iid a VECTOR AND CALCULUS LOCATION OF A POINT IN SPACE Positions in space are designated relative to coordinate systems. The Cartesian coordinate system is a particularly convenient coordinate system in which FRAME OF REFERENCE A frame of reference i coordi another name forthe particular system with respect to which we are making, ‘observations of physical phenomena. Positions are designated by distances (x, y, 2) along SCALAR& VECTOR three perpendicular axes that intersect ata point called the origin, A two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system A three-dimensional Cartesian 7 ‘coordinate system Ina polar coordinate system positions in a plane are designated by a length r from the origin, and an angle 6 usually measured from the positive x - axis. From simple trigonometry we see that the relationships between the polar coordinates and the Cartesian coordinates are x=rcos0 ; y=rsin® y Relationship between polar and Cartesian coordinates A scalar quantity requires only a number for its complete description, Mass, volume, density, pressure ities. and temperature are all examples of sealar qui ‘The mathematics of scalar quantities is the ordinary algebra of numbers. Veetor quantities require both magnitude and direction forits complete description. Velocity, acceleration, force and momentum are examples of vector quantities. A veetor can be represented graphically by a directed line segment. The length of the line segment represents the vector’s magnitude and its angle with respect to some coordinate system specifies its direction, We will represent vectors by bold face type letters, with an arrow over the letter such as a. When written by hand the same representation may be used, Representation of a vector ‘The magnitude of a vector will be represented by italic type letters such as a, b,c ete. Iftwo vectors have the same direction, they are parallel Ifthey have the same magnitude and the same direction, they are equal, no matter where they are located in space. (a) Two equal vectors 65 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner‘The negative of a veetor is defined as a vector having, the same magnitude as the original vector but the opposite direction. (b) The negative of a vector ‘When two vectors 4 and § have opposite directions, ‘Whether their magnitudes are the same or not, We say that they are antiparallel. MN (©) Two anti-parallel vectors VECTOR ALGEBRA Addition of Vectors @ Geometrical Method ‘Twovvectors § and § may be added geometrically by drawing them to acommon scale and placing them head {0 ail. The vector connecting the tail ofthe frst tothe head of the second is the sum vector ¢. Finish Addition of two vectors a and 5 Vector addition is commutative and obeys the associativelaw, (2) Vector addition is commutative a+b (b) Vector a (asbyre=arlb+e) jcal Method (i) Analytical see gnen wen tr the two vectors 4 and fA VEN Hc tg Je between them is 0. The magnitude of the rey, vector ¢ of thie vector addition is given by ion is given by angle 6 with vector g and its di bsind tan = 75 bc080 a Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition tis a common error to conclude that if = 2-46, te ‘magnitude of & should be just equal to the magnituée of & plus the magnitude of § . In general, the conctuses ‘is wrong; one can see that c twfind 6. Suppose a, =2 manda, =—2m:; then 7 a, _ 1. But there are two angles having tangents of (— SOLVED EXAMPLE ly 135° and 313* (or 45°). In general, any two SOLVED EXAMPLE angles that differ by 180° have the same tangent. To (amet) decide which is correct, we have to look a the individual Tn orbiidanyaida guna components. Because a, is positive and a, is negative, Find the components of the vectors @ and 6 as shown the angle must bein the fourth quadrant; thus @= 315° inthe figure, ifa=2 units and b=3 units (or~45°)is the correct valve. But ifinstead we have a, ‘mand a, = 2 m, then the correct angle is 135%, Similarly, when a;and a, are both negative, the tangent is positive, but the angle is inthe third quadrant. One should always draw a sketch t0 check which of the ‘vo possibilities is the correct one. ae x UNIT VECTORS WS" Auunirvector is vector that has a magnitude of 1, with "no units. Its only purpose isto point, thats, to describe «direction in space. Unit vectors provide a convenient notation for many expressions involving components of vectors. 4, ac0s 0=2.cos 30° = 1.73 units In an x-y coordinate system we can define a unit vector 4; =a sin 0=2 sin 30°= 1 units 8,=be0s 0=3 cos 45° =2.12 units (or j) that points in the direction of the positive Bo psind= Sein 1am 4 axis and a unit vector j(or }) that points in the direction of the positive y-axis. Then we ean express SESE the relationship between the component vector sed Find the magnitude and direetion ofthe esuiant vector @=4+6 where g and 6 are vectors shown in above probe, their components as aaa 67 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMeet means Sol, amples) The veto § cxt faaieas When two vecturs & and i ate represen Of their compamens, we can expters the VEU Salt using unit vectors as follows bebirhs 6 afta jyrth,jrh jyota,7 be )i ~~ bj In three dimensional coordinate system 2 vector % may be expressed as a -ajtaj sak where { is the unit vector along the z-axis. SOLVED EXAMPLE —_—_—_—aaerr Wa 2 > jand 6-4 (a) Find the components of cy (b) Find the magnitude of & and its angle with the x- (a) ea +5 i++ (dis) (24) 5 +17) 5 = 61483 Thuse, 6:6, =4 tbyem Jerse = fer aaF = 100 2 tans meas 0 tan (413) = 53° Sol. ‘Multiplication of Vectors (i) Multiplication ofa vector by a scalar ‘The product of a scalar b and a vector ¢ is a new ‘ector whove magnitude is bv and whose direction is the same as that of % if i postive, and opposite to ‘hat of ¥ itbivnepative. Todivide g by 5, multiply 5 by (Wy, (ay Sealar or Dot Prods “Tee scalar (or dot) protect + fg and § are parallel then + Square of a vector is defined as 3 and not as (1 1}e0s 90° = 0 + Inunit-vector notation we bave, Hb a,j +0, 5-2, 6100,5 -, Thus 3-5 =a.b,+0,5 ~ a5, =21+3j:b=45 Finde= 4-6 e-@i +3 ))ai *2)=@y4)+@)Q2)=14 ©) Vector or Cross product ‘The vector (or cross) product oftwo vectors and > iswritten as ax andisa vector ¢ whose magnitos cis given by c=absin® in which @ is the smaller of the angles between direction of 3 and §. The direction of ¢ # perpendicular to the plane defined by and § and* sven by right hand rule, @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCross product of vectors @ and 6 xb (read as g cross 5) axb |=ab sind and axb alll sin® A where 4 is the unit vector. ‘The vector @ is directed perpendicular to the plane formed by § and § . The direction of vector § may be obtained by using the Right Hand Thumb Rule. Stretch all the fingers and the thumb of your right hand such that they are perpendicular to each other. Now align your hand such that its plane is perpendicular to the plane formed by the vectors @ and . Align the stretched fingers along the direction of the vector writen frst in order ie., @ inthis case Curl the fingers of your hand towards the second vector (ie. vector §) through the smaller angle. Then, the direction of the thumb gives you the direction of the cross product. Properties of Cross Product © Itisnot commutative axb # bxd « Infact axb =-bxa. Itis distributive over addition and subtraction ax(bte)eaxbtaxe Ifa [lb then a xB = andif aL 6,|axb jk be the unit vectors along the positive directions of x,y, and z axes then kxgro ks ixkeikeicd (maintain cyclic order) ji ‘©The cross product may also be expressed by the determinant axb = Sol. §-OOE*)OOE* P+ OOGxi)+E) OGD Since j xj Function ‘When a variable quantity depends upon another variable for its value, the former is called a function of the latter. ‘The area of a circle depends upon its radius. Mathematically speaking, the area of a circle is a function of its radius. The volume of a given mass of a gas at a fixed temperature is a function of the pressure of the gas. Notation ofA Function ‘A function is denoted by symbols like of f(x), F(x), 4G)... . and is read as function of x, Thus if y is a function ofx, we may write y = f(x) NOTE It must be clearly understood that x) does not mean f into x, buts only a symbolic way of representing some function of x EVALUATIONOFFUNCTIONS SOLVED EXAMPLE _ If 23845, find £0) f), To find the value ofa function ata particular value of the independent variable, lotus put the given value in the expression ofthe function and simplify. The result followings. Here,fo)=x8-3x+5 AO)= (0 -3.045=5 AU=P-3.145=3, @ scanned with OKEN Scanner