Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2021), 34(4): 540–567

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

& Beihang University
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
cja@buaa.edu.cn
www.sciencedirect.com

Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites:

A review
Qinglong AN, Jie CHEN, Weiwei MING, Ming CHEN *

State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong
University, Shanghai 200240, China

Received 29 May 2020; revised 16 June 2020; accepted 11 July 2020

Available online 13 August 2020

KEYWORDS Abstract Continuous fiber reinforced SiC ceramic matrix composites (FRCMCs-SiC) are cur-
Ceramic matrix composites; rently the preferred material for hot section components, safety–critical components and braking
Machining; components (in the aerospace, energy, transportation) with high value, and have triggered the
Material removal mecha- demand for machining. However, the high brittleness, anisotropy, and heterogeneity of materials
nisms; bring great challenges to machining, due to high mechanical and thermal loads, severe tool wear,
Quality; and poor machining quality. With the increasing demand of FRCMCs-SiC parts, high-quality
Surface integrity and high-efficient machining has become a hot issue. This review paper provides a detailed literature
survey on the machining of FRCMCs-SiC. The material removal mechanism, defect form, and
interfacial mechanical properties of FRCMCs-SiC were summarized. The machining processes of
FRCMCs-SiC were introduced, and their respective advantages and disadvantages were compared.
Given the low machinability (high hardness, high brittleness, anisotropy, and heterogeneity) of
FRCMCs-SiC, preliminary experiments have proved that ultrasonic-assisted machining and
laser-assisted machining have shown unique advantages in reducing force and tool wear, improving

Abbreviations: 2D, two-dimensional; 3D, three-dimensional; AMG, Advanced Materials Gas-Generator; AWJ, abrasive waterjet; CBN, cubic
boron nitride; CD, conventional drilling; CF, conventional filing; Cf/SiC, carbon fiber reinforced SiC ceramic matrix composites; CFRP, carbon
fiber-reinforced polymer; CG, conventional grinding; CM, conventional machining; CMCs-SiC, silicon carbide ceramic matrix composites; CVD,
chemical vapor deposition; CVI, chemical vapor infiltration; DCLL, dual-coolant lithium lead; EDM, electrical discharge machining; FRCMCs,
continuous fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites; FS, femtosecond; HCCB, helium-cooled ceramic breeder; IHPTET, Integrated High
Performance Turbine Engine Technology; LAM, laser-assisted machining; MQL, minimal quantity lubrication; MS, millisecond; NMQL,
nanofluid minimal quantity lubrication; NTM, non-traditional machining; OC, orthogonal cutting; PCD, polycrystalline diamond; PIP, polymer
infiltration pyrolysis; PLA, pulsed laser ablation; PS, picosecond; RMI, reactive melt infiltration; RUFM, rotary ultrasonic face milling; RUM,
rotary ultrasonic machining; RUSM, rotary ultrasonic slot machining; SCLL, self-cooled lithium lead; SiCf/SiC, SiC fiber reinforced SiC ceramic
matrix composites; UAF, ultrasonic-assisted filing; UAG, ultrasonic-assisted grinding; UAM, ultrasonic-assisted machining; UEET, Ultra-
Efficient Engine Technology
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mchen@sjtu.edu.cn (M. CHEN).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA.

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This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
machining quality and machining efficiency. The machined surface integrity was discussed, the
influence of process parameters on the machined surface quality was analyzed, and the machining
defects of FRCMCs-SiC were summarized. But for FRCMCs-SiC, the existing quantitative evalu-
ation of the machined surface integrity was weak and unsystematic.
Ó 2020 Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
With the development of aerospace and national defense, hot
section components of high thrust -weight ratio aeroengine,
thermal protection systems of hypersonic vehicles, hot section
components of heavy launch vehicle propulsion systems, and
reusable rocket propulsion systems are in urgent need of new
generation high-temperature materials. Taking aeroengine as
an example, the materials of hot section components need to
withstand the high temperature of about 1100 °C.1 At present,
the most commonly used high-temperature materials of aero-
engine are nickel-base alloys, which can meet the service
requirements utilizing ultra-high temperature thermal barrier
coating.2 However, the combustion temperature of the new-
generation aeroengine will be further increased, and the tem-
perature reaching the surface of the material will reach at least
1400–1700 °C. The continuous increase of cooling has brought
about an increase in the inefficiency loss of the aeroengine, so
the scheme of nickel-base alloys combined with ultra-high tem-
perature thermal barrier coating is difficult to meet the
demand.3 Under the dual requirements of specific strength
and high-temperature resistance, as shown in Fig. 1, compared
with metal materials, silicon carbide ceramic matrix compos-
ites (CMCs-SiC) have advantages.4 Continuous fiber rein-
forced ceramic matrix composites (FRCMCs) is a kind of
tough ceramic material, which is toughened by continuous
fiber reinforced phase, and optimized by suitable weak inter-
phase between the SiC matrix and fibers.5 The toughening
mechanism of FRCMCs is crack deflection and crack bridging,
so high strength and high fracture toughness are both pos-
sessed.6 FRCMCs overcome the shortcomings of low-
temperature resistance and high density of metal materials,
high brittleness and poor reliability of ceramic materials, poor
Fig. 1 Relationship between specific strength and temperature of
alternative aerospace materials.4
541
oxidation resistance of carbon materials, and have excellent
properties of lightweight, high-temperature resistance, good
oxidation resistance, good corrosion resistance, good wear
resistance, high damage tolerance. The United States, France,
Japan, and other industrial powers have carried out a lot of
researches on the preparation and application of ceramic
matrix composite materials, such as the USA IHPTET (Inte-
grated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology), UEET
(Ultra-Efficient Engine Technology) plan, and Japan AMG
(Advanced Materials Gas-Generator) plan, and have made
many achievements in material development, preparation,
and application.7
At present, there are two kinds of FRCMCs-SiC which are
widely used, carbon fiber reinforced SiC ceramic matrix com-
posites (Cf/SiC) and SiC fiber reinforced SiC ceramic matrix
composites (SiCf/SiC). The difference in performance leads
to their different application fields.
Cf/SiC composites are mainly used in friction materials and
high-temperature materials with short service life. Due to the
increasing demands on the speed, load, and safety of vehicles,
ordinary friction materials will fail under extreme braking con-
ditions. Cf/SiC composites have many excellent properties:
high and stable friction coefficient, which is insensitive to
changes in speed, load, and temperature; good wear resistance,
not easy to scratch and stick to the surface of the friction cou-
ple, good run-in performance; strong environmental adaptabil-
ity, good corrosion resistance, oil resistance, and humidity
resistance; good mechanical properties; low density; long ser-
vice life, so it is regarded as the first choice for the new gener-
ation of high-performance friction materials.8,9 In the field of
aircraft braking systems, the brake discs developed by DACC
(South Korean) for the F16 fighter have been widely used. In
the field of limousine braking systems, Cf/SiC brake discs have
been widely used in Porsche GT2 (as shown in Fig. 2(a)), Fer-
rari Enzo, Mercedes-Benz AMG, Corvette ZR1. In the field of
high-speed train braking systems, Cf/SiC brake discs have been
widely used in the French TGV NG, the British Heathrow
Express train, and the South Korean TCV train. The Cf/SiC
braking pads and brake discs of high-speed trains developed
by Central South University have been applied to high-speed
trains. Besides, Cf/SiC composites have been used in the brake
discs of construction machinery, wind turbines and heavy-duty
trucks.10 On the other hand, with the rapid development of
aerospace technology, the near-space, and space astronautics
technology involved in the new reusable hypersonic space sub-
orbital or orbital maneuvering vehicle has attracted increasing
attention, which puts forward strict requirements for the
design and manufacture of the thermal protection systems.
To meet the main technical characteristics (high reliability
and reusability) of the aircraft during hypersonic flight, orbit
or sub-orbit reentry, long-term in orbit reconnaissance, the
thermal protection structural parts of the hypersonic aircraft
are required to have excellent comprehensive performance,
542
Fig. 2 Application cases of Cf/SiC composites.
including heat protection, heat insulation, and load-
bearing.11,12 Cf/SiC composites not only have good chemical
and thermal stability, high specific strength, low specific grav-
ity and low thermal expansion coefficient, but also have high-
temperature resistance, wear-resistance, and insensitivity to
cracks. So Cf/SiC composites are listed as key development
materials of the thermal protection structural parts, such as
nose cone (as shown in Fig. 2(b)), guide vane, wing and cover
plate, for the new generation aerospace vehicles and hyper-
sonic vehicles.13–15 For missile and rocket engines, the engine
is developing in the direction of greater thrust, higher specific
impulse, and higher thrust- weight ratio to increase the lift
capacity. Therefore, it is inevitable to increase the area ratio
of the nozzle extension, use the nozzle material with better
temperature resistance and lighter weight.16,17 Cf/SiC compos-
ites has been used in the HM7 cryogenic engine of the Euro-
pean Ariane upper stage, the RL10B-2 engine of the Delta Ⅴ
upper stage, the RL10C-1 engine of the Atlas Ⅴ, the Vinci
engine of the Ariane Ⅴ upper stage, and the engine of China
Yuanzheng 3 (as shown in Fig. 2(c)).18,19 Besides, Cf/SiC com-
posites are used in aeroengines (such as outer flaps for M53-2
and M88-2 jet engine20), satellite reflectors (such as the reflec-
tor of the German Donier satellite space telescope, the reflector
of USA space telescope NGST, the reflector of Dutch radar
telescope ATLID),21,22 sealing devices, magnetic vertical skid,
coal water slurry pressurized gasifier burner23.
SiCf/SiC composites are mainly used in high-temperature
structural parts and functional parts with long service life.24
SiCf/SiC composites have better oxidation resistance at high
temperatures. Compared with nickel-base alloys, its working
temperature can be raised by more than 200 °C, which is suit-
able for manufacturing hot section components of aeroengine.
It can reduce the weight of parts by more than 30%, improve
the fuel efficiency by more than 10%, and greatly reduce the
emission of nitrogen oxides and other pollutants. SiCf/SiC
composites have been the first choice for the hot section com-
ponents of the new generation of high thrust-weight ratio aero-
engines. Currently, hot section components such as exhaust
nozzles of aeroengines, guide vanes, turbine blades, and tur-
bine shroud are main applications.25,26 As the representatives
of the industry, SNECMA (France) and GE (USA), two major
global aeroengine manufacturing giants, have invested a lot in
the design and preparation of SiCf/SiC composites compo-
nents, and developed a series of SiCf/SiC hot section compo-
nents with high reliability and long service life. Since the
early 1980s, SNECMA has successfully developed SiCf/SiC
hot section parts such as engine nozzle flaps and exhaust cone
Q. AN et al.
(ARCOCE plug), which have been applied to CFM56 engines.
Since the late 1980s, GE began to study the preparation tech-
nology of SiCf/SiC composites and has completed the applica-
tion verification of SiCf/SiC hot section components such as
the insert for the leading edge of turbine rear frame, the inter-
stage platform, and the high-pressure turbine stator vane (as
shown in Fig. 3(a)) of the aeroengine.27 The LEAP-X1C
engine used in the COMAC C919 aircraft was developed by
CFM (a 50/50 joint company of Safran Aircraft Engines and
GE), and some of the hot section parts, such as the low-
pressure turbine guide vane and high-pressure turbine shroud,
use SiCf/SiC composites. After investigation, the aeroengine
hot section stator parts that have maturely applied SiCf/SiC
composites include first-stage and second-stage high-pressure
turbine nozzles, first-stage high-pressure turbine shroud and
low-pressure turbine guide vane of CFM LAP-X engine; com-
bustion chamber inner/outer lining, first-stage high-pressure
turbine shroud, first-stage and second-stage high-pressure tur-
bine nozzles of GE9X engine28; third-stage low-pressure tur-
bine guide vane of F136 engine; combustion chamber lining
(CERASEP A415,29 as shown in Fig. 3(b)) and flameholder
(CERASEP A410).30 The aeroengine hot section rotor parts
that have maturely applied SiCf/SiC composites include low-
pressure turbine rotor blades of F414 turbofan engine (as
shown in Fig. 3(c))24,30; low-pressure turbine rotor blades of
GE9x engine. Rocket engines that have successfully applied
SiCf/SiC composites include: the integral thrust chamber of
the liquid rocket engine jointly developed by Hyper-Therm
and Air Force Research Laboratory; the SCD-SEP rocket test
engine prepared by SEP (French).31 In the field of nuclear
fusion, SiCf/SiC composites are considered promising candi-
dates for nuclear fusion reactors due to good radiation stabil-
ity and low tritium permeation. The application of SiCf/SiC
composites in nuclear fusion reactors is mainly parts on the
first wall, flow channel inserts and divertors of the blanket.32
As the material of first wall/blanket structure, SiCf/SiC com-
posites have good radiation damage resistance, good room
temperature, and high-temperature mechanical properties,
and can withstand high surface heat load. The blankets of
the first wall made of SiCf/SiC composites are mainly SCLL
(Self-Cooled Lithium Lead) breeder blanket and HCCB
(Helium-Cooled Ceramic breeder) blanket. The former
includes PPCS-D and TAURO of EU, ARIES-I and
ARIES-AT of USA, and the latter includes DREAM and A-
SSTR2 of Japan.33 The blankets of the flow channel inserts
made of SiCf/SiC composites are mainly DCLL (Dual-
Coolant Lithium Lead) blanket, including FDS-II of China,
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 3 Application cases of SiCf/SiC composites.
PPCS-C of EU.34,35 The blankets of the divertors made of
SiCf/SiC composites are mainly PPCS-D and TAURO of
EU, ARIES-AT of USA and DREAM of Japan.36 Besides,
SiCf/SiC composites can absorb the energy of electromagnetic
waves and dissipate into thermal energy, which reduces elec-
tromagnetic wave reflection, and has excellent absorption per-
formance at room temperature and high temperature.
Therefore, SiCf/SiC composites are particularly suitable for
high-temperature stealth materials, used for heads of cruise
missiles, nozzles of the engine, and the surface of hypersonic
vehicles, to achieve the radar stealth function of weapon
equipment.37,38
For FRCMCs-SiC parts, the process of part preparation or
repair of damaged parts is shown in Fig. 4. The SiC matrix
preparation processes of FRCMCs mainly include polymer
infiltration pyrolysis (PIP),39 chemical vapor infiltration
(CVI),40,41 and reactive melt infiltration (RMI),42 etc. Different
preparation processes have their advantages. During the
preparation of the FRCMCs-SiC, the dimensional accuracy
and geometric tolerance cannot be accurately guaranteed,
and the surface quality is poor. Therefore, for the assembly
surface and functional surface, machining is indispensable in
the preparation process of FRCMCs-SiC parts.43
With the development of the preparation technology, the
application of FRCMCs-SiC in aerospace, transportation,
energy, and other fields is becoming more and more extensive.
Machining technology has become one of the main technical
bottlenecks restricting its extensive engineering application,
while the research on the machining of FRCMCs-SiC is still
in infancy. FRCMCs-SiC has the characteristics of high hard-
ness, high brittleness, heterogeneity, and anisotropy, so the
machinability is extremely poor. The microhardness of SiC is
Fig. 4 Conventional process of preparation and repair of
FRCMCs-SiC parts.
543
as high as 2840–3320 kg/mm2, second only to diamond and
cubic boron nitride (CBN), so the tool wear is severe during
cutting. And its high brittleness is easy to cause cracks, pits,
fiber damage, interface debonding, and other defects on the
machined surface.43 Different from metal materials, there is
no surface strengthening to improve the machined surface of
FRCMCs-SiC after finishing. Therefore, the defects and dam-
ages caused by machining will permanently exist in the parts,
which directly affect the thermal–mechanical properties, relia-
bility, and service life of the parts. The existing machining pro-
cesses have the limitations of poor machining quality, low
precision, extremely low machining efficiency, and extremely
high machining cost, and are unable to meet the high-quality
and efficient requirements for the machining of FRCMCs-
SiC parts, and are also difficult to meet the damage tolerance
design and long-life service performance requirements. So far,
the material removal mechanism and machining process of
FRCMCs-SiC are still being explored.
This paper comprehensively reviews the research progress
of the material removal mechanism, machining process, and
surface integrity in the machining of FRCMCs-SiC (as shown
in Fig. 5). By summarizing the achievements of different
research teams, the challenges needed to be urgently solved
of machining FRCMCs-SiC in a wide range of engineering
applications are pointed out, and the further research direc-
tions of FRCMCs-SiC machining is prospected.
2. Material removal mechanism
Machining is a kind of subtractive manufacturing, which uses
cutting tools or abrasive particles to remove materials. The
material removal mechanism directly affects the physical phe-
nomena during machining (force, heat, deformation, etc.) and
the quality after machining. Therefore, it is of great signifi-
cance to understand the material removal mechanism of
FRCMCs-SiC for realizing high quality and high-efficiency
machining.
2.1. Material removal mechanism based on orthogonal cutting
For machining (such as milling, drilling, turning) using cutting
edge tools, orthogonal cutting (OC) is the most commonly
used basic experiment to study the material removal mecha-
nism. In order to explore the material removal mechanism
and ductile–brittle transition in the cutting, Diaz and Axinte44
conducted orthogonal cutting experiments on three typical
544
Fig. 5 Content overview on material removal mechanism, machining processes and surface integrity evaluation of FRCMCs-SiC.
fiber orientations of Cf/SiC composites. As shown in Fig. 6, the
material removal mechanism is significantly different along
different fiber orientations and in different cutting depths.
When the cutting thickness is small, the cutting is dominated
by the shear behavior of composites when cutting along longi-
tudinal fibers and the shear behavior of matrix when cutting
along across fibers and transverse fibers, which is similar to
the ductile removal. When the cutting thickness increases to
a certain value, the cutting is dominated by the initiation
and propagation of the fiber–matrix interface crack when cut-
ting along longitudinal fibers and across fibers and the
bending-induced fracture of fibers when cutting along trans-
verse fibers, which is a typical brittle removal. On this basis,
an analytical cutting model based on the inelastic behavior
and fracture mechanics of orthotropic anisotropic brittle com-
posites has been proposed, which is helpful to understand the
surface integrity in the machining.
Q. AN et al.
2.2. Material removal mechanism based on scratching
For machining (such as grinding) using abrasive, scratch
experiments are often used to study the material removal
mechanism. In order to study the grinding characteristics of
2D Cf/SiC composites in different fiber orientations, Liu et al.45
carried out a single abrasive scratch experiment with a dia-
mond indenter on a grinding machine and analyzed the grind-
ing mechanism. Within the scratch depth range (from 10 lm to
50 lm), the brittle removal combining the layered brittle frac-
ture of carbon fibers and the cracking of SiC matrix was the
material removal mechanism. Fig. 7 shows the scratch mor-
phology of 0°-fiber and 90°-fiber along the scratch angle of
0° and 45° respectively. The tearing damage caused by bending
and peeling off of carbon fibers is observed. Li et al.46 designed
a new single abrasive scratch test by using CNC machining
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 6 Pictures of material removal captured by high-speed camera.44
center, and carried out experiments along longitudinal fibers
and along across fibers. Within the set scratch depth range
(from 10 lm to 100 lm), the conclusion that brittle fracture
(including matrix cracking, fiber breakage, fiber pull-out and
fiber–matrix interfacial debonding) is the main material
removal mechanism in grinding of Cf/SiC composites was also
obtained, and brittle fracture led to severe subsurface damage.
Therefore, under large scratch depth, the brittle fracture,
which is composed of matrix crushing, debonding of the
fiber–matrix interface, and fiber fracture (bending fracture,
compression fracture, and shear fracture), is the recognized
material removal mechanism.
2.3. Nano/micro-scale material properties and removal
mechanism
Fiber-SiC matrix interphase is an important component of
FRCMCs-SiC. The debonding of weak interphase leads to
stress relaxation at the crack tip, which achieves the purpose
of material toughening and damage tolerance improvement.5
Weak interfaces are prone to damage such as debonding dur-
ing machining, and free fibers caused by interphase debonding
have an important influence on the material removal mecha-
545
nism. Therefore, it is worth exploring the interfacial mechani-
cal properties of FRCMCs-SiC, which provides a basis for the
research of material removal mechanism and simulation
modeling.
To evaluate the properties of fiber–matrix interphase,
micromechanical tests are effective means, such as single fiber
pull-out tests, microbond tests, fiber push-out tests, and single
fiber fragmentation tests.47 For Cf/SiC composites, Zhang
et al.48 used Berkovich indenter to push out and push back car-
bon fiber of 50–100 lm thick sample on Nanoindenter to test
the interfacial shear strength and interfacial friction coefficient
of pyrolytic carbon. Fig. 8 shows the load–displacement curve
and interfacial crack propagation diagram of the typical fiber
extrusion process, which can be divided into four stages: elastic
deformation of carbon fiber, push in stage (crack initiation),
push out stage (crack propagation), and contact between
indenter and matrix. Based on this, the interfacial shear
strength can be calculated. Furthermore, the interfacial fric-
tion coefficient of pyrolytic carbon can be obtained by pushing
the debonded carbon fiber back. This study provides a theoret-
ical basis for the numerical simulation of interfacial mechanics
and the analysis of the material removal mechanism in the
machining.
546
Fig. 7 Scratch morphology.45
Fig. 8 Load-displacement curve and interfacial crack propagation diagram of single fiber push-out test with Berkovich indenter.48
Besides understanding the material removal mechanism on
the macro scale, studying the material fracture and removal of
FRCMCs-SiC at the micro/nano scale is of great significance
for analyzing the mechanism of defect formation during mate-
rial removal and improving machining quality. Nano scratch
experiments is an effective method to study the fracture behav-
ior and damage mechanism of materials.49 Generally, as the
scratch depth increases, the elastic deformation, plastic defor-
mation, ductile–brittle transition and brittle fracture appear in
the scratches of single-phase hard and brittle materials in
sequence.49–51 However, FRCMCs-SiC contain fiber-
reinforced phase, SiC matrix, and weak interphase, and the
material removal mechanism in the brittle fracture is more
complicated. The SiC matrix is always removed by crushing
in the brittle regime. But the material removal mechanism of
fibers in the brittle regime is more complicated. The high-
hardness SiC ceramic matrix has good support for fibers.
When the scratch depth is sufficiently large, bending-induced
fracture, compression-induced fracture, and shear-induced
fracture are the fracture forms of fibers,45,46 which are consis-
tent with the fracture forms of fibers in carbon fiber-reinforced
polymer (CFRP).52 But when the scratch depth is small, the
brittle fracture mode of the fiber changes. Chen et al.53 con-
ducted nano-scratch experiments on unidirectional Cf/SiC
composites along different fiber orientations. According to
whether the brittle fracture of the carbon fiber occurs inside
the fiber or the whole fiber as the smallest unit, the brittle
Q. AN et al.
regime of Cf/SiC composites can be subdivided into micro brit-
tle fracture regime and macro brittle fracture regime. In the
micro brittle fracture regime, under the extrusion of the inden-
ter, cracks initiate inside the carbon fiber and propagate
between the graphite crystallites, resulting in the material
removal of the fiber. In the macro brittle fracture regime, fibers
are debonded from the SiC matrix under the extrusion of the
indenter, and then bending fracture (or compression fracture
and shear fracture) occurs. Fig. 9 shows graphic illustrations
of the micro–macro brittle fracture transition of carbon fibers
when scratching along different fiber orientations. Different
material removal mechanisms form different machined sur-
faces and cause different machining defects.
For SiCf/SiC composites, Diaz et al.54 obtained the
machined surface by drilling. The material fracture behavior
and removal mechanism in the cutting was understood based
on the microstructure, residual stress, and element distribu-
tion. The material fracture behavior and removal mechanism
of each phase were summarized, as shown in Fig. 10. Hi-
Nicalon fiber is composed of 3C SiC nanocrystals and graphite
microcrystals, which are removed by a brittle transgranular
cleavage fracture during cutting. The SiC matrix prepared by
the MI process is composed of 6H-SiC microcrystalline, which
simultaneously occurs ductile removal and brittle fracture (in-
tergranular fracture) during cutting. The interphase layer of
CVI-SiC is formed by ultrafine columnar crystals, which frac-
ture along the columnar direction during cutting. The fracture
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 9 Graphic illustrations of micro–macro brittle fracture
transition of carbon fibers caused by the increase of scratch
depth.53
behavior and material removal mechanism of each phase are
different due to the difference in the microstructure.
According to the researches of the mechanism, the physical
phenomena of SiC ceramic matrix composites in the mechan-
ical material removal process are well understood, such as
material fracture mechanism, material removal mechanism,
interfacial mechanical properties, and material damage behav-
547
ior. These basic works are beneficial to analyze the mechanism
of machined surface generation and machining defects in the
machining of FRCMCs-SiC, and also have guiding signifi-
cance for process optimization.
3. Machining process of FRCMCs-SiC
The processing technology of FRCMCs-SiC is the key factor
to promote industrial application. NASA mentioned in the
‘‘Aeronautical technologies for the twenty-first century” that
the preparation process and processing technology of ceramic
matrix composites will be given priority in the future research
plan of engine materials.55 The processing technologies of
FRCMCs-SiC mainly includes conventional machining (CM)
(such as grinding, milling, drilling), ultrasonic-assisted machin-
ing (UAM) and laser-assisted machining (LAM), non-
traditional machining (NTM) (such as abrasive waterjet
(AWJ) machining, electrical discharge machining (EDM),
pulsed laser ablation (PLA)), etc. Besides, some basic
researches (such as orthogonal cutting and scratching) have
also been carried out. Papers on the processing of FRCMCs-
SiC were collected (since the core contents of most theses
had been published in various journals, so the theses are not
counted in the figure), and were classified, as shown in
Fig. 11. Since 2015, the number of publications on
FRCMCs-SiC processing has grown significantly, especially
for machining, and most of the research teams are from China.
Different processing technologies have different functions.
Machining is mainly used for the material removal of large
machining allowance and obtaining high-precision/high-
quality structures and surfaces. AWJ is mostly used for
through cut. EDM is suitable for obtaining complex structural
parts. PLA is mainly used for the processing of fine structures
(micro-holes, micro-grooves).
Because of the wide application and various challenges of
FRCMCs-SiC machining, the following is an overview of
machining, including CM, UAM, LAM.
3.1. Conventional machining (CM)
Conventional machining is indispensable in the study of
machining. It is of great significance to understand the mate-
rial removal mechanism of FRCMCs-SiC during machining,
optimize the machining parameters, and provide directions
for the improvement of machining processes. In this section,
the conventional machining of FRCMCs-SiC will be dis-
cussed. Grinding and cutting will be introduced separately.
As hard materials, SiC matrix and fibers cause severe tool
wear during machining. Therefore, at the current research
stage, most researchers use diamond abrasive tools to study
the grinding process. For the study of surface grinding, on
the one hand, it is to study the processing technology of planar
structure, on the other hand, it is to explore the influence of
grinding parameters and the material removal mechanism in
the grinding process. Tashiro et al.56 conducted a dry grinding
test of Cf/SiC composites, and found that carbide tools cannot
be used due to catastrophic tool wear, and diamond wheels are
better than WA wheels. Tawakoli and Azarhoushang57,58
developed a metal-bonded segmented diamond wheel and pro-
posed that intermittent grinding can reduce the grinding force
and grinding temperature, but the acting force on each
548
Fig. 10 Material removal mechanism of each phase of SiCf/SiC composites during cutting.54
Fig. 11 Summary of publications on processing of FRCMCs-SiC.109-126
abrasive is large, and the main wear mechanisms of the seg-
mented wheel are the inter-crystalline grain fracture and grain
pull-out. Zhang et al.59,60 conducted grinding experiments on
three typical fiber orientations of unidirectional Cf/SiC com-
posites, and proposed that besides grinding parameters (feed
rate, grinding depth, grinding speed), fiber orientations also
greatly affected grinding force and surface morphology, and
preliminary proposed the material removal mechanism of
Cf/SiC composites in grinding. As shown in Fig. 12, brittle
fracture is the main material removal mechanism in grinding.
When grinding along across fibers, the interface is subject to
the first failure form (opening mode), and the fiber is mainly
subjected to shear stress. When grinding along longitudinal
fibers, the interface is subjected to the second failure mode
(shearing mode), and the fiber is subjected to in-plane shear
stress. When grinding along transverse fibers, the interface is
subjected to the third failure mode (tearing mode), and the
fiber is subjected to shear stress and tensile stress. Liu et al.61
conducted grinding experiments on 2D Cf/SiC composites,
and systematically studied the effects of grinding parameters
Q. AN et al.
on the grinding force, force ratio, specific grinding energy, sur-
face topography, surface roughness, and grinding chips. Du
et al.62 explored the effects of different grinding directions
(essentially different fiber orientations) on the grinding process
and surface roughness of 2D Cf/SiC composites. Qu et al.63
studied the effects of grinding parameters on the surface
roughness of 2.5D needle Cf/SiC composites, and proposed
that the changes of grinding parameters mainly play a role
by changing the undeformed chip thickness. Qu et al.64 also
mentioned that the fiber orientation angle was an important
parameter that affected the grinding process of Cf/SiC com-
posites. In general, grinding force and surface roughness
increase with the increase of grinding depth and feed rate,
and decrease with the increase of grinding depth, and fiber ori-
entation is also an important factor. As for the material
removal mechanism in the grinding, there is consensus that
brittle fracture is the main removal mechanism.59–64 Under
the respective experimental conditions, the material failure
modes are basically described as matrix breakage, fiber frac-
ture, and interfacial debonding.
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 12 Schematic diagrams of grinding along three typical
directions.59
Because of the problems of high force, serious wheel wear,
and low surface quality in grinding, minimal quantity lubrica-
tion (MQL) was tried. MQL is a green, clean and efficient
cooling and lubrication method, which has been widely used
in the machining of ceramics and various metals.65,66 Based
on this successful application, MQL is tried to be used in the
machining of FRCMCs-SiC. Adibi et al.67 and Esmaeili et al.68
proposed the application of MQL when grinding Cf/SiC com-
posites. By comparing with dry grinding, it was found that
MQL grinding effectively reduced grinding force and surface
roughness, alleviated grinding wheel wear, and improved
grinding efficiency. Qu et al.69 studied the influence of nozzle
direction, air pressure, oil flow rate and nozzle distance on
549
the MQL grinding performance of unidirectional Cf/SiC com-
posites, and optimized based on grinding force and surface
roughness. Furthermore, Qu et al.70 proposed carbon nano-
fluid MQL (NMQL) to grind Cf/SiC composites, and verified
the effectiveness of NMQL in reducing grinding force and
improving surface roughness through experiments. But it is
worth noting that FRCMCs-SiC contains pores limited by
the preparation process. Therefore, the liquid in the MQL
grinding process may penetrate into the pores of the workpiece
through capillary action, and it is difficult to remove. Whether
these liquids will directly affect the performance of the parts is
worth discussing, and in some extreme service environments
(ultra-high temperature, vacuum), these liquids may directly
damage the FRCMCs-SiC parts through vaporization. There-
fore, just like CFRP, the use of MQL (or other coolants) in the
machining of FRCMCs-SiC requires further cautious research.
For hole machining, Xing et al.71 conducted drilling exper-
iments of unidirectional Cf/SiC composites by using brazed
diamond drills, analyzed the influence of drilling parameters
on thrust force, delamination factor, hole surface quality,
and tool wear, and adopted supported graphite plate to reduce
the exit damage. The experimental results showed that high
speed and low feed rate were effective in improving the drilling
quality.
Because of the high hardness of FRCMCs-SiC, diamond
abrasives are used in most machining processes, but the limita-
tions of low machining efficiency and low machining accuracy
are obvious. The use of cutting edge tools for machining can
improve machining accuracy and increase machining effi-
ciency. Diaz et al.54,72 tried to use the cutting process to
machining SiCf/SiC composites. As shown in Fig. 13, the ran-
dom positions and sizes of warp, weft, and porosity in the
matrix were simulated by a probabilistic method based on
the random relative content of fiber and matrix faced by the
main cutting edge of the bit. Considering the randomness of
the inhomogeneous structure of the material, the hard charac-
teristics of the material are coupled to calculate the tensile
stress of the tool according to its diameter. And the influence
of material heterogeneity and high hardness on the premature
tool breakage of small diameter bit in the drilling of SiCf/SiC
composites was analyzed. Zhang et al.73,74 used carbide tools
to mill Cf/SiC composites, studied the influence of milling
parameters on milling force and surface roughness and estab-
lished a milling force analysis model of Cf/SiC composites con-
sidering the randomness of fiber distribution and tool wear.
Due to the ultra-high hardness of FRCMCs-SiC, the wear
of carbide tools in the machining is sharp and difficult to meet
the demand. In order to solve the catastrophic tool wear of
carbide tools, Hu et al.75, Chen et al.76 and Zou et al.77 respec-
tively discussed the feasibility of polycrystalline diamond
(PCD) tools used in milling and drilling of Cf/SiC composites,
and obtained good effects. Hu et al.75 successfully explored the
use of PCD tools for slot milling 2D Cf/SiC composites. Chen
et al.76 explored the use of PCD tools for drilling experiments,
analyzed the impact of thrust force on the hole exit defects, dis-
covered the transition of the material removal mechanism of
carbon fibers in the brittle regime caused by changes in drilling
parameters, and creatively defined the micro brittle fracture
and macro brittle fracture. As shown in Fig. 14, with the
increase of cutting depth, the material removal mechanism of
carbon fibers changes from micro brittle fracture to macro
brittle fracture. The micro brittle fracture of carbon fibers in
550
Fig. 13 Probability modeling of tool imbalance in cutting of hard heterogeneous materials (SiCf/SiC composites).72
different fiber orientations is caused by the initiation and prop-
agation of microcracks generated by the extrusion of cutting
edge. However, the macro brittle fracture in different fiber ori-
entations is different, including bending-induced fracture,
compression-induced fracture, shear-induced fracture, and
interfacial debonding. Zou et al.77 studied the effect of PCD
tool angles (clearance angle and point angle) on the thrust
force, hole exit damage and surface quality in 2D Cf/SiC com-
posites drilling and tried to improve the efficiency of hole exit
quality evaluation by using the damage identification method
based on image processing technology.
Obviously, conventional machining of FRCMCs-SiC can
be realized by using superhard tools (diamond abrasive tools,
PCD tools). However, the disadvantages of CM are inevitable,
such as high force during the machining, poor machined sur-
face quality, serious machining defects, and serious tool wear.
In order to meet the indexes of the machining quality, the
machining efficiency is often sacrificed in the production,
which is detrimental to reduce the machining costs.
3.2. Ultrasonic-assisted machining (UAM)
In the process of CM, the problems of large cutting (grinding)
force, many machining defects, large surface roughness and
low machining efficiency need to be solved. UAM technologies
are applied to FRCMCs-SiC. For hard and brittle materials,
UAM has an excellent effect in improving machining quality
Q. AN et al.
and efficiency.78–81 For the surface, slot, hole, and cavity struc-
tures of FRCMCs-SiC parts, corresponding UAM are pro-
posed respectively. In this section, UAM processes will be
introduced for different structural features to be machined.
Grinding is the main process of high-quality surface finish-
ing. Azarhoushang and Tawakoli82 invented a block sonotrode
to achieve ultrasonic assisted grinding of Cf/SiC composites on
a traditional grinder by ultrasonically vibrating the workpiece,
and proved that the grinding force was reduced by 20% and
the surface roughness was reduced by 30% under ultrasonic
vibration. Ding et al.83 clamped the diamond brazed grinding
wheel on the ultrasonic tool holder, realized the ultrasonic-
assisted grinding of Cf/SiC composites through the ultrasonic
vibration of the wheel, and proved that the normal grinding
force was reduced by 9–21%, the tangential grinding force
was reduced by 9.7–19.4%, and the maximum reduction per-
centage of surface roughness was 12%. Workpiece vibration
and tool vibration are two ways to realize UAM (as shown
in Fig. 15). Based on the principle of relative motion, the effect
of the two methods is the same, and which one should be
selected in the production should take into account the existing
equipment and cost.
For the inner surface machining of deep cavity parts, the
tool holder and parts are easy to interfere, and the machining
accuracy and quality are difficult to guarantee, which are great
challenges. Wang et al.84 elaborated the concept of ultrasonic-
assisted filing (UAF) and first applied it to the machining of
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites 551

Fig. 14 Material removal mechanism of carbon fibers in cutting of Cf/SiC composites.76

Cf/SiC composites. Compared with conventional grinding
(CG) and conventional filing (CF), UAF reduced surface
roughness and improves shape accuracy.
For larger-size holes, drilling is essential. For
FRCMCs-SiC, the machining technology which combines dia-
mond abrasive tool and UAM is concerned. Hocheng et al.85
used abrasive slurry and stainless steel tools to carry out
ultrasonic-assisted drilling experiments on an ultrasonic dril-
ling machine and first proposed that ultrasonic-assisted drilling
of Cf/SiC composites had advantages in machinability and cost
compared to other feasible machining processes. Li et al.86 pio-
neered the use of rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) in the
drilling of SiCf/SiC panels, studied the influence of machining
parameters (spindle speed, feed rate, ultrasonic power) on the
552
Fig. 15 Two modes to realize RUM.
force, material removal rate, and hole quality, and proposed
that RUM significantly reduced the cutting force by about
50% and improved the machining efficiency by about 10%,
and high-quality holes could be obtained under the appropri-
ate machining parameters. Ding et al.87 used diamond core
drill to drill Cf/SiC composites, and studied the influence of
machining parameters on drilling force and drilling quality.
Compared with conventional drilling (CD), in rotary ultra-
sonic drilling, the thrust force was reduced by 7.4%–23%,
the torque was reduced by 8.5%-47.6%, the surface roughness
of hole wall was reduced and the maximum reduction percent-
age was 23%. Feng et al.88 and Wang et al.89 discussed the
RUM of Cf/SiC composites (as shown in Fig. 16(a)). The
effects of machining parameters (spindle speed, feed rate,
ultrasonic amplitude) on the exit defects and the microstruc-
ture of the machined surface were studied. It is proposed that
the ultrasonic vibration of diamond abrasive tools improved
the surface quality by changing the mechanism of fiber frac-
ture, and the tearing defect at the hole exit was averagely
reduced by more than 50%, but the mechanism has not been
studied in depth. Wang et al.90 analyzed the correlation
between cutting force and ultrasonic power and proposed that
the adverse effect of tool wear on the increase of cutting force
was restrained by adjusting the tuning frequency. In addition,
Wang et al.91 proposed to use a compound step-taper drill (as
shown in Fig. 16(b)) to reduce the exit damage in the RUM of
Cf/SiC composites, and the experimental results showed that
the tearing size was reduced by 30%. Overall, the effect of
RUM in reducing drilling force, hole wall roughness and
machining defects on hole exit is considerable.
RUM is also used in slot milling and face milling. Bertsche
et al.92 first proposed the application of rotary ultrasonic slot
machining (RUSM) in the milling of FRCMCs-SiC (as shown
in Fig. 17(a)), and optimized the milling parameters and
designed diamond tools. Compared with the conventional dia-
mond grinding, RUSM reduced the radial force by 20%,
reduced the axial force by 9%, reduced tool wear by 36%,
but increased the surface roughness slightly, which may be
related to the influence of fiber orientation during measure-
Q. AN et al.
ment. Based on the grinding principle and parameter fitting,
Zhang et al.93 and Yuan et al.94 established a dynamic cutting
force model for side-milling of Cf/SiC composites in RUM,
and analyzed the change of cutting force with spindle speed,
feed rate and milling width based on the model and experi-
ment. Li et al.95,96 used the conical diamond abrasive tool
for rotary ultrasonic face milling (RUFM) (as shown in
Fig. 17(b)), and proposes that compared with conventional
milling, the machining efficiency of RUFM was improved by
5.8 times and the surface quality of RUFM was improved by
54.4%. Different from cylindrical diamond tools, the conical
surface of the tool made abrasive grains cut intermittently
under ultrasonic vibration (in other words, the abrasive grains
and the workpiece have periodic separation characteristics).
The milling force model of Cf/SiC composites was established
based on the abrasive kinematics and indentation principle,
and the influence of milling parameters on milling force was
analyzed. Based on the research of Li, Yuan et al.97 proposed
to quantify the material removal mode by the maximum pen-
etration depth of diamond abrasive in the workpiece material
and proposed the transition of material removal mechanism
from ductile to brittle fracture. Babbar et al.98 used diamond
abrasive tools for rotary ultrasonic milling of Cf/SiC compos-
ites. The effects of material density, feed speed, and axial
milling depth on the machining were investigated. It was found
that as the material density increased, machinability decreased
but surface quality improved.
Besides ultrasonic-assisted machining with diamond abra-
sive tools, ultrasonic-assisted milling with cutting edge tools
is also an option. Liu et al.99 performed ultrasonic-assisted
milling experiments of Cf/SiC composites by using CVD dia-
mond coated carbide milling tool. Compared with conven-
tional milling, UAM respectively reduces the wear band
width of the side edge and the bottom edge flank by 28.06%
and 33.12%. But obviously, for Cf/SiC composites, the wear
of diamond coated carbide tools is still very serious. Chen
et al.100 studied the feasibility of using PCD tools for Cf/SiC
composites UAM (as shown in Fig. 18). The experimental
results showed that the appropriate ultrasonic amplitude
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites 553

Fig. 16 Rotary ultrasonic machining-drilling.

Fig. 17 Rotary ultrasonic machining-milling.

554
effectively reduced the surface roughness, but increased the
specific milling energy. The nano-scratch experiment proved
that there is a micro–macro brittle fracture transition of Cf/
SiC composites during material removal.53 This transition still
exists in milling. The high-frequency hammering of the cutting
edge on the workpiece promotes the initiation and propagation
of micro-cracks within the carbon fiber due to the appropriate
tool amplitude, thereby promoting the removal of the carbon
fiber material with micro-brittle fracture, which effectively
reduces the machined surface roughness. And the cutting-
edge hammering effect reduces the tensile residual stress, and
even generates compressive residual stress.
Extensive experiments have proved that, for both abrasive
tools and cutting-edge tools, UAM is beneficial to reduce
machining force, machined surface roughness, and machining
defects, which is of guiding significance for the machining of
FRCMCs-SiC. From the perspective of machining quality,
UAM can effectively reduce machining defects and machined
surface roughness. From the perspective of machining cost
(without considering the equipment cost), compared with
CM, UAM is beneficial to improve machining efficiency under
the same machining quality indexes, thereby reducing the
machining cost. But the effects of high-frequency vibration
of cutting edge and abrasive grains on the material removal
mechanism and damage behavior of FRCMCs-SiC need to
be further explored.
3.3. Laser-assisted machining (LAM)
Due to the high hardness and high brittleness of FRCMCs-
SiC, the material is removed by brittle fracture during cutting
and grinding, so the machined surface quality is poor, and the
tool wear is serious. Inducing strength loss of materials
through high temperature during machining is an effective
method to solve the poor machinability caused by high hard-
ness and high brittleness high hardness and high brittleness,
thereby extending the tool life, improving machining quality
and machining efficiency.101,102 LAM provides an effective
way for the machining of ceramics, glass, hard and brittle met-
als, and other materials.103–105 However, for FRCMCs-SiC,
Fig. 18 Ultrasonic assisted milling.100
Q. AN et al.
LAM process is still in the exploratory stage. Rozzi and Bar-
ton106 first used the laser to preheat the Cf/SiC composites,
and then used a PCD tool to remove the material (Fig. 19
(a)). Compared with conventional milling, the cutting force
during LAM was greatly reduced by 40%, which was con-
ducive to improving machining efficiency and reducing pro-
duction costs. Therefore, LAM is a feasible process for
FRCMCs-SiC. For laser-assisted micro-slot milling of SiCf/
SiC composites (as shown in Fig. 19(b)), Dong et al.107 opti-
mized the machining parameters based on the finite element
simulation of the three-dimensional transient temperature field
and studied the influence of laser heating on tool wear and tool
life. Compared with conventional milling, LAM reduced tool
wear by up to 76%, improved tool life by up to 3.8 times,
and reduced the tool costs by up to 32.3%. Erdenechimeg
et al.108 optimized the machining parameters of laser-assisted
milling of Cf/SiC composite laminates. The preheating temper-
ature was simulated based on the finite element method to
determine the effective cutting depth. Based on the Taguchi
method, the experimental design was performed, and the vari-
ance analysis was used to analyze the experimental results.
When other machining conditions were the same, LAM
reduced the cutting force by up to 40.7% and reduced the sur-
face roughness by up to 33.8%.
Limited by the equipment, there is relatively little research
on LAM of FRCMCs-SiC, and the focus is on feasibility anal-
ysis. For FRCMCs-SiC, LAM is a feasible process to reduce
machining force and improve machining quality. However,
more exploration is needed, such as the effect of laser on mate-
rial thermal damage, process parameter optimization, LAM
equipment development.
The advantages and disadvantages of FRCMCs-SiC
machining processes are summarized in Table 1.
4. Machining quality of FRCMCs-SiC
The service environment of FRCMCs-SiC is generally extre-
mely harsh. Besides the original defects generated during the
preparation of the material, surface integrity also affects ser-
vice performance and fatigue life. Unlike metal materials, there
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites 555

Fig. 19 Laser-assisted milling.

Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of FRCMCs-SiC machining processes.

Machining Advantages Disadvantages
process
CM Relatively mature technology, less equipment investment, high Relying on diamond tools, catastrophic tool wear, low
machining accuracy machining efficiency, poor machined surface quality
UAM Relatively mature technology, affordable equipment investment, high Relying on diamond tools, severe tool wear
machining accuracy, high machined surface quality, high machining
efficiency, suitable for machining brittle materials
LAM Low cutting force, prolonged tool life, high machined surface quality Immature technology, expensive, complicated
equipment upgrades

is no surface strengthening process to improve the machined
surface of FRCMCs-SiC. Therefore, the defects and damages
caused by machining will permanently exist in the parts, which
directly affect the thermal–mechanical properties, reliability,
and service life of the parts. Therefore, it is valuable to study
the mechanism of machining defects of FRCMCs-SiC and to
explore the few-defects or non-defects machining process of
FRCMCs-SiC.
4.1. Surface morphology and machined surface roughness
The roughness of machined surface is the most common index
to evaluate the machined surface quality. In the studies, both
two-dimensional feature parameters (such as Ra,
Rz)57,59,61,67,68,82,92,98 and three-dimensional feature parame-
ters (such as Sa, Sq, Sz, Sku, Sdr, Sbi)62–64,69,70,73,75–77,83,84,87
,89,95,97,100,108
are used. However, in view of the anisotropy
and heterogeneity of FRCMCs-SiC, two-dimensional feature
parameters may be difficult to accurately evaluate the rough-
ness of the machined surface. Therefore, three-dimensional
feature parameters have been used more. Generally, the 3D
surface morphology is obtained by non-contact optical mea-
surement methods (as shown in Fig. 20), and then three-
dimensional feature parameters are obtained.
Material properties play a decisive role in the machined sur-
face quality. As a typical anisotropic and heterogeneous mate-
rial, the effect of carbon fiber orientations and machining
direction on machined surface roughness obviously exists.
Zhang et al.59 conducted grinding experiments on three typical
fiber orientations, as shown in Fig. 21. The results showed that
both Ra and Rz followed the following rule: Longitudi-
nal > Normal > Transverse. For surface grinding using dia-
mond wheels, Qu et al.64 defined the deflection angle as a, b,
c according to the reference plane, and proposed that when
a = 90°, b = 90°, c = 0°, Sa and Sz were the minimum. Wang
et al.89 discussed the effect of fiber orientation angle on surface
roughness when using a diamond core drill for Cf/SiC compos-
ites rotary ultrasonic drilling, and proposed that Sq was the
smallest when the angle was 90°. In addition, the fiber of
FRCMCs-SiC actually used usually has a woven or needled
structure. Du et al.62 conducted grinding experiments of 2D
woven Cf/SiC composites along with different directions, and
Zhang et al.73 conducted milling experiments of 2.5D woven
Cf/SiC composites along with different directions, experimen-
tal results all proved that different machining directions also
affected roughness. Besides, Babbar et al.98 studied the effect
of material density on the surface quality in RUM of Cf/SiC
composites by using a diamond abrasive tool. If the material
density was high, the initial surface roughness of the sample
was small, but the reduction in machined surface roughness
was also small.
The geometric parameters of the tool used for machining
also affect the surface roughness. Tawakoli et al.57 found that
the use of segmented grinding wheel increased Ra and Sa in the
grinding of Cf/SiC composites. The reason is that the use of a
segmented grinding wheel increased the maximum undeformed
556
Fig. 20 3D surface morphology of machined surface.63,76,89
Fig. 21 Effect of fiber orientations on machined surface roughness.59
chip thickness, and each segment of the grinding wheel had a
mechanical impact on the workpiece. Zou et al.77 analyzed
the influence of point angle and clearance angle of PCD drill
bit on Sa and Sz.
For various machining processes, the variation of machined
surface roughness with machining parameters is widely dis-
cussed. The most consensus is that the machined surface
roughness decreases with the increase of spindle speed (or cut-
ting speed), increases with the increase of feed rate and grind-
ing depth (or cutting depth).57,59,61,63,73,75,76,82,83,97,98,100,108
For grinding processes (including filing, drilling and milling
by using diamond abrasive tools), the grinding parameters
affect the material removal mechanism by changing the maxi-
mum undeformed chip thickness, which affects the machined
surface roughness. For cutting processes, the cutting parame-
ters affect the material removal mechanism by changing the
cutting thickness, which affects the machined surface rough-
ness. Since the specific cutting energy is the embodiment of
material removal mechanism in energy, Chen et al.100 pro-
posed that there was a negative correlation between the
machined surface roughness and specific milling energy, as
shown in Fig. 22. But there are also some unusual conclusions.
Du et al.62 conducted a grinding experiment on Cf/SiC com-
posites, and the results showed that as the feed rate increased,
both Sa and Sq decreased. And the influence of the maximum
undeformed chip thickness on the surface roughness was not
significant due to the fiber orientation. Adibi et al.67 and
Esmaeiliet al.68 proposed that Ra decreased slightly as the
Q. AN et al.
grinding depth increased in MQL grinding of Cf/SiC compos-
ites, due to the reduction in grinding wheel wear. When drilling
Cf/SiC composites by using PCD tools, Chen et al.76 found
that if the cutting speed was too high, the tool would be unsta-
ble due to excessive load, resulting in a sharp increase in the
machined surface roughness. When drilling Cf/SiC composites
by using a diamond core drill, Ding et al.87 found that if the
density of materials was low (the porosity was too high), the
influence of machining parameters on surface roughness was
unstable.
Besides the effects of material properties and machining
parameters on the surface roughness, the effects of assisted
machining parameters have also been discussed. For MQL,
Adibi et al.67, Esmaeili et al.68 and Qu et al.69 all proposed that
in the grinding of Cf/SiC composites, compared with dry
grinding, fluid grinding (wet grinding) and MQL grinding
effectively reduced the machined surface roughness, due to
good cooling and washing effect. It is worth noting that
MQL grinding only uses a small amount of lubricating oil to
obtain good comprehensive performance, with both effect
and environmental protection. On this basis, Qu et al.69 dis-
cussed the effect of MQL parameters (nozzle direction, air
pressure, oil flow rate, and nozzle distance) on the machined
surface roughness. In addition, Qu et al.70 further proposed
the application of NMQL in the grinding of Cf/SiC compos-
ites. The experimental results are shown in Fig. 23 indicated
that the effectiveness of NMQL for reducing the machined sur-
face roughness.
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 22 Correlation between surface roughness and specific
milling energy.100
For FRCMCs-SiC, UAM is recommended. Compared with
CM, UAM effectively reduced the machined surface rough-
ness, whether grinding82,83 (including filing,84 drilling87,89 and
milling95 by using diamond abrasive tools) or cutting. How-
ever, Bertsche et al.92 found that the surface roughness of
UAM was higher than that of CM in slot milling of SiCf/
SiC composites. But Bertsche also admitted that this conclu-
sion may be inaccurate, due to the surface was evaluated by
Ra and the influence of fiber orientation and measurement
position. For grinding, the ultrasonic vibration of the abrasive
makes the cutting path of the abrasive longer (as shown in
Fig. 24), and the reduction of the maximum undeformed chip
thickness results in the reduction of chips.84,87 Another point
of view is that the ultrasonic vibration makes the contact
between the abrasive and the workpiece from continuous to
intermittent, which results in smaller chips.82,97 And Wang
et al.89 proposed that ultrasonic vibration changed the fracture
mode of carbon fibers, and the fracture of carbon fibers in the
cutting plane was conducive to the reduction of roughness. For
Fig. 23 Effect of lubrication conditions on machined surface
roughness.70
557
cutting, the high-frequency hammering effect of the cutting
edge promotes the initiation and propagation of microcracks
inside the carbon fiber, causing nano-scale brittle fracture of
carbon fibers, which reduced the machined surface rough-
ness.100 Furthermore, the effect of ultrasonic amplitude on
the surface roughness has also been studied. In UAF experi-
ments of Cf/SiC composites, Wang et al.84 found that Sz and
Sq decreased with the increase of ultrasonic amplitude. In
RUM experiments of Cf/SiC composites, Wang et al.89 pro-
posed that when the spindle speed was low, the hole surface
quality was better as the ultrasonic amplitude increased, But
when the spindle speed was further increased, the increase in
ultrasonic amplitude had no obvious benefit to the further
improvement of the hole surface quality. The results of
UAM of Cf/SiC composites by Chen et al.100 showed that Sa
decreased with the increase of ultrasonic amplitude, but when
the amplitude exceeded the threshold value of micro-scale brit-
tle fracture of carbon fibers, the increase in amplitude instead
increased Sa.
There are few studies on LAM of FRCMCs-SiC. However,
based on the LAM experiments of Cf/SiC composites, Erdene-
chimeg et al.108 proposed that LAM improved the machined
surface quality, and as the preheating temperature increased,
the surface roughness decreased.
4.2. Machining defects
The components of FRCMCs-SiC are complex, anisotropic,
and heterogeneous. After removing the materials, various
machining defects will be formed on the fiber, the SiC matrix,
and the interface. Many scholars have also explored the
machined surface defects, subsurface defects, and edge defects.
Researches on machined surface defects are the most.
Zhang et al.59,60 first summarized that the machining defects
of unidirectional Cf/SiC composites in grinding were the com-
bination of matrix cracking, fiber fracture, and interfacial
debonding. Liu et al.61 analyzed the grinding of 2D Cf/SiC
composites, Zhang et al.73 analyzed the milling of 2.5D Cf/
SiC composites and Hu et al.75 analyzed the milling of 2D
Cf/SiC composites, the same conclusion was proposed. This
conclusion is relatively preliminary, and this expression has
been further expanded with the in-depth observation and anal-
ysis of the machined surface. Du et al.62 described machining
defects in detail for three typical fiber orientations. Along
Fig. 24 Grain trajectories of RUM and CD.87
558 Q. AN et al.

longitudinal fibers, laminated fractures, shear fracture, and a

compression fracture of carbon fibers, spallation of SiC
matrix, and cracks in the SiC matrix were observed. Along
transverse fibers, various fiber fractures and interfacial failures
were observed. Along across fibers, grooves, fiber pull-out, and
fiber broken were observed. Qu et al.63,64 thought that fiber
fracture, matrix cracks, interfacial debonding and fiber wear
were the basic forms of Cf/SiC composite damage, and pro-
posed that changes in machining parameters would not cause
changes in the material removal mechanism, but the propor-
tion of different damage forms would be changed. As the
grinding speed increased, the grinding length and vertical force
of the single abrasive became smaller resulting in small cracks,
which improved the quality of the machined surface. As the
feed rate increased, the maximum undeformed chip thickness
increased and more cracks were generated. As the grinding
depth increased, the area of fiber wear decreased, but the inter-
facial debonding and fiber fractures increased. For the cutting
of SiCf/SiC composites, Diaz et al.54 proposed that the
machining defects in the fiber-rich region were fiber fractures,
fiber pulling out, fiber unpulling out and radial cracks of CVI-
SiC, the machining defect in the matrix-rich region was SiC
grains pulling out. Furthermore, Qu et al.69,70 proposed that
the fiber fracture mode was affected by machining parameters,
the sharpness of the abrasive, and the lubrication conditions.
The extrusion and shearing of the abrasive particles led to long
cracks and deep interfacial debonding. However, in MQL and
NMQL grinding, the length and depth of matrix cracks and
interfacial debonding were limited, and machining defects were
reduced. Adibi et al.67 proposed that MQL grinding brought
narrower scratches on the machined surface, more uniform
surface, and better-machined surface quality. Wang et al.84
found that during conventional filing, carbon fibers were cut
or pulled out by the abrasive, the matrix and fibers were sepa-
rated, the carbon fiber circumferentially fractured without
axial damage. But when UAF, carbon fibers had obvious
scratches along the axial direction. Liu et al.99 believed that
compared with conventional milling, UAM was beneficial to
improve the matrix breakage, but the effect of improving fiber
breakage was not obvious. Babbar et al.98 proposed that fiber
pulling out was the main machining defect. When using PCD
tools to drill 2D Cf/SiC composites, Zou et al.74 found that
braided layer separation and bifurcation of yarn were also typ-
ical machining defects for this woven fiber bundle structure.
Based on the above conclusions, in summary, the surface
machining defects of FRCMCs-SiC included fiber fractures
(cut off, crushing, pulling out, outcrop), fiber broken (fiber
Fig. 25 Machining defects on machined surface of FRCMCs-
damage), grooves, and matrix breakage, spallation of SiC
SiC.
matrix, matrix cracks, interfacial debonding, braided layer

Fig. 26 Machined surface defects in the grinding of 3D needled Cf/SiC composites.83

Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites 559

separation and bifurcation of yarn. Fig. 25 shows the images of
these defects.
Because FRCMCs-SiC is fiber-rich materials, carbon fibers
have a large number of machining defects and has a great
impact on surface quality, which should be focused on. There-
fore, some studies have focused on the machining defects
caused by material removal on carbon fibers. Ding et al.83
observed the machined surface of 3D needled Cf/SiC compos-
ites by grinding and proposed that 0° fibers and needled fibers
have a lamellar brittle fracture, 90° fibers have brittle fracture
and fiber pull out, which all caused pits on the machined sur-
face, as shown in Fig. 26. The size of the surface pits decreased
with increasing grinding speed and increases with increasing
feed rate and grinding depth. UAM effectively reduced the size

Fig. 27 Micro-morphology of machined surface in milling of 2D Cf/SiC composites.100

560
Fig. 28 Machining defects on machined subsurface of 2D Cf/SiC composites.
Fig. 29 Machining defects at hole exit of Cf/SiC composites.91
and depth of lamellar brittle fracture, which has been verified
in ultrasonic-assisted grinding83 and ultrasonic-assisted
drilling.87 Chen76,100 proposed that Cf/SiC composite was a
kind of fiber-rich material, and the material removal mecha-
nism of carbon fibers directly determined the machined surface
quality. The pits formed after brittle fracture of carbon fibers
Q. AN et al.
Fig. 30 Relationship between thrust force and tearing factor.88
were the main machining defects on the machined surface.
The change of machining parameters resulted in the transition
of the material removal mechanism of carbon fibers. As shown
in Fig. 27, if carbon fibers occur nano-scale brittle fracture, the
machined surface of composites is flat, but the machined sur-
face of the carbon fiber is rough. If carbon fibers occur
micro-scale brittle fracture (bending-induced fracture,
compression-induced fracture, shear-induced fracture), the
machined surface has pits, because the fractures of carbon
fibers are not in the cutting plane and the fractures of carbon
fiber are inclined. The high-frequency hammering of cutting
edge caused by ultrasonic-assisted milling promoted the
Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites 561

initiation and propagation of micro-cracks inside carbon fiber,

and induced carbon fiber to be removed with nano-scale brittle
fracture, thus effectively reducing the machined surface
defects.100
Besides surface machining defects, subsurface machining
defects are also an important component of machined surface
quality. Surface machining defects are easy to observe, using
an optical microscope or scanning electron microscope
(SEM). But subsurface defects are not easy to observe. Sam-
ple preparation is a challenge. One of the methods is to cut
the workpiece before machining, grind and polish the section,
and then glue them together. After machining, separate them
to observe the subsurface morphology. Ding et al.83 used this
method to observe the subsurface defects of CG and UAG of
Cf/SiC composites. The pits formed by the fracture of fibers
and fiber bundles were the main defects, and UAG effectively
reduced such defects, as shown in Fig. 28(a) and (b). If the
combination of mechanical cutting and mechanical polishing
is used, the mechanical damage during the sample prepara-
tion have a great impact on the subsurface machining defects
and some of which may not be observed. Diaz et al.54
observed subsurface defects during micro-drilling of SiCf/
SiC composites and found that there were fiber fracture, fiber
pull-out, and fiber unpull-out. Qu et al.70 focused on fiber
pull-out and proposed that NMQL grinding had a good
effect on reducing fiber pull-out, as shown in Fig. 27(c) and
(d).
Some of the structures (such as through-hole and groove)
produced by machining has edges. For these machining pro-
cesses, machining defects of the edge has an important impact
on the quality of parts. Hole machining is the most widely
implemented process. The defects at the hole exit of
FRCMCs-SiC has not been uniformly named. In some
researches, delamination by directly referring to the defects
of CFRP is used, and the delamination factor is used in the
quantitative evaluation.71 And in some researches, hole exit
defects are defined as tearing, and the tearing factor is used
in the quantitative evaluation.87,88,91 In view of the variety of
defects at the hole exit, including tearing, edge chipping, and
burr (as shown in Fig. 29), the damage factor is used in the
quantitative evaluation.76,77 The reason for the damage at
the hole exit is that fibers deform under the action of the axial
force due to the lack of support of the materials when the tool
is fed close to the exit. Therefore, many studies have shown
that the axial force is a direct factor affecting the hole exit
Fig. 31 Calculation of 2D damage factors based on image
defects.76,77,85,87,88 Feng et al.88 obtained the positive correla-
processing technology.77
tion diagram between the tearing factor and the thrust force
as shown in Fig. 30 through experiments. Therefore, various
variables affect the quality of the hole exit by changing the
thrust force in machining. Increasing the spindle speed and The machining defects to the edge during slot milling are
reducing the feed rate can reduce the defects of the hole also worthy of attention. Hu et al.75 proposed that the edge
exit.71,76,86,87,88,91 In addition, compared with the CM, the defects in slot milling of Cf/SiC composites include fiber pro-
effectiveness of RUM to reduce the hole exit defects has been trusion, surface damage, and both of them (as shown in
widely recognized85–88,91, and with the increase of amplitude, Fig. 32). The damage width and count were used to evaluate
the exit quality is improved88,91. Furthermore, Wang et al.91 the damage quantitatively. The results showed that the surface
designed a new compound step-taper drill, which effectively damage was far more than the fiber protrusion. And the dam-
reduced the tearing due to the reprocessing effect. According age increased with the feed rate increases.
to the difference in color and shape between the hole exit
defects and the composites, Zou et al.77 calculated the 2D dam- 4.3. Residual stress
age factor based on the image processing technology (as shown
in Fig. 31), which improved the efficiency of hole exit quality Residual stress is an important index to evaluate the machined
evaluation. surface quality. However, compared with metal materials, the
562 Q. AN et al.

Fig. 32 Three main forms of machined defects of side edges.75

Fig. 33 Residual stress analysis based on Raman spectroscopy.54

Machining of SiC ceramic matrix composites
Fig. 34 Effect of feed rate and ultrasonic amplitude on residual stress.
impact of the residual stress on the machined surface on service
performance and service life of FRCMCs-SiC parts has not
been clearly concluded. Therefore, there are only a few prelim-
inary explorations of the residual stress on the machined sur-
face of FRCMCs-SiC. Azarhoushang et al.58 measured the
residual stress of the machined surface based on X-ray diffrac-
tion during the evaluation of the performance of the seg-
mented grinding wheel in the grinding of Cf/SiC composites.
The results indicated that Cf/SiC composites have tensile resid-
ual stress on machined surface. The application of segmented
grinding wheels was beneficial to reduce residual stress because
the initiation and propagation of a large number of micro-
cracks during material removal had a stress relief effect. Diaz
et al.54 characterized the surface stress and chemical composi-
tion of SiCf/SiC composites by micro-Raman spectroscopy
and discussed the sources of the residual stress of different
phases and the relationship between the fracture behavior of
the material and the residual stress. Fig. 33 shows the residual
stress measured based on Raman spectroscopy. The peak posi-
tion of the Raman spectrum of the material will shift under the
action of stress, and the peak shift value has a certain mapping
with the stress. Therefore, the Raman spectrum of the
machined surface is obtained by using a micro-Raman spec-
563
100
trometer, and the residual stress of the machined surface can
be measured by extracting the peak displacement and convert-
ing according to the formula. Chen et al.100 further adopted
the Raman Mapping method (as shown in Fig. 34(a)) to obtain
the Raman spectrum of the measured surface and converted it
into a residual stress distribution map based on the peak shift.
Based on this method, the residual stress of the machined sur-
face in milling of Cf/SiC composites was measured and ana-
lyzed. And for Cf/SiC composites, the effectiveness of UAM
to reduce the tensile residual stress was confirmed (Fig. 34(b)).
5. Conclusions
FRCMCs-SiC is an excellent high-temperature material and
friction material, which has promising applications in the aero-
space, energy, transportation, and other industries. Machining
is indispensable in the preparation of parts, and the machining
quality has a significant impact on the service performance and
service life of parts. Many scholars have actively explored the
material removal mechanism, machining processes, and sur-
face integrity, and achieved some results. Based on the litera-
ture survey, the following conclusions are drawn:
564
 The material removal mechanism of FRCMCs-SiC in
machining can be broadly summarized as brittle fracture
(including matrix crushing, interfacial debonding, fiber
fracture). Furthermore, the brittle fracture mechanism of
the fiber is worth subdividing into nano-scale brittle frac-
ture and micro-scale brittle fracture. The weak fiber–matrix
interface is beneficial to improve the toughness of the mate-
rial, but it is a challenge to avoid interface defects during
machining. An in-depth exploration of the material removal
mechanism can facilitate understanding machined surface
generation mechanisms and provide ideas for avoiding
machining defects.
 For machining FRCMCs-SiC, the processes of CM, UAM
and LAM have their own advantages. Based on preliminary
experimental exploration, compared to CM, UAM can
reduce the force by 7.4–%, reduce the surface roughness by
12–30%, improve machining efficiency by 10–480%, and
reduce tool wear by 28.06–36%, LAM can reduce the force
by 40–40.7%, reduce the surface roughness by about 33.8%,
and increase the tool life by 3.8 times. Overall, UAM has obvi-
ous advantages in improving machining efficiency, and LAM
has obvious advantages in improving tool life.
 Considering the extreme service environment, the machining
quality of FRCMCs-SiC parts is the most concerned in
machining. The effects of machining parameters, material
properties (fiber orientation, machining direction, material
density), and tool parameters on the roughness are widely dis-
cussed. Besides, a great variety of machining defects is an
important feature of FRCMCs-SiC machining. Fiber frac-
tures (cut off, crushing, pulling out, outcrop), fiber broken
(fiber damage), grooves, and matrix breakage, spallation of
SiC matrix, matrix cracks, interfacial debonding, braided
layer separation and bifurcation of yarn are all observed,
and there are also edge chipping, burr and tearing at the struc-
tural edge. Because the influence of the residual stress of the
machined surface on the service performance of FRCMCs-
SiC parts is not clear, there are few related researches.
6. Prospective outlook
Researches on the machining of FRCMCs-SiC is preliminary
but has been concerned. With the further expansion of the
application of FRCMCs-SiC, the requirements for manufac-
turing will be further increased. For machining, more in-
depth and systematic researches are urgently needed.
 Up to now, the removal mechanism and damage behavior
of FRCMCs-SiC under the assistance of various energy
fields are still unknown, so it is necessary to carry out mech-
anism experiments for different assisted machining pro-
cesses, which is of great significance to deeply understand
the mechanism and optimization direction of assisted
machining processes. More scientifically, it is also expected
to establish theoretical or numerical models to describe
material removal mechanisms.
 For machining processes, improving conventional processes
and designing production equipment suitable for new pro-
cesses are significant issues, and there is an urgent need to
develop machining tools (such as cutting-edge tools and
abrasive tools) suitable for FRCMCs-SiC.
Q. AN et al.
 The quantitative evaluation indexes of machined surface
quality are also urgently needed to be determined. At pre-
sent, the evaluation of FRCMCs-SiC machined surface is
still using the single evaluation indexes of metal materials
or CFRP, which is obviously insufficient. In establishing a
machining quality evaluation system for FRCMCs-SiC,
the mapping between the surface integrity indexes (such
as roughness, damage layer thickness, defects, etc.) and
the service performance indexes (such as mechanical prop-
erties, fatigue properties, bonding properties with the envi-
ronmental thermal barrier coating, etc.) is also worth
considering.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51975368).
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