM are
given as follows: vTp
The one-dimensional energy equation for the HTF that flows x ¼ 0 : Tf 1 ¼ Tf 2 ¼ Tf ;in ; ¼0 (9)
vx
through the inner tube is expressed as follows:

 vTf 1 vTp vTf 2

vTf 1 vTf 1 x¼l : ¼ ¼ ¼0 (10)
ðrcÞf pR21 ¼  ðrcÞf pR21 U1  2h1 pR1 Tf 1  Tp (1) vx vx vx
vt vx
The two-dimensional energy equation for the PCM filling the vTf 1
middle tube is given as follows: r¼0 : ¼0 (11)
vr

vTp

r ¼ R1 :  lp ¼ h1 Tf 1  Tp (12)
vr

vTp

r ¼ Rp :  lp ¼ h2 Tf 2  Tp (13)
vr

vTf 2
r ¼ R2 : ¼0 (14)
vr
During the melting process, the initial temperature of the PCM
(Tp;initial ) was 18 K lower than that of the PCM.

2.2.2. Normalization of the model

The governing equations in dimensionless form can not only
reduce the parameters and simplify the mathematical model, but
also facilitate a similar simulation in the numerical calculation,
which makes the calculation result more general. Therefore, the
above-mentioned energy conservation equations for the HTF in
both tubes and the PCM can be normalized based on the following
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the investigated TTHX unit. parameters:
362
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Fig. 2. Melting process of the investigated TTHX unit.

x r l t R T  Tm vQp
X¼ ; R ¼ ; L ¼ ; t ¼ ; t0 ¼ 1 ; Q ¼ (15) X ¼ 0 : Qf 1 ¼ Qf 2 ¼ 1; ¼0 (21)
R1 R1 R1 t0 U1 Tf ;in  Tm vX

The dimensionless model of HTF flowing in the inner tube vQf 1 vQp vQf 2
becomes X¼L : ¼ ¼ ¼0 (22)
vX vX vX
vQf 1 vQf 1

¼  2St1 Qf 1  Qp (16) vQf 1
vt vX R¼0 : ¼0 (23)
vR
The dimensionless model of the PCM filling the middle tube
becomes vQp Nu1

R¼1 : ¼  Qf 1  Qp (24)
"  # vR 2Pthermp Lhcp
vQp 2Pthermp v Qp v vQp
2
1 vf
¼ þ R  (17)
vt Pr,Re vX 2 RvR vR Ste vt vQp Nu2

R ¼ Rp1 : ¼  Qf 2  Qp (25)
Liquid fraction: vR 2Pthermp Lhcp

8
< f ¼ 0; Qp < 0; solid vQf 2
0 < f < 1; Qp ¼ 0; mushy (18) R ¼ R21 : ¼0 (26)
: vR
f ¼ 1; Qp > 0; liquid
From equations (16)e(26), the relevant parameters are defined
The dimensionless model of HTF flowing in the outer tube as

nf lf 2U R 2h R Nu1 lpl
Pr ¼ ; a ¼ ; Re ¼ 1 1 ; Nu1 ¼ 1 1 ; St1 ¼ ; a ¼ (27)
af f ðrcÞf nf lf Pr,Re pl ðrcÞpl


l a a cp Tf ;in  Tm Rp
aps ¼ ps ; Pthermpl ¼ pl ; Pthermps ¼ ps ; Ste ¼ ; Rp1 ¼ (28)
ðrcÞps af af H R1

   
2h2 R2  Rp U2 Rp R1 2U R  Rp R
Nu2 ¼ ; U21 ¼ ; RN ¼
; Reo ¼ 2 2 ; R21 ¼ 2 (29)
lf U1 R2  R2 nf R1
2 p

becomes

vQf 2 vQf 2 Nu U R

¼  U21  2 2 21 N Qf 2  Qp (19)
vt vX PrReo
The dimensionless initial and boundary conditions can be ob-
lp fle þ ð1  fÞlps fapl CRan þ ð1  fÞaps Lhcpsl
tained as follows: ap ¼ ¼ ¼
ðrcÞp fðrcÞpl þ ð1  fÞðrcÞps f þ ð1  fÞLhcpsl
t ¼ 0 : Qf 1 ¼ Qp ¼ Qf 2 ¼ Qa (20) (30)

363
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Fig. 3. Grid system of the investigated TTHX unit (a) for the HTF in both tubes and (b) for the PCM.

ap fCRan Pthermpl þ ð1  fÞPthermps Lhcpsl Rs DX DX,DR,RP

Pthermp ¼ ¼ (31) ap;S ¼ ; a0p;P ¼ ; D ¼ a0p;P Qkp;P
af f þ ð1  fÞLhcpsl  ðdRÞs  Dt
2Pthermp
Pr,Re

ðrcÞp fðrcÞpl þ ð1  fÞðrcÞps

s

Lhcp ¼ ¼ ¼ fLhcpl þ ð1  fÞLhcps RP DR fkP  fkþ1 DX
ðrcÞf ðrcÞf P
þ (38)
(32) Ste,Dt
For each time increment, the melting fraction f is updated using
ðrcÞpl ðrcÞps ðrcÞps the method proposed by Voller [47]:
Lhcpl ¼ ; Lhcps ¼ ; Lhcpsl ¼ (33)
ðrcÞf ðrcÞf ðrcÞpl
Ste,ap;P Qkþ1
p;P
fkþ1 ¼ fkP þ (39)
a0p;P

where f is greater than 1 or less than 0, and the melting fraction can
2.2.3. Discretization of the model be revised as follows:
The finite volume method (FVM) was adopted to integrate each

control volume in the computational domain, and the dimension- f ¼ 0; if f < 0
(40)
less governing equations are numerically solved. The grid system f ¼ 1; if f > 1
diagram is shown in Fig. 3 to facilitate the capture of the dis-
cretization process. For the HTF flowing in the outer tube:
For the HTF flowing in the inner tube:
 !
Qkþ1
f 2;P  Qf 2;P
k
U Qkþ1
f 2;E  Qf 2;P
kþ1
Qkþ1
f 2;P  Qf 2;W
kþ1
! ¼  21 

 Qkþ1
f 1;E Qf 1;P
kþ1
Qkþ1 Qkþ1 Dt DX ðdXÞe ðdXÞw
 f 1;PðdXÞ f 1;W
Qkþ1
f 1;P  Qkf1;P ðdXÞe w
Nu2 U21 RN
kþ1 
¼ 2 Qf 2;p  Qkþ1 (41)
Dt

DX PrReo p;p

 2St1 Qkþ1
f 1;p  Qp;p
kþ1
(34)

For the PCM filling the middle tube:

3. Evaluation parameters
ap;P Qkþ1
p;P ¼ ap;E Qp;E þ ap;W Qp;W þ ap;N Qp;N þ ap;S Qp;S þ D
kþ1 kþ1 kþ1 kþ1

(35) 3.1. Exergy efficiency

where The mechanical work required to pump the HTF cannot be

neglected when evaluating the LHTES system from the viewpoint of
ap;P ¼ ap;E þ ap;W þ ap;N þ ap;S þ a0p;P (36) exergy [48]. Therefore, in this study, the exergy efficiency of the
investigated TTHX unit is defined taking into account the pump
RP DR R DR Rn DX work consumed by the HTF. It can be expressed as
ap;E ¼ ; ap;W ¼ ðPdxÞ ; ap;N ¼ ðdRÞ (37)
 ðdxÞe   w  n 
Exp;tm
2Pthermp 2Pthermp 2Pthermp h¼ (42)
Pr,Re Pr,Re Pr,Re Exi;tm þ Exo;tm þ Wi;tm þ Wo;tm
e w n

where Wi;tm and Wo;tm represent the mechanical work consumed to

364
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

pump the HTF through both tubes, respectively, and the detailed
calculations are available in Ref. [15]. During the time period tm , the
exergy stored in the PCM (Exp;tm ) and exergy transferred through
the HTF in both tubes (Exi;tm and Exo;tm ) can be acquired as follows:
 
Ta
Exp;tm ¼ Qp 1  (43)
Tp

!
Tf 1;in
Exi;tm ¼ m_ f 1 cp;f Tf 1;in  Tf 1;out  Ta ln tm (44)
Tf 1;out

!
Tf 2;in
Exo;tm ¼ m_ f 2 cp;f Tf 2;in  Tf 2;out  Ta ln tm (45)
Tf 2;out

3.2. Heat storage rate

Apart from the exergy efficiency, the heat stored per unit time in
the PCM during the melting process is also important. Therefore, an Fig. 4. Variation in melting fraction versus time for mesh independency.
evaluation index, the heat storage rate, which expresses the heat
stored per unit time in the PCM when it completes the melting
process, can be defined as follows [36]:
ðl Rðp
h


q tm ¼
Qp
(46) Qp ¼ 2pr rp cp;p Tp ðx; rÞ  Tp0 ðx; rÞ þ H f ðx; rÞ
tm (51)
x¼0 r¼R1
i
0
 f ðx; rÞ drdx

4. Numerical approach

4.1. Convergence criterion

4.2. Solution independency
Because the governing equations of the HTF in both tubes and
To investigate the mesh independency, six different grid reso-
the PCM are coupled by the boundary conditions, these equations
lutions, 120  50, 120  60, 120  70, 150  50, 150  60, and
must be solved by the iterative method at each time step. For a
150  70 were employed to verify the independence based on the
given time step, when the following inequality is satisfied, the
melting fraction versus time. Fig. 4 shows the predicted melting
converged results are considered acceptable.
fraction versus time for the six different meshes. From Fig. 4, the
8 relative solution deviations between the results based on the six
Qkþ1
f 1  Qf 1 þ Qp
k kþ1
 Qkp þ Qkþ1
f 2  Qf 2  5:0  10
k
(47)

In addition, to verify the numerical results obtained from the

model established in this study, at each time step, the relative
thermal balance deviation between the heat stored in the PCM and
the heat transferred by the HTF should satisfy that

Qf 1 þ Qf 2  Qp
Max  5:0  103 (48)
Qp

where


Qf 1 ¼ m_ f 1 cp;f Tf 1;in  Tf 1;out Dt

ðl

 rf cp;f pR21 Tf 1 ðxÞ  Tf01 ðxÞ dx (49)
x¼0

 ðl

Qf 2 ¼ m_ f 2 cp;f Tf 2;in  Tf 2;out Dt  rf cp;f p R22  R2p
x¼0


 Tf 2 ðxÞ  Tf02 ðxÞ dx (50)

Fig. 5. Variation in melting fraction versus time for time step independency.

365
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al.
Fig. 6. Comparison results between the present simulation and results in Ref. [49].
different meshes are negligible. Thus, a grid number of 150  60
was used for the following simulation during the melting process.
Furthermore, to select a suitable time step, three different time
steps (Dt ¼ 0:001 s; 0:003 s; 0:005 s) were tested to verify the
independence of the melting fraction versus time, as illustrated in
Fig. 5. This reveals that the three different time steps produced
nearly the same results for the melting fraction versus time.
Therefore, a time step of 0.005 s was adopted in the following
simulation.
4.3. Validation
To verify the calculation model developed in this study, the
present numerical predictions were compared with the numerical
and experimental results previously published in the literature for
triple concentric-tube and horizontal double concentric-tube latent
Fig. 7. Comparison results between the present simulation results and experimental
result in Ref. [50].
366
Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371
heat storage systems, respectively. First, the melting fraction versus
time obtained by the currently developed numerical model was
compared with that reported by Esapour et al. [49] under the same
physical structure and operating conditions. The comparative re-
sults are shown in Fig. 6. Furthermore, comparisons between the
present predictions and experimental data [50] were performed
under the same geometric parameters and operating conditions.
The time-wise variation of the PCM at reference point A (x ¼ 0.51 m,
r ¼ 0.002 m) based on the experimental study were compared with
the present predictions based on the simulation code in this study.
The comparative results are presented in Fig. 7.
From Figs. 6 and 7, it can be observed that the self-developed
computer code in this study produces numerical simulation re-
sults that are in good agreement with the numerical and experi-
mental results in Ref. [49] and Ref. [50]. The good agreement shows
that the physical model and simulation code developed in this
study are correct and reliable. Therefore, it can be employed to
investigate the melting characteristics of the TTHX unit incorpo-
rating PCM.
5. Results and discussions
5.1. Effect of operating parameters
Some scholars have studied the influence of operating condi-
tions, including the HTF inlet temperature and mass flow rate, on
the phase change performance of a TTHX unit incorporating PCM
[15,24,28]. Therefore, in the following discussion, the influence of
the operation conditions on the heat storage performance of the
investigated TTHX unit based on the two evaluation indexes
defined in Section 3 is analyzed.
5.1.1. Effect of HTF inlet temperature
Based on the evaluation indexes defined in Section 3, the effect
of the HTF inlet temperature on the heat storage performance of the
investigated TTHX unit was numerically analyzed. Three different
relative temperatures (Tf,in-Tm), 5, 10, and 15 K, were selected for the
investigation. Meanwhile, the flow parameter related to mass flow
rate was constant at 0.31 kg/s in both tubes for the different relative
temperatures.
The variation in exergy efficiency and heat storage rate of the
investigated TTHX unit under different relative temperatures when
the PCM completes the melting process is shown in Fig. 8.
From Fig. 8, as expected, with an increase in the HTF inlet
Fig. 8. Variation in exergy efficiency and heat storage rate based on different relative
temperatures.
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Table 1 Table 2
Different cases of HTF mass flow rate. Different cases of flow distribution ratio.

Cases m_ f 1 and m_ f 2 , kg/s Re Reo Case m_ f 1 :m_ f 2 Re Reo

Case 1 0.0031 345 38 Case 1 100:1 136520 152

Case 2 0.0094 1034 115 Case 2 1:3 34471 11490
Case 3 0.0156 1724 192 Case 3 1:2 45962 10214
Case 4 0.156 17235 1915 Case 4 1:1 68942 7660
Case 5 0.310 34470 3830 Case 5 2:1 91923 5107
Case 6 0.625 68942 7660 Case 6 3:1 103414 3830
Case 7 1.560 172356 19150 Case 7 1:100 1365 15169

temperature, the exergy efficiency of the investigated TTHX unit
gradually decreased when the melting process was completed. This
is because the greater the temperature difference is, the greater the
destroyed exergy. Similar results were obtained in Refs. [43,51].
According to Ref. [15], a shorter time is required for the PCM to
complete the melting process and more heat will be stored at a
higher HTF inlet temperature. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 8, the heat
storage rate of the investigated TTHX unit increased with an in-
crease in the HTF inlet temperature. When the relative temperature
varied from 5 to 15 K, the exergy efficiency decreased by approxi-
mately 6.8% ((89.2e83.1)/89.2), while the heat storage rate
increased by approximately 284.6% ((321.5e83.6)/83.6). Thus,
increasing the HTF inlet temperature is conducive to improving the
heat storage performance from the viewpoint of exergy efficiency
and heat storage rate.
5.1.2. Effect of HTF mass flow rate
To clarify the influence of the flow state on the heat storage
performance of the investigated TTHX unit, seven different cases, as
listed in Table 1, were employed to perform the investigation. The
different flow states in both tubes are represented by the Reynolds
number, as presented in Table 1. The relative temperature was
maintained at 15 K.
The influence of the HTF mass flow rate on the exergy efficiency
and heat storage rate in time period tm is shown in Fig. 9.
From Fig. 9, it can be observed that the exergy efficiency grad-
ually decreases with an increase in the HTF mass flow rate, and
there is a significant decrease in Case 7. This occurs because the
total exergy stored in the PCM does not change while more me-
chanical work is consumed to pump the HTF with the increase in
the HTF mass flow rate. When the HTF mass flow rate increases
from 0.0031 to 0.0156 kg/s (Case 1 to Case 3), the heat storage rate
increases 52.8%; when the HTF mass flow rate increases from
0.0156 to 0.156 kg/s (Case 3 to Case 4), the heat storage rate in-
creases 37.2%; when the HTF mass flow rate increases from 0.156 to
0.31 kg/s (Case 4 to Case 5), the heat storage rate increases 12.5%;
and when the HTF mass flow rate increases from 0.31 to 1.56 kg/s
(Case 5 to Case 7), the heat storage rate increases only 3.6%. It can be
concluded that the variation in HTF mass flow rate in the range of
the laminar state has a considerable effect on the heat storage rate
while that it in the range of the turbulent state has a faint influence
on the heat storage rate.
In summary, from the viewpoint of exergy efficiency and heat
storage rate, increasing the HTF mass flow rate leads to lower
exergy efficiency owing to the higher mechanical work required,
but it has a faint effect on the heat storage rate when the flow states
reach turbulence in both tubes. Therefore, the Reynolds number or
the HTF mass flow rate should be reduced under the premise that
the flow states in both tubes are turbulent for higher heat storage
performance.
5.1.3. Effect of flow distribution ratio
Considering the actual operation, the total HTF mass flow rate in
both tubes is usually constant; however, the various proportions of
the HTF mass flow rate in the different tubes have a non-negligible
influence on the heat storage performance. Therefore, the effect of
different flow distribution ratios, as listed in Table 2, on the heat
storage performance was investigated. The different flow states in
the different tubes can be identified using the Reynolds number.
The total mass flow rate of 1.25 kg/s is allocated to the HTF.
The effects of the flow distribution ratio on the exergy efficiency
and heat storage rate in the time period tm are shown in Fig. 10.
From Fig. 10, it is evident that the exergy efficiency is the lowest
and highest for Cases 1 and 7, respectively. As indicated in Table 2,
the flow states in both tubes are turbulent and laminar for Case 1,
whereas the opposite is true for Case 7. Furthermore, Fig. 10 shows

Fig. 9. Variation in exergy efficiency and heat storage rate for different HTF mass flow
rates. Fig. 10. Effect of flow distribution ratio on exergy efficiency and heat storage rate.

367
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al.
Table 3
Different cases of PCM radius.
Case R1 , mm Rp , mm
Case 1 10 30
Case 2 10 40
Case 3 10 50
Case 4 10 60
Case 5 10 70
that with a decrease in the flow distribution ratio in both tubes, the
exergy efficiency gradually increases. As illustrated in Fig. 10, the
heat storage rates for Cases 2e6 are higher than those for Cases 1
and 7. This can be attributed to the effect of the flow state on the
heat storage rate, which is discussed in Section 5.1.2.
Based on the above analysis, the HTF mass flow distribution
should abide by the following two principles to improve the ther-
mal energy storage performance: (1) the flow states in both tubes
should be turbulent to improve the heat storage rate; (2) on the
premise of (1), the proportion of the HTF mass flow rate in the inner
tube should be decreased for higher exergy efficiency.
5.2. Effect of unit configurations
5.2.1. Effect of PCM radius
Five different cases, as listed in Table 3 are employed to inves-
tigate the influence of the PCM radius on the heat storage perfor-
mance. For all cases, the HTF mass flow rate in both tubes and the
relative temperature remain constant with values of 0.31 kg/s and
15 K, respectively. Furthermore, the outer tube radius varies with
the different PCM radii to ensure that the flow state in the outer
tube is turbulent.
The influence of the PCM radius on the melting fraction versus
time is shown in Fig. 11.
As shown in Fig. 11, the PCM radius has a significant influence on
the PCM melting process. The time required to complete the
melting process was 71, 163, 296, 470, and 687 min for the PCM
radius range of 30e70 mm, respectively. Furthermore, as the PCM
radius increases, the radial resistance to heat transfer increases, and
the time required for completing the melting process increases
nonlinearly. For example, the time required to complete the
melting process increased by 92 min when the PCM radius varied
Fig. 11. Effect of PCM radius on melting fraction.
Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371
R2 , mm
42.4
50.0
58.3
67.1
76.2
Fig. 12. Effect of PCM radius on total energy stored.
from 30 to 40 mm, while it increased by 217 min when the PCM
radius varied from 60 to 70 mm.
The variation in total energy stored in the PCM with respect to
time for different PCM radii is shown in Fig. 12.
The quantity of the PCM in the investigated TTHX unit increases
with an increase in the PCM radius, which leads to an increase in
the heat storage capacity. As indicated in Fig. 12, when the PCM
completes the melting process, the total energy stored in the PCM is
1662, 3152, 5070, 7412, and 10180 kJ for Cases 1e5, respectively.
The effects of the PCM radius on the exergy efficiency and heat
storage rate during time period tm are shown in Fig. 13.
As shown in Fig. 13, the increase in the PCM radius contributed
to the improvement in the exergy efficiency. In addition, with a
further increase in the PCM radius, the rate of increase in the exergy
efficiency is weakened. However, the heat storage rate decreased
significantly with an increase in the PCM radius. When the PCM
radius varied from 30 to 70 mm, the exergy efficiency increased by
15.6%, while the heat storage rate decreased by 36.8%. Therefore, in
the optimization of the TTHX, the exergy efficiency and heat storage
rate should be comprehensively considered to determine the PCM
radius.
Fig. 13. Effects of PCM radius on exergy efficiency and heat storage rate.
368
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371

Fig. 16. Effect of TTHX length on total energy stored.

Fig. 14. Effect of TTHX length on melting fraction under 0.0094 kg/s.

transfer coefficient on the inner and middle tube wall surfaces. If

the HTF mass flow rate is small, the HTF temperature decreases
5.2.2. Effect of TTHX length
significantly along the main flow direction, which decreases the
Different lengths of the investigated TTHX unit, which succes-
temperature difference driving the heat transfer. However, when
sively increased with increments of 200 mm from 400 to 1600 mm,
the HTF mass flow rate is large, the HTF temperature varies slightly
were employed to investigate its influence on the melting perfor-
along the main stream direction. Then, the convective heat transfer
mance. First, the influence of the HTF mass flow rate and the TTHX
coefficient on the inner and middle tube surfaces, which is the same
length on the melting fraction versus time were analyzed to clarify
along the unit length direction, becomes the main factor affecting
the two factors affecting the heat transfer process.
the heat transfer. Similar results were obtained in Ref. [52] which
The effects of the TTHX length on the melting fraction under HTF
investigated the melting/solidification performance of a shell-and-
mass flow rates of 0.0094 and 0.31 kg/s in both tubes are shown in
tube LHTES unit.
Fig. 14 and Fig. 15, respectively.
Then, the influence of the TTHX length on the thermal energy
As shown in these figures, the time required to complete the
storage performance is analyzed under the HTF mass flow rate of
melting process has an obvious extension with the increase in TTHX
0.31 kg/s. The total energy stored in the PCM for various TTHX
length under the HTF mass flow rate of 0.0094 kg/s. However, the
lengths is shown in Fig. 16.
PCM melting fraction curves nearly overlap for the different TTHX
The PCM quantity increased with an increase in the TTHX
lengths under the HTF mass flow rate of 0.31 kg/s. This can be
length, which led to an improvement in the heat storage capacity.
explained by the fact that the heat transfer process is determined
As shown in Fig. 16, the total energy stored in the PCM is 1291, 1936,
by two factors: the temperature difference between the HTF tem-
2582, 3227, 3873, 4518, and 5164 kJ for TTHX lengths from 400 to
perature and the melting point of the PCM and the convective heat
1600 mm, respectively.
The effects of the TTHX length on the exergy efficiency and heat
storage rate during time period tm are shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 15. Effect of TTHX length on melting fraction under 0.31 kg/s. Fig. 17. Effect of TTHX length on exergy efficiency and heat storage rate.

369
K. Yang, N. Zhu, Y. Li et al.
As illustrated in Fig. 17, the TTHX length has a slight effect on the
exergy efficiency. When the TTHX length varied from 400 to
1600 mm, the exergy efficiency increased by only 0.48%. However,
the TTHX length has a pronounced influence on the heat storage
rate. When the TTHX length varied from 400 to 1600 mm, the heat
storage rate increased by 294.0%. This is due to the fact that the total
energy stored in the PCM obviously increase, but the time required
for completing the melting process is almost constant with the
increase in TTHX length. It can be concluded that increasing the
length of the TTHX unit to a certain extent can enhance the thermal
energy storage performance based on the exergy efficiency and
heat storage rate analysis.
6. Conclusion
In this study, the thermal energy storage performance of a TTHX
unit with Ba(OH)2$8H2O as the PCM was numerically investigated.
A two-dimensional physical and mathematical model based on the
enthalpy method was developed to predict the thermal behavior
and performance of a TTHX unit incorporating PCM. The FVM was
used to discretize the dimensionless governing equations, and then
a numerical simulation was carried out to study the effects of the
operating conditions and unit configurations on the melting per-
formance based on the exergy efficiency and heat storage rate using
a self-developed Fortran code. The following conclusions can be
drawn from the numerical analysis:
(1) For a more efficient thermal storage process, a higher HTF
inlet temperature and lower Reynolds number under tur-
bulent flow states in both tubes should be adopted.
Furthermore, if the total HTF mass flow rate is constant, the
principle of the flow distribution is to increase the HTF mass
flow rate in the outer tube when the flow states in both tubes
attain turbulence.
(2) As the PCM radius increases, the thermal energy capacity and
radial resistance to heat transfer increase; the time required
to complete the melting process increases nonlinearly. The
increase rate in the exergy efficiency is weakened, and the
variation in the heat storage rate is more sensitive than that
in the exergy efficiency.
(3) As the TTHX length increases, the thermal energy storage
capacity increases. The time required for completing the
melting process increases when the HTF mass flow rate is
small, but it remains nearly constant under a large HTF mass
flow rate, and the variation in the exergy efficiency is slight,
whereas the variation in the heat storage rate is significant.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kun Yang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal
analysis, Resources, Writing e original draft. Neng Zhu: Resources,
Writing e review & editing. Yongzhao Li: Visualization. Na Du:
Writing e review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the doctoral research start-up
funding of Yanshan University (grant No. 8190219) and Hebei
370
Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 359e371
Province Key Research and Development Project (grant No.
20374505D).
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