materials
Article
Experimental Research on Wolfram Inert Gas AA1050
Aluminum Alloy Tailor Welded Blanks Processed by Single
Point Incremental Forming Process
Gabriela-Petrut, a Rusu, Radu-Eugen Breaz * , Mihai-Octavian Popp, Valentin Oleksik
Citation: Rusu, G.-P.; Breaz, R.-E.;
Popp, M.-O.; Oleksik, V.; Racz, S.-G.
Experimental Research on Wolfram
Inert Gas AA1050 Aluminum Alloy
Tailor Welded Blanks Processed by
Single Point Incremental Forming
Process. Materials 2023, 16, 6408.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma16196408
Academic Editor: Pan Gong
Received: 29 August 2023
Revised: 22 September 2023
Accepted: 23 September 2023
Published: 26 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 6408. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16196408
and Sever-Gabriel Racz
Faculty of Engineering, “Lucian Blaga” University, 550024 Sibiu, Romania; gabriela.rusu@ulbsibiu.ro (G.-P.R.);
mihai.popp@ulbsibiu.ro (M.-O.P.); valentin.oleksik@ulbsibiu.ro (V.O.); gabriel.racz@ulbsibiu.ro (S.-G.R.)
* Correspondence: radu.breaz@ulbsibiu.ro
Abstract: The present paper aims to study the behavior of tailor welded blanks subjected to a single
point incremental forming (SPIF) process from an experimental point of view. This process was
chosen to deform truncated cone shapes of AA1050 aluminum alloy with different thicknesses. A
uniaxial tensile test was performed to determine the mechanical characteristics of the alloy. Initial
experimental tests implicated the use of variable wall angle parts which were processed on unwelded
sheet blanks for determination of the behavior of the material and the forming forces. Afterwards,
the wolfram inert gas (WIG) welding technique was used for joining two sheet blanks with different
thicknesses either through one pass on one side, or by one pass on both sides. The conclusion of this
paper indicates that one-sided welded blanks cannot be deformed successfully without fracture. In
case of two-sided welded blanks, the results showed that the desired depth of 25 mm can be reached
successfully. In case of the SPIF process, if welded blanks must be deformed, then the suitable method
is to weld the blanks on both sides.
Keywords: wolfram inert gas; incremental forming; single point incremental forming; aluminum
alloy; strain; thickness reduction; forces; welded blanks; industrial robot
1. Introduction
The process of single point incremental forming (SPIF) is gaining more and more
popularity among researchers worldwide due to its significant potential in manufacturing
complex components [1,2], characterized by reduced tooling, cycle time, and costs, as well
as the ability to create sculptured profiles, as compared to traditional methods [3]. The
main advantages of the single point incremental forming process consist of using tools
with simple shapes and the absence of an active die representing the conjugate shape of
the part [4,5], as can be seen in Figure 1. However, it is essential to acknowledge certain
limitations of this process. Notably, SPIF tends to be slower compared to other methods of
plastic deformation such as deep drawing, stamping, and bending [4], and it sometimes
results in parts with less geometrical accuracy. Currently, its applications are predominantly
confined to small-series batches and the prototyping sector, where the benefits of reduced
tooling costs and greater geometric flexibility ca be fully realized. Furthermore, creating
parts with high wall angles presents a considerable challenge, and achieving 90◦ sections is
even more demanding [6]. Despite these challenges, the mechanics of SPIF are relatively
straightforward [7]. The sheet blank is secured at the intersection between the active die
and the retaining ring. In operation, a punch characterized by a semispherical or parabolic
profile traverses a defined toolpath, manipulating the sheet blank to yield a component with
intricate geometry [8,9]. This straightforward approach, coupled with ongoing research,
holds promise for addressing the current limitations and expanding the application scope
of SPIF in the near future. This process is typically carried out on thin metal sheets, up to
1 mm in thickness. Of course, when it comes to plastic materials, these can be easily
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Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

Materials 2023, 16, 6408 2 of 21

metal sheets, up to 1 mm in thickness. Of course, when it comes to plastic materials, these
can be easily deformed even with thicknesses of 3–5 mm. Regardless of the studied mate-
rial, the thickness of the sheets is generally limited by the capacity of the equipment used
deformed even with thicknesses of 3–5 mm. Regardless of the studied material, the
for their deformation, meaning the maximum forces that this equipment can generate.
thickness of the sheets is generally limited by the capacity of the equipment used for their
Thus, the higher the mechanical strength of the base material, the smaller the thickness of
deformation, meaning the maximum forces that this equipment can generate. Thus, the
the sheets that can be deformed [10,11].
higher the mechanical strength of the base material, the smaller the thickness of the sheets
that can be deformed [10,11].

Figure 1.
Figure Working principle
1. Working principle of
of SPIF
SPIF process.
process.

The single
The single point
point incremental
incremental forming
forming of ofwelded
weldedsheets
sheetsemerges
emergesasasa afrontier
frontierdevelop-
devel-
ment in the field of sheet metal forming, notably for the added benefits conferred by the
opment in the field of sheet metal forming, notably for the added benefits conferred by
joining process. However, there are not many studies to date that address the single point
the joining process. However, there are not many studies to date that address the single
incremental forming of welded sheets due to the challenges of achieving the welds [12].
point incremental forming of welded sheets due to the challenges of achieving the welds
Considering that the single point incremental forming process is carried out on sheets, the
[12]. Considering that the single point incremental forming process is carried out on
welded joints must be made end-to-end. Therefore, for end-to-end welding of two sheets,
sheets, the welded joints must be made end-to-end. Therefore, for end-to-end welding of
I-shaped joints are used, and for this type of joint, as presented in the previous subsection,
two sheets, I-shaped joints are used, and for this type of joint, as presented in the previous
they are suitable for welding sheets with thicknesses between 1 and 14 mm. This makes it
subsection, they are suitable for welding sheets with thicknesses between 1 and 14 mm.
difficult to weld thin metal sheets used in the single point incremental forming process [13].
This makes it difficult to weld thin metal sheets used in the single point incremental form-
One of the foundational studies in the domain of single point incremental forming
ing process [13].
(SPIF) of welded sheets was spearheaded by Ambrogio et al. in 2006 [14]. Utilizing the
One of the foundational studies in the domain of single point incremental forming
friction stir welding process, the researchers adeptly joined 1.2 mm thick aluminum alloy
(SPIF)
sheets.ofThis
welded
method,sheets was spearheaded
characterized by a toolbyengaging
Ambrogio in et al. in 2006and
a rotational [14].
feedUtilizing
movement the
friction stir welding process, the researchers adeptly joined 1.2
along the welding zone, fostered high temperatures and plastic flow phenomenon, cul- mm thick aluminum alloy
sheets.
minating This
inmethod,
a weldedcharacterized
joint. Through by meticulous
a tool engaging in a rotational
optimization, and feed
parameters suchmovement
as a tool
along
rotation speed of 1040 rpm, feed rate of 104 mm/min, and a 1.1 mm tool penetrationculmi-
the welding zone, fostered high temperatures and plastic flow phenomenon, depth
nating in a welded
were established asjoint. Through
optimal. meticulous
Consequently, theyoptimization,
successfullyparameters such as apyramid
crafted a truncated tool ro-
tation speed
featuring a 40ofmm1040 rpm,and
depth feed rate
a 50 of 104
◦ wall mm/min,
angle, and a58.75
identifying 1.1 mm◦ as tool penetration
the critical depth
deformation
were established as optimal. Consequently, they successfully crafted
angle before weld joint rupture. The study of single point incremental forming of welded a truncated pyramid
featuring
sheets madea 40 from
mm depth and a 50°aluminum
two different wall angle,alloys,
identifying
AA6061 58.75°andasAA5083,
the critical
wasdeformation
conducted
angle before weld joint rupture. The study of single point incremental
by Tayebi and collaborators [15]. They investigated the process both experimentally forming of welded
and
sheets
through made from two
numerical different carried
simulations aluminum alloys,
out in AA6061
ABAQUS. andsuccessfully
They AA5083, was conducted
deformed the
by Tayebi
welded and collaborators
sheets of both alloys[15].at anThey
angle investigated the process
of 60◦ to a total depth of both experimentally
89.75 mm. At angles andof
62.5◦ andnumerical
through 65◦ , the sheets
simulations carried
experienced out in
failure ABAQUS.
at an early stageThey successfully
of the single pointdeformed
incrementalthe
welded
formingsheets
process,of both alloys
reaching at an angledepth
a maximum of 60° ofto 22
a total
mm.depth of 89.75 mm.
Additionally, At angles ofa
they conducted
62.5° and 65°, the sheets experienced failure at an early stage of
microstructural analysis of the deformed parts. Another approach was to investigate the single point incremen- the
tal forming
effect process,
of SPIF process reaching a maximum
parameters depth of behavior
on the forming 22 mm. Additionally,
of TWBs using theya conducted
simulation
amethod.
microstructural analysis ofwas
ABAQUS/Explicit the used
deformed parts. Another
as a simulation approach
tool, and was to parameters
SPIF process investigate likethe
effect of SPIFrotational
feed, spindle process parameters on the forming
speed, and coefficient behavior
of friction of TWBsfor
were selected using a simulation
investigation. [16]
method. ABAQUS/Explicit
In their paper, was used
Tucci and colleagues as a simulation
presented tool, and
an integrated SPIF process
numerical model parameters
designed to
like feed, the
simulate spindle
singlerotational speed, andforming
point incremental coefficient of friction
of thin werewere
sheets that selected for investiga-
previously friction
tion. [16] In [17].
stir welded theirThis
paper, Tucci and
approach colleagues
is based presented an integrated
on the interconnection of two models numerical model
that simulate
the consecutive
designed processes.
to simulate The first
the single model
point incorporates
incremental input data
forming related
of thin to the
sheets thatfriction
were
stir welding process, such as tool geometry, rotation speed, feed rate, and other parame-
ters characterizing the plastic behavior of the material. Subsequently, the second model
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 3 of 21

performs the actual single point incremental forming process [18]. Another approach is
presented by Maji, who studied the deformability of AA5083 aluminum alloy sheets with a
thickness of 1 mm that were friction stir welded [15].
Maji conducted experimental trials to determine the optimal welding parameters and
concluded that excellent performance is achieved at a punch rotation speed of 2000 rpm,
a feed rate of 100 mm/min, and a tool diameter of 9 mm. Subsequently, a line test was
conducted to determine the deformation limit diagram for both the base material and the
welded sheets. Maji observed that the deformability of the welded sheets significantly
decreases compared to the deformability of the base material. This reduction is attributed
to the welding process, which leads to a hardening of the base material, resulting in higher
hardness and reduced elongation at fracture in the heat-affected zone.
In another study, Alinaghian [19] experimentally investigated the deformability of
AA6061 sheets with a thickness of 2 mm that underwent single point incremental forming.
In the initial stage, the researcher determined which forming direction (at 0◦ , 45◦ , and
90◦ relative to the sheet rolling direction) exhibited the best deformability. Analyzing the
deformation limit diagram, it was concluded that the variant with a 45◦ forming direction
was optimal. Alinaghian employed the response surface methodology to determine optimal
parameters for the single point incremental forming process. The findings highlighted
parameters leading to increased deformability, such as a tool rotation speed of 1600 rpm, a
feed rate of 40 mm/min, and a penetration depth of 0.15 mm. Similarly, optimal parameters
for minimal material thinning included a processing speed of 600 mm/min, a vertical step of
0.6 mm, and no punch rotation. These findings are especially pivotal in the metal processing
industry, where innovations emphasize advanced welding and forming technologies. A
pertinent study revealed forming angle limits at 60◦ for base metal and 57.5◦ for FSW
sheets [20], complementing Alinaghian’s insights and underscoring the importance of
recognizing deformability constraints for optimized material performance.
It is noted that the formability of the dissimilar aluminum alloy sheets FSW in the
SPIF process proves to be comparable to that of the base materials, highlighting the positive
influences of dynamic recrystallization on the welded zones [21]. These findings collectively
underscore the significance of understanding material behavior and process parameters
to optimize both single point incremental forming and friction stir welding processes,
ultimately advancing the capabilities of modern metal fabrication techniques.
The majority of researchers in the field have employed friction stir welding to create
welded sheets for studying the behavior of single point incremental forming in welded
sheets [22]. This is also evident in the work of Carlone and colleagues, who analyzed
the single point incremental forming behavior of AA6082-T6 sheets with a thickness of
2 mm that were friction stir welded [23]. They investigated five different combinations
of welding parameters, including a punch rotation speed ranging from 1000 to 1400 rpm
and a feed rate ranging from 40 to 100 mm/min. They compared these parameters for
truncated cone-shaped pieces welded through TIG welding. They identified optimal
parameters, in terms of maximum deformation depth before material failure occurred, as
1200 rpm for the rotation speed and 700 mm/min for the feed rate. Additionally, they
found that the feed rate during the welding process had the most significant influence
on the deformability of the welded pieces, with a feed rate of 100 mm/min resulting in
weaker outcomes. Currently, the need for using welded sheets is growing, especially in the
automotive manufacturing industry. This is highlighted by Merklein and colleagues in their
paper, where they outline applications of welded sheets in the automotive construction
industry [10]. These welded sheets are subsequently employed as semi-finished products
for conventional plastic deformation processes like deep drawing. Additionally, they
provide the possibility for single point incremental forming, offering an alternative to
the current production process of reinforcement, support, and structural components in
vehicles. Applications of welded sheets in the construction of a modern vehicle can be used
at: Cross member, A-pillar, B-pillar, roof reinforcement, motor compartment rail, front and
rear door inner.
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 4 of 21

In his paper, Campos [24], along with his collaborators, defines three distinct zones of
single point incremental formed sheets: the central forming zone, the thermomechanically
affected zone, and the heat-affected zone. They determined that mechanical properties
remain constant in the first zone, gradually decreasing until the edge of the heat-affected
zone, where values are similar to those of the base material. In their study, they used an
AA6082-T6 aluminum alloy. Consequently, the authors incorporated an isotropic Swift
flow law into their finite element analysis model for single point incremental forming,
accounting for the work-hardening coefficient (n) and the plastic resistance coefficient
(K). Regardless of the chosen process for creating welded joints, in the case of a properly
executed weld, the weld pool is formed, which possesses mechanical properties superior to
the base material in terms of strength, while also exhibiting lower plasticity. However, due
to the nature of the welding process, determining the mechanical properties of the weld
pool is not straightforward.
A method for investigating the behavior of the weld bead is proposed by Marathe [25]
through numerical simulations of welded sheets between two aluminum alloys: AA5083-O
with a low yield strength of 150 MPa, and AA6061 T6 with a higher yield strength of 280 MPa.
Marathe conducted numerous numerical simulations using various yield strength values
for the weld bead, ranging between the limits of the two materials: 160, 180, 200, 220, 240,
and 260 MPa. Furthermore, Marathe investigated the effect of rotating the weld bead,
which is influenced by its yield strength, and obtained displacements of up to 1.2 mm.
Another approach by the author, in collaboration with Raut [26], was to investigate the
effect of punch path direction on the weld bead formed between two other aluminum alloys,
AA5754 H22 and AA5052 H32. They demonstrated that the punch position at the beginning
of the toolpath plays an important role in the displacement of the weld bead. A novel
method to study the single point incremental forming process of friction stir welded sheets
was proposed by Silva, who employed an additional protective sheet made from a different
material placed over the welded sheets. The purpose of this approach was to shield both
the workpiece and the weld bead from the rotational effects of the forming tool. Ghadmode
suggested in his research about formability of tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) made from
aluminum alloys. He observes that the single point incremental forming (SPIF) process
significantly reduces the forming depth of these TWBs compared to the base materials,
and highlights brittle behavior in the welded region. The author suggests that post-TIG
welding heat treatment could enhance the formability of these TWBs [27]. Silva conducted
numerous experiments on truncated cone and truncated pyramid-shaped pieces using
AA1050-H111 sheets with thicknesses of 1.5 and 2 mm. For the protective sheet, DC04
material with a thickness of 0.63 mm was utilized. As a result of these experiments, the
author concluded that it is possible to produce parts through single point incremental
forming of friction stir welded sheets using an additional protective sheet made from a
different material than the base material [28].
In another study, Baharudin analyzed the forces involved in the single point incre-
mental forming process at a specific point for friction stir welded aluminum AA6061-T6
sheets with a thickness of 2 mm [29]. The authors also employed the Taguchi method
to analyze the input parameters in the single point incremental forming process, such as
punch rotation speed, processing speed, vertical step, and punch diameter. The fabricated
parts took the shape of truncated cones with a variable angle, ranging from 30◦ at the
larger base to 80◦ at the smaller base of the truncated cone. As conclusions, the authors
observed that as the punch rotation speed increases, the forces in the process decrease.
Additionally, they found that the processing speed and the vertical step have the most
significant influence on the forces exerted in the process.
The motivation behind this research is to explore the potential of producing thin
welded sheets with thicknesses less than 1 mm using conventional welding techniques.
In industries like automotive and aerospace, there is often a demand for components
with varied thicknesses to meet specific structural and weight requirements. For instance,
car door panels or aircraft wing sections might require varying thickness for an optimal
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 5 of 21

strength-to-weight ratio. Considering that the majority of the researchers in the field use
the friction stir welding technique, our investigation into traditional methods provides
a distinctive approach. In the case of welded blanks subjected to the SPIF process, there
are controversial and diverging results, showing in some cases that welded blanks can-
not be deformed without fracture, but also in other cases that the parts were obtained
without fracture.
The aim of this paper is to study the behavior of TWBs welded through WIG processed
by single point incremental forming and the influence of the welding bead over material
formability. For this purpose, AA1050 aluminum alloy blanks were deformed initially into
a variable wall angle frustrum cone, and afterwards, TWBs were deformed until material
fracture occurred and the depth was determined. The TWBs were welded either through
one pass on one side, or with one pass on both sides. In the case of two-sided welded
beads, the results showed that it is possible to deform the aluminum alloy until 25 mm
depth without fracture.
Considering the purpose of this research, which is to study the behavior of tailor
welded blanks (TWB) through wolfram inert gas (WIG), we chose to use sheet blanks out
of the same material but with varying thicknesses. This choice stems from the fact that the
majority of researchers in the field uses sheet blanks from the same material and thickness.
Those familiar with the welding area are aware that welding aluminum alloy components
is much more challenging than welding other materials such as steel, titanium, magnesium
alloys, etc. In the following sections, we will outline the research methodology employed
in this paper.

2. Materials and Methods

In this research, we analyzed the influence of the welding bead on the incrementally
formed aluminum alloy sheets. The first part of the experimental research consists in
carrying out the tensile test in order to determine the mechanical characteristics. The second
stage of this research was focused on the study of the deformability on the incrementally
formed sheets with frustrum cone shape parts with variable wall angle. The last stage
involves the incremental forming of the aluminum sheets welded through the WIG process.

2.1. Welding Methodology

The sheet blanks used in this research were made of AA1050 aluminum alloy, which
is a cold laminated sheet (EN573-3:2009) [30]. This type of alloy exhibits high corrosion
resistance and can be easily processed through plastic deformation processes, showing good
ductility, which make it suitable for use in the automotive and aeronautic industries for
car body parts where low weight products are in high demand. The chemical composition
according to the standard presented above is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical composition for AA1050 sheet blanks.

Composition Al Mn Fe Cu Mg Si Zn Ti
wt % 99.5 0.05 0.4 0.05 0.05 0.25 0.05 0.03

For the welding of the TWBs, the following technological parameters were used: thin
wolfram electrodes with a diameter of 3 mm, a direct current power source of 135 A, direct
polarity and argon as the inert gas. The sheet blanks used for welding had a dimension of
125 × 250 mm, summing a total area of the blanks of 250 × 250 mm with a thickness of 0.8
and 1 mm. The TWBs were welded on one side through a single pass and on two sides also
through a single pass as in Figure 2.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Materials 2023, 16, 6408 and 1 mm. The TWBs were welded on one side through a single pass and on two 6sides
of 21

also through a single pass as in Figure 2.

Figure 2.
Figure Welding of
2. Welding of the
the specimens
specimens with
with welding
welding bead
bead on
on one
one side
side and
and on
on two
two sides.
sides.

The welding of the TWBs was performed using the welding apparatus Fronius Mag-
The welding of the TWBs was performed using the welding apparatus Fronius
icWave 4000 AC/DC. This apparatus stands as an advanced and dependable solution
MagicWave 4000 AC/DC. This apparatus stands as an advanced and dependable solution
for WIG welding operations within the experimental research outlined in this article. Its
for WIG welding operations within the experimental research outlined in this article. Its
primary features and functions make it an indispensable tool for achieving high-quality
primary features and functions make it an indispensable tool for achieving high-quality
results and exploring weld behavior under various conditions.
results and exploring weld behavior under various conditions.
2.2. Uniaxial Tesile Test for AA1050 Specimens
2.2. Uniaxial Tesile Test for AA1050 Specimens
For the study of the behavior of the welded blanks processed by single point incremen-
For the(SPIF),
tal forming study itofwasthe necessary
behavior of to the
carrywelded blanks tests
out uniaxial processed
of the by single point
specimens incre-
in order to
mental forming (SPIF), it was necessary to carry out uniaxial
determine the mechanical characteristics. For this test, the specimens used were composedtests of the specimens in
order
of the to determine
base material the mechanical
without weld. For characteristics.
the experimentalFor this test, the specimens
determination used were
of the engineering
composed
stress-strainofdiagram,
the baseamaterial
tensile testwithout weld. Forusing
was conducted the experimental
the Instron 5587determination
machine. The of ma-
the
engineering stress-strain diagram, a tensile test was conducted using
chine is controlled through Bluehill 2 software, which enables features like automatic sensor the Instron 5587 ma-
chine. The machine
calibration, is controlledand
system monitoring, through Bluehill
the ability 2 software,
to determine thewhich enablescharacteristic
engineering features like
automatic sensor calibration, system monitoring, and the
curves. This machine has a maximum loading of 300 kN and an adjustable test speed ability to determine the in
engi-
the
neering
range of characteristic
0.001–500 mm/min. curves.Consequently,
This machine six hasrectangular
a maximum loading of specimens
cross-section 300 kN and werean
adjustable test thickness,
tested for each speed in the 0.8 range
and 1 mm of 0.001–500 mm/min.
in the rolling Consequently,
direction. The specimens six rectangular
employed
cross-section
adhere to the specimens were tested
SR EN 10002-1:2002 for each[31],
standard thickness, 0.8 and
possessing 1 mm in the
a calibrated rolling
length of 75direc-
mm
tion.
and aThe specimens
width employed adhere to the SR EN 10002-1:2002 standard [31], possessing
of 12.5 mm.
a calibrated length of
The specimens were75 mm and athe
cut with width
helpof of12.5 mm.jet from sheets of AA1050 aluminum
a water
alloy.TheByspecimens
using thiswere method cut with the help
of cutting of specimens,
the a water jet from sheets of AA1050
the possibility of the aluminum
measured
characteristics
alloy. By using being influenced
this method by strong
of cutting heating and
the specimens, theeven structural
possibility of the alterations
measuredin the
char-
material which
acteristics beingcan occur asby
influenced a result
strongofheating
laser cutting
and evenare structural
eliminated. The water
alterations injet
thecutting
mate-
process
rial whichwascanperformed
occur as ausing
resultthe Digital
of laser Control
cutting cutting machine.
are eliminated. During
The water the tensile
jet cutting test,
process
both performed
was ends of the using
specimen were clamped,
the Digital Controland theymachine.
cutting were deformed
Duringatthe a constant rate until
tensile test, both
fracture
ends occurred.
of the specimen Through this test,
were clamped, and there
theywere
weredetermined
deformed atthe following
a constant mechanical
rate until frac-
characteristics:
ture elasticity this
occurred. Through modulus (Young’s
test, there weremodulus)
determined E, yield strength (σ
the following c ), ultimatecharac-
mechanical tensile
stress (σmax
teristics: ), strainmodulus
elasticity hardening(Young coefficient (n), plastic
s modulus) E, resistance coefficient
yield strength (K), and tensile
(σc), ultimate
strain at
stress break
(σmax (εmaxhardening
), strain ). coefficient (n), plastic resistance coefficient (K), and tensile
strain at break (εmax).
2.3. Single Point Incremental Forming Process
Considering the purpose and objectives of this paper, which involve studying the
behavior of TWBs deformed through the SPIF process and analyzing the results obtained
regarding deformability of the parts, the setup presented in Figure 3 was employed con-
taining the following equipment: fixing system for sheet blanks, KUKA KR210-2 industrial
 2.3.
2.3.Single
SinglePoint
PointIncremental
IncrementalForming
FormingProcess
Process
Considering
Consideringthe thepurpose
purposeand andobjectives
objectivesofofthis
thispaper,
paper,which
whichinvolve
involvestudying
studyingthe the
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 behavior 7 of 21
behaviorofofTWBsTWBsdeformed
deformedthrough
throughthe theSPIF
SPIFprocess
processandandanalyzing
analyzingthe theresults
resultsobtained
obtained
regarding
regardingdeformability
deformabilityofofthetheparts,
parts,the
thesetup
setuppresented
presentedininFigure
Figure3 3was
wasemployed
employedcon- con-
taining
tainingthethefollowing
followingequipment:
equipment:fixing
fixingsystem
systemforforsheet
sheetblanks,
blanks,KUKA
KUKAKR210-2
KR210-2indus-
indus-
robot,
trial
trial force
robot,
robot,forcetransducer
forcetransducerforfor
transducer measuring
formeasuring
measuring forces
forces during
forcesduring
during process
process
process inin
three
three directions,
threedirections, fixing
directions,fixing
fixing
system
system
systemforfor the
forthe punches,
thepunches, and
punches,and an
andan optical
anoptical strain
opticalstrain analysis
strainanalysis system
analysissystem
system ARAMIS.
ARAMIS.
ARAMIS.

Figure
Figure3.3.3.
Figure Experimental setup
Experimental
Experimental setupfor
setup forthe
for thestudy
the ofof
study
study TWBs
of processed
TWBs
TWBs processed
processedby SPIF
by
by process.
SPIF
SPIF process.
process.

TheThe
The fixing
fixing
fixing system
system
system for
forfor sheet
sheet
sheet blanks
blanks
blanks was
waswas composed
composed
composed ofof
of upper
upper
upper and
and
and lower
lower
lower retaining
retaining
retaining plates
plates
plates
(1),
(1),aaasupport
(1), support
supportforfor the
forthe retaining
theretaining plates
retainingplates (2),
(2),a aaT-slot
plates(2), T-slot plate
T-slotplate (3),
(3),a aaframe
plate(3), frame(4)
(4)secured
securedtotothe
thefloor,
floor,
and
and fastening
andfastening bolts
fasteningbolts (5),
(5),asas
bolts(5), can
ascan be
canbe seen
seeninin
beseen Figure
Figure4.4.4.
inFigure

Figure
Figure 4.4.4.
Figure Fixing
Fixing
Fixing system
system
system for
for sheet
sheet
for blanks
blanks
sheet during
during
blanks SPIF
SPIF
during process.
process.
SPIF process.

The
The inner
Theinner
innersurface
surface
surfaceofofthe retaining
ofthe plates
theretaining
retaining measures
plates
plates 200 ×200
measures
measures 200
200mm, ensuring
× ×200
200mm, a secure agrip
mm,ensuring
ensuring of the
asecure
secure
TWBs.
grip The sheets are fastened by tightening the retaining plates using 12 M10 × 30 cylindrical-
gripofofthe
theTWBs.
TWBs.TheThesheets
sheetsare arefastened
fastenedbybytightening
tighteningthetheretaining
retainingplates
platesusing
using1212M10M10
headed screws with hexagonal recesses. This setup was designed and constructed in a
manner that allows the TWBs to be mounted vertically, facilitating strain measurements
during the SPIF process using the ARAMIS 2M software.
The technological equipment used for sheet metal forming was the KUKA KR210-2
industrial robot. We chose this equipment due to its capability to allow the measurements
of strains and its ability to follow complex toolpaths due to its high flexibility. The robot is a
 × 30 cylindrical-headed screws with hexagonal recesses. This setup was designed and con-
structed in a manner that allows the TWBs to be mounted vertically, facilitating strain
measurements during the SPIF process using the ARAMIS 2M software.
Materials 2023, 16, 6408
The technological equipment used for sheet metal forming was the KUKA KR210-2 8 of 21
industrial robot. We chose this equipment due to its capability to allow the measurements
of strains and its ability to follow complex toolpaths due to its high flexibility. The robot
is a serial type with 6 kinematic joints, providing 6 degrees of freedom, which gives it a
serial type with 6 kinematic joints, providing 6 degrees of freedom, which gives it a higher
higher flexibility compared to general CNC machines. The robot s maximum payload is
flexibility compared to general CNC machines. The robot’s maximum payload is 210 kg,
210 kg, allowing it to apply forces of up to 2 kN. This capacity is more than sufficient since
allowing it to apply forces of up to 2 kN. This capacity is more than sufficient since the
the chosen aluminum alloy, which has a thickness of 0.8 and 1 mm, does not typically
chosen aluminum alloy, which has a thickness of 0.8 and 1 mm, does not typically require
require such high forces, based on the bibliography study.
such high forces, based on the bibliography study.
To measure the forces that occur during SPIF process, a piezoresistive force trans-
To measure the forces that occur during SPIF process, a piezoresistive force transducer
ducer from PCB Piezotronics, model 261A13 was utilized. This transducer has a capacity
from PCB Piezotronics, model 261A13 was utilized. This transducer has a capacity of
of 70 pF for all 3 channels and can measure maximum forces of up to 17.7 kN in the X and
70 pF for all 3 channels and can measure maximum forces of up to 17.7 kN in the X and Y
Y directions, and 44.48 kN in the axial Z direction (which aligns with the axis perpendic-
directions, and 44.48 kN in the axial Z direction (which aligns with the axis perpendicular
ular to the sheet blanks). The sensitivity of the transducers is 7.19 pC/N for X and Y axes
to the sheet blanks). The sensitivity of the transducers is 7.19 pC/N for X and Y axes and
and 3.37
3.37 pC/N pC/N for the
for the Z axis.
Z axis. TheThe output
output signal
signal from from
thethe piezoresistive
piezoresistive transducer
transducer is ana-
is analog,
log, with values in a low-voltage range (mV). Consequently,
with values in a low-voltage range (mV). Consequently, in order to be measured andin order to be measured and
sampled, the signal needs to be amplified
sampled, the signal needs to be amplified beforehand. beforehand.
Signal amplification
Signal amplification is achieved through
is achieved through a digital charge
a digital charge amplifier,
amplifier, HBM
HBM PACEline
PACEline
CMD 600
CMD 600 model.
model. This
This amplifier
amplifier generates
generates an an output
output signal
signal inin the
the range
range ofof 0–10
0–10 V, which
V, which
is then transmitted to the data acquisition system, HBM QuantumX
is then transmitted to the data acquisition system, HBM QuantumX model MX840B. This model MX840B. This
system features an 8-channel data acquisition board, capable of
system features an 8-channel data acquisition board, capable of measuring signals from measuring signals from
strain gauges
strain gauges connected
connected in in half-bridge
half-bridge oror full-bridge
full-bridge configurations,
configurations, as as well
well asas piezoresis-
piezoresis-
tive, piezo
tive, piezo capacitive,
capacitive, or or piezo
piezo inductive
inductive transducers
transducers in in full-bridge
full-bridge configurations.
configurations. The The
system has
system has aa sampling
sampling frequency
frequency of of up
up toto 2400
2400 HzHz concurrently
concurrently across
across all
all 88 channels.
channels. In In
this case,
this case, aa sampling
sampling frequency
frequency of of 50
50 Hz
Hz was
was used
used for
for the
the 33 force
force components
components measured
measured
during the
during the SPIF
SPIF process.
process.
The clamping systemsystem usedused for
forthe
thetoolholder
toolholderisisdepicted
depictedininFigure
Figure5 5and
andconsists
consistsofofa
atoolholder
toolholder(1),(1),the
theforce
forcetransducer
transducer(3), (3),and
and22connecting
connectingflanges
flanges (2(2 and
and 4) between the
toolholder and force transducer, and between the force transducer and the robot’s robot s end
effector, respectively.
effector, respectively.The Thetoolholder
toolholderincorporates
incorporatesananER32 ER32collet
collet chuck
chuck with
with a diameter
a diameter of
of 10
10 mmmmand and a nut
a nut forfor securing
securing thethe collet
collet (standardized
(standardized forfor
CNC CNC machines,
machines, following
following ISOISO30
30 specifications).
specifications). TheThe fixation
fixation of the
of the flanges
flanges to theto transducer
the transducer is achieved
is achieved usingusing 8 screws
8 screws with
awith
3/8” a 3/8”
UNFUNF thread.thread.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Fixing system toolholder
Fixing system toolholder and
and force
force transducer.
transducer.

For analyzing the behavior of the AA1050 aluminum alloy TWBs, the experiments
involved frustrum cone shape parts with the following dimensions: diameter of the initial
large base of 85 mm, total depth of 25 mm, and a wall angle of 55◦ . For the planning of
the experiments, we decided to vary the technological parameters such as the vertical step
and punch diameter in order to assess their impact on the deformability of AA1050 TWBs
welded through the WIG process for different combinations of thicknesses.
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 9 of 21

Considering the selection of three factors with three levels of variation each, conven-
tionally, all possible combinations should be tested: 27 experiments. This would imply
a large number of experiments and a lot of data to be analyzed, which makes it hard to
grasp the behavior of TWBs during the SPIF process. A good approach in this case is to
use a statistical method in order to reduce the number of experiments. In this paper, we
applied the Taguchi method, and thus the number of experiments dropped to only 9 exper-
iments (by using the L9 orthogonal array), which will yield relevant results for studying
the deformability of AA1050 TWBs welded by WIG. Table 2 presents the 9 experiments
conducted within this article.

Table 2. Experimental planning of AA1050 TWBs welded by WIG using Taguchi method.

Combination of Punch Diameter

Case No. Wall Angle [◦ ] Depth of Parts [mm] Vertical Step [mm]
Thicknesses [mm] [mm]
C1 0.8–0.8 6
C2 0.8–1 0.25 8
C3 1–1 10
C4 0.8–0.8 8
C5 0.8–1 55 25 0.5 10
C6 1–1 6
C7 0.8–0.8 10
C8 0.8–1 0.75 6
C9 1–1 8

The toolpath used for all experiments was a spatial spiral with the accordingly vertical
step for each case, due to the fact that this toolpath showed previously in other research
that it does not produce high local deformation and the strains are uniformly distributed
around the wall of the parts. Due to the nature of the SPIF process being a slow process with
high production time, the movement of the robot was 2400 mm/min, a value established
in accordance with the ARAMIS 2M software, which acquires images at specific points in
time. Thus, for a precise measurement, we used the acquisition of images every 4 s. One
should note that while it is possible to acquire images faster, the file saved by the software
becomes very large, so a sacrifice must be made. Before the experimental tests, the TWBs
were sprayed with a white matte paint, and afterwards, a layer of dark points was sprayed
onto the white sheet blanks for the optical strain analysis system to be able to measure the
major and minor strains, as well as the thickness reduction. During the tests, the TWBs
were lubricated with a thin layer of synthetic oil.
The toolpath was generated with the help of a CAM software, namely SprutCAM
version 15, where the model of the robot was introduced as well as the model of the fixing
system for the TWBs. Thus, a proper simulation of the process, which takes into the account
the movement possibility of the robot and the space around it in order not to hit the fixing
system, was possible. After the successful generation of the toolpath, it was postprocessed
for the KUKA programing language and transferred to its controller.

3. Results and Discussions

Aluminum alloys can be welded through a process that provides enough heat to create
a weld pool, and the WIG process is recommended for this operation. The use of pure
argon as a shielding gas and the appropriate wire for the specific alloy are also essential in
this process. For a better comprehension of the behavior of AA1050 welded sheet blanks
via TIG welding, the experiments were carried out in three stages. During the initial stage,
uniaxial tests were performed; in the subsequent stage, the behavior of non-welded sheet
blanks under incremental formation was examined; and in the final stage, the conduct of
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 10 of 21

sheet blanks welded through WIG was analyzed. The ensuing sections will showcase the
outcomes derived from these experiments.

3.1. Uniaxial Test

After conducting the uniaxial test on the specimens obtained from the un-welded
sheet blanks, utilizing the Bluehill 2 software, the following mechanical characteristics
were obtained: Young’s modulus (E), yield strength (σc ), ultimate tensile strength (σmax ),
strain-hardening exponent (n), plastic resistance coefficient (K), and tensile strain at break
(εmax ), as shown in Table 3. The statistical analyses conducted included calculation of
mean, median, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and p-value. Through the
Anderson-Darling test—a derivative of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test—the normality of
data distribution was assessed. The p-values, calculated using Minitab V19, confirmed the
normality hypothesis for the AA1050 sheet blanks with thicknesses of 0.8 mm and 1 mm,
as they were below the threshold of 0.05.

Table 3. Mechanical characteristics of the AA1050 aluminum alloy.

Ultimate Plastic Tensile

Sheet Yield Strain-
Specimen E Modulus Tensile Resistance Strain at
Thickness Strength Hardening
Number [GPa] Strength Coefficient Break
[mm] [MPa] Exponent
[MPa] [MPa] [mm/mm]
1. 67.87 85.34 91.97 0.050 114.09 0.046
2. 64.04 79.53 86.08 0.053 108.55 0.046
3. 68.61 86.09 92.51 0.051 115.60 0.045
4. 65.35 80.65 86.91 0.048 106.81 0.048
5. 64.56 81.95 88.58 0.053 111.30 0.043
6. 66.82 82.51 88.80 0.049 109.85 0.046
0.8
Mean 66.21 82.679 89.140 0.051 111.035 0.046
Median 66.09 82.231 88.687 0.050 110.577 0.046
Standard
1.84 2.579 2.613 0.002 3.335 0.001
deviation
Coefficient of
3.41 3.120 2.931 4.324 3.003 2.953
variation
p-value 0.666 0.602 0.436 0.885 0.868 0.667
1. 70.87 101.44 109.88 0.067 144.44 0.065
2. 69.85 99.88 107.68 0.057 135.60 0.071
3. 68.75 98.85 108.48 0.061 138.30 0.076
4. 69.75 103.62 111.83 0.071 149.20 0.070
5. 66.69 99.54 108.19 0.076 147.19 0.068
6. 70.88 101.44 109.88 0.067 144.44 0.065
1
Mean 69.46 100.337 108.889 0.065 141.756 0.071
Median 69.80 99.709 108.332 0.064 141.373 0.071
Standard
1.57 1.885 1.696 0.008 5.957 0.004
deviation
Coefficient of
2.48 1.878 1.558 11.517 4.202 5.683
variation
p-value 0.265 0.223 0.288 0.551 0.303 0.785
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 11 of 21

It was observed that in the case of AA1050 sheet blanks with a thickness of 0.8 mm,
It was observed that in the case of AA1050 sheet blanks with a thickness of 0.8 mm,
the average value of Young s modulus for the specimens cut in the rolling direction is
the average value of Young’s modulus for the specimens cut in the rolling direction is
66.21 MPa, while for a thickness of 1 mm, it is 69.49 MPa, showing a difference of 4.96%.
66.21 MPa, while for a thickness of 1 mm, it is 69.49 MPa, showing a difference of 4.96%.
The maximum yield strength is encountered in the specimens with a thickness of 1 mm,
The maximum yield strength is encountered in the specimens with a thickness of 1 mm,
at 111.83 MPa, with a difference of 21% between the two thicknesses. In the case of ulti-
at 111.83 MPa, with a difference of 21% between the two thicknesses. In the case of
mate tensile strength, the difference is 22%. The difference between the maximum strain-
ultimate tensile strength, the difference is 22%. The difference between the maximum
hardening exponent value for the specimens with a thickness of 0.8 mm and those of 1
strain-hardening exponent value for the specimens with a thickness of 0.8 mm and those of
mm
1 mm is 27%.As
is 27%. Aswell
wellknown,
known,aalower
lowerstrain-hardening
strain-hardeningcoefficient
coefficientvalue
valueindicates
indicates aa more
more
heterogeneous
heterogeneous internal
internal structure.
structure. The
The plastic
plastic resistance
resistance coefficient
coefficient follows
follows the
thesame
sametrend,
trend,
with the maximum
with the maximumvalues
valuesfound
foundfor
forthe
the11mm
mmthickness,
thickness,differing
differing byby 28%.
28%. The
The elongation
elongation of
of the aluminum alloy is relatively small. It can be observed that Young s
the aluminum alloy is relatively small. It can be observed that Young’s modulus decreases modulus de-
creases as the thickness
as the thickness of theblanks
of the sheet sheet blanks increases.
increases. In Figure
In Figure 6, the 6, the conventional
conventional stress-
stress-strain
strain
curvescurves obtained
obtained from conducting
from conducting the tensile
the tensile testthe
test for fortwo
thethicknesses
two thicknesses
of theofanalyzed
the ana-
lyzed material are presented.
material are presented.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6. Conventional
Conventional stress-strain
stress-strain curve
curve for
for the
the AA1050
AA1050 aluminum
aluminum alloy:
alloy: (a)
(a) with
with aa thickness
thickness of
of
0.8
0.8 mm
mm and
and (b)
(b) with
with aa thickness
thickness of
of 11 mm.
mm.

Further
Further analysis
analysis revealed
revealed an
an improvement
improvement in in the
the properties
properties ofof the
the studied materials
materials
as
as the
the material
material thickness
thickness increases.
increases. This
This can
can be
be explained
explained byby the
the fact
fact that
that greater
greater thickness
thickness
provides higher
provides higher material
material strength
strength and
and an
an increased
increased capacity
capacity to
to withstand
withstand the the forces
forces and
and
deformations imposed by the SPIF process. Thus,
deformations Thus, the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the sheet
sheet blank
blank must
must bebe
chosen in a way that
chosen that the
thematerial
materialstrength
strengthdoes
doesnot
notexceed
exceedthe technological
the technological capabilities of
capabilities
the equipment used.
of the equipment used.

3.2. Single
3.2. Single Point
Point Incremental
Incremental Forming
Forming ofof Non-Welded
Non-Welded Sheets
Sheets
In this
In this subsection,
subsection,aaseries
seriesofofexperiments
experimentsare arepresented
presentedto to evaluate
evaluate thethe behavior
behavior of
of non-welded sheet blanks under incremental formation. The goal is
non-welded sheet blanks under incremental formation. The goal is to draw conclusions to draw conclu-
sions regarding
regarding the threshold
the threshold valuesvalues of process
of process parameters
parameters that prevent
that prevent the manufactured
the manufactured parts
parts from fracture. For these experiments, three factors were
from fracture. For these experiments, three factors were varied to analyze varied to analyze their
their effects:
effects: combinations of thicknesses (0.8–0.8 mm, 0.8–1 mm, and 1–1 mm),
combinations of thicknesses (0.8–0.8 mm, 0.8–1 mm, and 1–1 mm), vertical step (0.25 mm, vertical step
(0.25 mm, 0.5 mm, and 0.75 mm), and punch diameter (6 mm, 8 mm, and 10 mm). Specific
0.5 mm, and 0.75 mm), and punch diameter (6 mm, 8 mm, and 10 mm). Specific defor-
deformations, material thinning, and forces generated during the process were analyzed.
mations, material thinning, and forces generated during the process were analyzed. Ad-
Additionally, the maximum angle of the part’s wall at which the part fails was investigated.
ditionally, the maximum angle of the part s wall at which the part fails was investigated.
For this purpose, AA1050 sheets with thicknesses of 0.8 mm and 1 mm were chosen. These
For this purpose, AA1050 sheets with thicknesses of 0.8 mm and 1 mm were chosen. These
sheets were formed into truncated cone shapes with varying angles, ranging from 40◦ at
sheets were formed into truncated cone shapes with varying angles, ranging from 40° at
the larger base to 75◦ at the smaller base. The larger base diameter of the truncated cone
the larger base to 75° at the smaller base. The larger base diameter of the truncated cone
was set at 85 mm to facilitate deformation measurements using the ARAMIS optical system.
was set at 85 mm to facilitate deformation measurements using the ARAMIS optical sys-
The height of the parts at which the 75◦ angle is reached is 40 mm. The diameter of the tool
tem. The height of the parts at which the 75° angle is reached is 40 mm. The diameter of
and the vertical step used were kept constant, with values of 10 mm for the punch diameter
the tool and the vertical step used were kept constant, with values of 10 mm for the punch
and 0.5 mm for the vertical step. The toolpath to form the truncated cone-shaped part was
diameter and 0.5 mm for the vertical step. The toolpath to form the truncated cone-shaped
maintained. A summary of the results obtained in this stage is presented in Table 4.
 part was maintained. A summary of the results obtained in this stage is presented in Table
4.

Table 4. Initial experiments conducted on non-welded incrementally deformed sheets.

Materials 2023, 16, 6408 Experimental Sheet Thickness Wall Angle Part Height Vertical Step Tool Diame- 12 of 21
Test [mm] [°] [mm] [mm] ter [mm]
V1 0.8 Variable,
ranging
Table 4. Initial experiments conducted from
on non-welded 40
incrementally 0.5
deformed sheets. 10
V2 1
40° to 75°
Sheet Thickness Part Height Vertical Step Tool Diameter
Experimental Test Wall Angle [◦ ]
[mm] Following the completion of the two[mm]
experiments and [mm] [mm]
deformation measurements
V1 0.8throughout the processing, the following quantities were measured: major strains (ε1), mi-
Variable, ranging from
nor strains (ε2), and 40 0.5 10
V2 1 40◦material
to 75◦ thickness reduction (Smax). A summary of the measurements
obtained through the ARAMIS optical system for the two experiments repeated twice is
presented in Table 5.
Following the completion of the two experiments and deformation measurements
Table 5. The values
throughout of major, minor
the processing, strains and quantities
the following thickness reductions for the initial
were measured: majorexperimental
strains (ε1test.
), mi-
nor strains (ε2 ), and material thickness reduction (Smax ). A summary of the measurements
Experimental Major Strains Minor Strains
obtained through the ARAMIS optical system for the two experiments repeated twice is
Test ε11[%] ε12 [%] ε21[%] ε21 [%]
presented in Table 5.
V1 160.5 159.5 9.69 9.65
Table 5. V2 159.3
The values of major, minor strains and164.2 12.08
thickness reductions 12.62
for the initial experimental test.
Thickness reduction
-
𝐒𝐦𝐚𝐱
Major Strains
𝟏 [%] 𝐒Minor
𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟐 [%]
Strains
Experimental Test
V1 ε11 [%]64.21 ε12 [%] ε21 [%]63.75 ε21 [%]
V2V1 160.5 64.19 159.5 9.69 65.49 9.65
V2 159.3 164.2 12.08 12.62
The differences in major strains between the two thicknesses of the sheet blanks are
not significantly Thickness
large, except for the minor strains. reduction
Thickness reduction shows similar
-
values for both thicknesses of the aluminum
Smax1 [%] alloy. In Figures 7–9, it can be [%]
Smax2 observed that
the deformations
V1 for the AA1050 aluminum
64.21 alloy are uniformly distributed
63.75 the conical
on
wall.
V2 64.19 65.49
In addition to the deformations measured with the ARAMIS optical system, we also
conducted force measurements in the X, Y, and Z directions using the force transducer
The differences
mentioned in Sectionin 2.3.
major strains
Table betweenthe
6 presents themaximum
two thicknesses
valuesofofthe sheet blanks
real-time are not
measured
significantly large,directions.
forces in the three except for The
the lowest
minor strains. Thickness
force values reduction shows
were encountered in thesimilar
case of values
trial
for
V3, where a sheet blank of aluminum alloy with a thickness of 0.8 mm was used, as ex-the
both thicknesses of the aluminum alloy. In Figures 7–9, it can be observed that
deformations for the AA1050
pected. The variation of thesealuminum
forces can alloy are uniformly
be observed distributed
in Figure 10. on the conical wall.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Distribution of major strains in the case of (a) V1 and (b) V2.

In addition to the deformations measured with the ARAMIS optical system, we also
conducted force measurements in the X, Y, and Z directions using the force transducer
mentioned in Section 2.3. Table 6 presents the maximum values of real-time measured
forces in the three directions. The lowest force values were encountered in the case of
trial V3, where a sheet blank of aluminum alloy with a thickness of 0.8 mm was used, as
expected. The variation of these forces can be observed in Figure 10.
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Materials 2023, 16, 6408 13 of 21

Figure 7. Distribution of major strains in the case of (a) V1 and (b) V2.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Distribution
Figure Distribution of
of minor
minorstrains
strainsin
inthe
thecase
caseofof(a)
(a)V1
V1and
and(b)
(b)V2.
V2.

(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Distribution
Distribution of
of thickness
thickness reduction
reductionin
inthe
thecase
caseofof(a)
(a)V1
V1and
and(b)
(b)V2.
V2.

Table6.
Table 6. The
The maximum
maximum values
values of
of the
the three
threecomponents
componentsofofthe
theforces.
forces.

F𝑭x𝒙𝒙 𝑭F𝒚𝒚y 𝑭𝒛𝒛Fz

Experimental Test 𝑭 𝑭
Experimental Test 𝑭𝒙𝟏 [kN]
𝒙𝟏[kN] 𝑭 [kN]
𝒙𝟐 [kN] 𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟏
[kN] 𝒚𝟐
𝒚𝟐
[kN] 𝑭 𝒛𝟏F [kN] 𝑭𝒛𝟐
[kN] 𝒛𝟐F [kN]
Fx1 F𝒙𝟐
x2 Fy1 [kN] Fy2 [kN] 𝒛𝟏 z1 z2 [kN]
V1
V1 0.190 0.190 0.168 0.167 0.291 0.289
V1 0.190 0.190 0.168 0.167 0.291 0.289
V2 0.226 0.240 0.200 0.209 0.405 0.426
V2 0.226 0.240 0.200 0.209 0.405 0.426

The parts were successfully manufactured in all four cases and do not exhibit defects,
such as material rupture. However, difficulties were encountered in measuring the parts at
the end of the processing using the ARAMIS optical measurement system. This is because
the angle of the parts’ walls exceeded the visual range of the measurement system. Addi-
tionally, it is important to mention that the measured forces do not exceed the permissible
load of the robot, which is 2 kN.
The AA1050 aluminum alloy exhibits a relatively low elongation at fracture, approxi-
mately 5%, following the tensile test. However, in the SPIF process, the properties of this
alloy are significantly enhanced due to the complex demands that arise within the process.
Although the elongation achieved under uniaxial stretching is small, the process allows
for an improvement in its properties and the material’s adaptability to process demands.
(a)
Therefore, AA1050 proves to be a suitable material and can be (b)
employed in the studied
process without exhibiting the appearance of defects.
 Table 6. The maximum values of the three components of the forces.

𝑭𝒙 𝑭𝒚 𝑭𝒛
Experimental Test
𝑭𝒙𝟏 [kN] 𝑭𝒙𝟐 [kN] 𝑭𝒚𝟏 [kN] 𝑭𝒚𝟐 [kN] 𝑭𝒛𝟏 [kN] 𝑭𝒛𝟐 [kN]
Materials 2023, 16, 6408
V1 0.190 0.190 0.168 0.167 0.291 0.28914 of 21
V2 0.226 0.240 0.200 0.209 0.405 0.426

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Force
Forcevariation:
variation:(a)
(a)Fx
Fxfor
forcase
caseV1,
V1,(b) FyFy
(b) forfor
case V1,
case (c)(c)
V1, FzFz
forfor
case V1,V1,
case (d)(d)
Fx for casecase
Fx for V2,V2,
(e) Fy for case V2, and (f) Fz for case V2.
(e) Fy for case V2, and (f) Fz for case V2.

The parts
3.3. Single Pointwere successfully
Incremental manufactured
Forming in all four cases and do not exhibit defects,
of Welded Sheets
such In
as the
material rupture. However, difficulties
case of the experimental tests presented were inencountered in where
this section, measuring the parts
aluminum alloy
at the end of the processing using the ARAMIS optical measurement
sheet blanks welded using the WIG process were employed, no piece could be successfully system. This is be-
cause the angle
deformed up toofthethe planned
parts walls exceeded
height of 25the
mm.visual range of the measurement
In comparison, reference sheetsystem.
blanks
Additionally, it is important to mention that the measured forces
made of aluminum alloy were successfully deformed up to a height of 40 mm. Next, do not exceed the per-
missible
deformed load
partsof the
are robot,
presentedwhichforiscases
2 kN.C1, C5, and C6, along with the area where material
The AA1050
failure occurred. aluminum alloy exhibits a relatively low elongation at fracture, approx-
imately 5%, following the tensile test.
From Figure 11, it can be observed that theHowever, in the SPIF process,
failure occurs inthethe
properties of this
area of the weld
alloy are significantly enhanced due to the complex demands that arise
bead. This phenomenon is the result of the punch passing over the prominent weld bead, within the process.
Although the elongation
and then upon its returnachieved
to the flatunder uniaxial
surface of thestretching is small,
sheet blanks, the the process
failure allows
occurs. Each
for an improvement in its properties and the material s adaptability to process
experimental trial was conducted twice to ensure more precise results. The obtained results demands.
Therefore, AA1050 proves to be a suitable material and can be employed in the studied
process without exhibiting the appearance of defects.

3.3. Single Point Incremental Forming of Welded Sheets

In the case of the experimental tests presented in this section, where aluminum alloy
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21

From Figure 11, it can be observed that the failure occurs in the area of the weld bead.
Materials 2023, 16, 6408
This phenomenon is the result of the punch passing over the prominent weld bead, 15 of 21
and
then upon its return to the flat surface of the sheet blanks, the failure occurs. Each experi-
mental trial was conducted twice to ensure more precise results. The obtained results were
were analyzed
analyzed usingusing the Taguchi
the Taguchi method,
method, and Table
and Table 7 presents
7 presents the average
the average valuesvalues
for thefor
twothe
two measurements
measurements takentaken for each
for each experimental
experimental trial, along
trial, along with
with the the standard
standard deviation,
deviation, sig-
nal-to-noise ratio,
signal-to-noise andand
ratio, corresponding coefficient
corresponding of variation.
coefficient of variation.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Displacement in
in the
the ZZ direction
directionin
inthe
thecase
caseofof(a)
(a)C1,
C1,(b)
(b)C5,
C5,and
and(c)(c)C6.
C6.

7. Analysis
Table Out of part
of the nine height at thetrials
experimental moment of material
conducted withfailure.
AA1050 alloy welded sheets using
the WIG process, the maximum achieved height was 17 mm in the case of trial C6 (com-
Height ofbination
the Part at
of the
1–1Moment of thicknesses,
mm sheet Material 0.5 mm vertical step, and 6 mm tool diameter). The
Experimental Failure [mm] Standard Signal-to-Noise Coefficient of
Test minimum height achieved was 15.4 mm inDeviation
the case of trial C5 Ratio
(combination ofVariation
0.8–1 mm
H1 H2
sheet thicknesses, Hmean step, and 10 mm tool diameter).
0.5 mm vertical
C1 16.2 15.8 15.983 0.306 24.071 0.019
C2 16.4 Table 7. Analysis
16.7 of part height at the moment of material
16.533 0.188 failure. 24.366 0.011
C3 16.8 16.6 16.719 0.114 24.464 0.007
Height of the Part at the Moment of Material Fail-
C4
Experimental 16.1 16.3 16.193 0.131 Devi- Signal-to-Noise
Standard 24.186 0.008 of
Coefficient
C5 16.0 ure15.4
[mm] 15.724 0.390 23.927 0.025
Test ation Ratio Variation
C6 𝑯𝟏
16.9 𝑯𝟐
17.0 𝑯𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
16.946 0.064 24.581 0.004
C7
C1 16.3
16.2 16.1
15.8 16.197
15.983 0.146
0.306 24.188
24.071 0.009
0.019
C8
C2 16.5
16.4 16.8
16.7 16.633
16.533 0.188
0.188 24.418
24.366 0.011
0.011
C9 16.7 16.6 16.651 0.069 24.429 0.004
C3 16.8 16.6 16.719 0.114 24.464 0.007
C4 16.1 16.3 16.193 0.131 24.186 0.008
C5 16.0 15.4
Out of the 15.724
nine experimental 0.390with AA105023.927
trials conducted 0.025using the
alloy welded sheets
WIG process, the maximum achieved height was 17 mm in the case of trial C6 (combination of
1–1 mm sheet thicknesses, 0.5 mm vertical step, and 6 mm tool diameter). The minimum height
achieved was 15.4 mm in the case of trial C5 (combination of 0.8–1 mm sheet thicknesses,
0.5 mm vertical step, and 10 mm tool diameter).
For the analysis of results, we used the Taguchi method, imposing the “the greater the
better” condition to determine the optimal combination of factors leading to the maximum
 C6 16.9 17.0 16.946 0.064 24.581 0.004
C7 16.3 16.1 16.197 0.146 24.188 0.009
C8 16.5 16.8 16.633 0.188 24.418 0.011
C9 16.7 16.6 16.651 0.069 24.429 0.004
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 16 of 21
For the analysis of results, we used the Taguchi method, imposing the “the greater
the better” condition to determine the optimal combination of factors leading to the max-
imum height.
height. Table 8Table 8 presents
presents the average
the average signal-to-noise
signal-to-noise ratio response
ratio response for the analysis
for the analysis of part
of part height at the moment of material
height at the moment of material failure. failure.

Table8.8. The
Table The average
average signal-to-noise
signal-to-noise ratio
ratio response
response for
for the
the part
part height
height at
at the
the moment
moment of
of material
material
failure in case of one-sided welded blanks.
failure in case of one-sided welded blanks.
Level Combination of Thicknesses Vertical Step Tool Diameter
Level Combination of Thicknesses Vertical Step Tool Diameter
1 24.30 24.15 24.36
1 24.30 24.15 24.36
2 24.23 24.24 24.33
2 24.23 24.24 24.33
3 3 24.35 24.35 24.4924.49 24.19
24.19
Delta
Delta 0.11 0.11 0.34 0.34 0.16
0.16
Range
Range 3 3 1 1 22

Fromthe
From theanalysis
analysisof ofthe
theinfluencing
influencingfactors
factors ononthethe maximum
maximumheight height obtained
obtainedfor for the
the
parts, itit can
parts, can be
be observed
observed thatthat there
there are
are optimal
optimal levels
levels for
for the
the control
control factors
factors that
that lead
lead to to
achieving maximum
achieving maximum values. These Theselevels
levelsare
arevertical
verticalstepstepatatlevel
level1 1(S/N
(S/N = 24.49), tooltool
= 24.49), di-
ameter atat
diameter level 2 (S/N
level 2 (S/N= 24.36), andand
= 24.36), combination
combination of sheet blank
of sheet thicknesses
blank thicknessesat level 3 (S/N
at level 3
= 24.35). The calculated values for delta and range indicate which
(S/N = 24.35). The calculated values for delta and range indicate which of the selected of the selected factors
have the
factors have greatest impactimpact
the greatest on theonstudied response.
the studied DeltaDelta
response. measures
measures the magnitude
the magnitude of the
of
impact
the impact by by
subtracting
subtracting thethe
smallest
smallest average
averageresponse
responsevaluevalueof ofthe
the studied
studied factor fromfrom its its
maximum value.
maximum value. The
The range
range provides
provides aa ranking
ranking of of the
the studied
studied factors,
factors, from
from the
the one
one with
with
the
thehighest
highestimpact
impactto tothe
theone
one with
with the
the least
least impact
impact on on the
the studied
studied response.
response. TheThe calculated
calculated
values
valuesfor fordelta
deltaandandrange
rangeindicate
indicate thethe
impact
impact of of
eacheachfactor on the
factor studied
on the response.
studied response.In theIn
case of part height, the vertical step has the greatest impact (delta
the case of part height, the vertical step has the greatest impact (delta = 0.34 and range == 0.34 and range = 1),
followed
1), followed by the
by tool diameter
the tool (delta(delta
diameter = 0.16= and
0.16 range = 2), while
and range the combination
= 2), while of sheet
the combination of
blank
sheet thicknesses
blank thicknessesshowsshows
the smallest impactimpact
the smallest (delta = 0.11 =and
(delta 0.11range = 3). = 3).
and range
Figures
Figures 12 12 and
and 13 13 depict
depict thethe main
main effects
effects plot
plot and
and probability
probability plot,
plot, allowing
allowing us us toto
observe
observethe the levels
levels of
of factors
factors for
for which
which thethe maximum
maximum depth depth of of the
the incrementally
incrementally deformed
deformed
welded
weldedAA1050AA1050partspartsthrough
throughthe theWIG
WIGprocess
processwill willbebeachieved.
achieved.

Figure12.
Figure 12. Main
Main effects
effects plot
plotfor
forthe
thesignal-to-noise
signal-to-noiseratio
ratioin
inthe
thecase
caseof
ofpart
partheight.
height.

The probability plot represents the probability of obtaining the same results under
the same experimental conditions with a confidence level of 95%. In Figure 13 the red
squares represents the first set of experiments and the blue circles represent the second
set of measurements. The red dash lines and blue lines represents the confidence limits
of the 95% probability of obtaining the same results if they are repeated. The main effects
plot for the signal-to-noise ratio illustrates the combination of factors for which the highest
height is achieved following the incremental formation of the AA1050 welded sheet blanks
through the WIG process, namely:
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 17 of 21

• Thickness combinations: 1–1 mm;

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
• Vertical step: 0.75 mm;
• Tool diameter: 6 mm.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Probability
Probability plot
plot for
for the
the case
case of
of part
part height.
height.

During the conducted

The probability research, the
plot represents it was found that
probability of welding
obtainingsheet blanks
the same end-to-end
results under
with butt joints
the same in the I configuration
experimental conditions with through two passes
a confidence is aof
level recommended
95%. In Figurepractice.
13 theThis
red
method is used forthe
squares represents sheet
firstblanks made of carbon
set of experiments steels,
and the bluelow-alloyed or stainless
circles represent the secondsteels,
set
aluminum, titanium,
of measurements. Theand
redtheir
dash alloys, due to
lines and thelines
blue significant thermal
represents shock that can
the confidence occur
limits in
of the
the material. However, the possibility of overheating and the occurrence
95% probability of obtaining the same results if they are repeated. The main effects plot of cracks in the
weld
for thebead area should be
signal-to-noise considered.
ratio illustratesAdditionally, welding
the combination sheet blanks
of factors with thicknesses
for which the highest
less than 1 mm is challenging.
height is achieved following the incremental formation of the AA1050 welded sheet
blanksIn through
the experiments
the WIG carried
process,out according to the experimental design presented in
namely:
Table 2, all three thickness combinations were welded on both sides to assess the improve-
• Thickness combinations: 1–1 mm;
ment in the behavior of the sheet blanks during single point incremental forming. The
• Vertical step: 0.75 mm;
experiments were repeated on AA1050 sheet blanks welded through WIG on both sides.
• Tool diameter: 6 mm.
Table 9 presents the average values, standard deviation, signal-to-noise ratio, and coefficient
Duringfor
of variation theeach
conducted research,
experimental trialitconducted
was foundwiththatthese
weldingsheetsheet blanks end-to-end
blanks.
with butt joints in the I configuration through two passes is a recommended practice. This
method
Table is used of
9. Analysis forthe
sheet blanks
height made of carbon
of double-sided weldedsteels, low-alloyed
parts at the momentor ofstainless steels, alu-
material failure.
minum, titanium, and their alloys, due to the significant thermal shock that can occur in
Height ofthe
thematerial.
Part at theHowever,
Moment ofthe possibility of overheating and the occurrence of cracks in the
Material
Experimental Failure
weld bead area [mm] Standard welding
should be considered. Additionally, Signal-to-Noise
sheet blanks with Coefficient of
thicknesses
Test Deviation Ratio Variation
H1 less than 1 mm H2 is challenging. Hmean
C10 20.1 In the experiments
19.5 carried
19.7973out according to the experimental
0.235 26.388design presented0.011 in Ta-
C11 21.6 ble 2, all three
22.4 thickness combinations
21.9942 were welded
0.213 on both sides
26.788 to assess the improve-
0.010
C12 23.6 ment in the behavior of the
23.5 sheet blanks during
23.5332 0.304 single point incremental forming.
27.893 0.012 The
C13 20.7 experiments 21.0were repeated 20.8662
on AA1050 sheet 0.505
blanks welded 26.329through WIG on both 0.024 sides.
C14 22.0 Table 9 presents 21.7 the average 21.8492 0.140 26.848
values, standard deviation, signal-to-noise ratio, and 0.006coeffi-
C15 24.6 25.0 24.8146 0.291 27.886 0.012
cient of variation for each experimental trial conducted with these sheet blanks.
C16 21.1 20.4 20.7326 0.235 26.388 0.011
C17 21.9 22.1 21.9990 0.213 26.788 0.010
C18 25.0 Table 9. Analysis
24.6 of the height of double-sided welded
24.7939 0.304 parts at the 27.893
moment of material 0.012
failure.

Height of the Part at the Moment of Material Fail-

Experimental Standard Devi- Signal-to-Noise Coefficient of
urecase
In the [mm]of AA1050 aluminum alloy sheet
Test ationblanks welded on both sides
Ratio using the
Variation
𝑯𝟏 WIG process, 𝑯 an
𝟐 improvement 𝑯𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
in behavior was observed, achieving part heights of over
C10 20.1 20 mm. The desired
19.5 depth was 19.7973 0.235 in the case
successfully achieved 26.388 0.011blank
of the welded sheet
C11 21.6 thickness combination
22.4 21.9942
of 1–1 0.213step of 0.7526.788
mm, using a vertical 0.010
mm and a tool diameter of
C12 23.6 8 mm. Figure 14
23.5presents the major,
23.5332 minor strain and
0.304 thickness reduction
27.893 measured
0.012using
C13 20.7 21.0 20.8662 0.505 26.329 0.024
C14 22.0 21.7 21.8492 0.140 26.848 0.006
C15 24.6 25.0 24.8146 0.291 27.886 0.012
C16 21.1 20.4 20.7326 0.235 26.388 0.011
 C17 21.9 22.1 21.9990 0.213 26.788 0.010
C18 25.0 24.6 24.7939 0.304 27.893 0.012

In the case of AA1050 aluminum alloy sheet blanks welded on both sides using the
WIG process, an improvement in behavior was observed, achieving part heights of over
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 18 of 21
20 mm. The desired depth was successfully achieved in the case of the welded sheet blank
thickness combination of 1–1 mm, using a vertical step of 0.75 mm and a tool diameter of
8 mm. Figure 14 presents the major, minor strain and thickness reduction measured using
theARAMIS
the ARAMIS optical system.
system. In
Inthe
thecase
caseof
ofC18,
C18,which
whichsustained
sustainedupuptoto
a height ofof
a height 2525
mm,
mm,
thefollowing
the following results
results were obtained:
obtained:
•• For major
For major strain,
strain, a value of 80%
80% was
was obtained;
obtained;
•• For minor
For minor strain,
strain, a value of 24.5%
24.5% was
was obtained;
obtained;
•• For thickness
For thickness reduction, a value
value of
of 51.79%
51.79%was
wasobtained.
obtained.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure14.
Figure 14.For
Forcase
caseC18,
C18,thethe distribution
distribution ofmajor
of (a) (a) major strains,
strains, (b) minor
(b) minor strains,strains,
and (c) and (c) thickness
thickness reduction.
reduction.
Here, the signal-to-noise ratio with the “higher is better” condition was chosen, similar
to theHere, theAA1050
case of signal-to-noise ratioblanks
alloy sheet with the “higher
welded onisabetter”
single condition
side usingwasthechosen, sim-
WIG process.
ilar to the case of AA1050 alloy sheet blanks welded on a single side using the WIG
Table 10 presents the average response of the signal-to-noise ratio for analyzing the height pro-
cess. Table 10 presents the average response
of the pieces at the moment of material failure. of the signal-to-noise ratio for analyzing the
height of the pieces at the moment of material failure.
Table 10. The average signal-to-noise ratio response for the part height at the moment of material
Table 10.
failure The of
in case average signal-to-noise
two-sided ratio response for the part height at the moment of material
welded blanks.
failure in case of two-sided welded blanks.
Level Combination of Thicknesses Vertical Step Tool Diameter
Level Combination of Thicknesses Vertical Step Tool Diameter
1 1 26.73 26.73 26.22 26.22 26.8926.89
2 2 27.02 27.02 26.83 26.83 27.0427.04
3 27.02 27.74 26.85
Delta 0.29 1.52 0.19
Range 2 1 3

From the Taguchi analysis, optimal levels can be observed to achieve the maximum
height of the pieces:
• The combination of sheet blank thickness at levels 2 and 3 (S/N = 27.02);
• Vertical step at level 3 (S/N = 27.74);
• Tool diameter at level 2 (S/N = 27.04).
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 19 of 21

The greatest impact on the height of the pieces is attributed to the vertical step
(delta = 1.52 and rank = 1), followed by the combination of welded sheet blank thick-
ness using the WIG process (delta = 0.29 and rank = 2), and the tool diameter (delta = 0.19
and rank = 3). Figures 12 and 13 depict the graph of main effects for the signal-to-noise
ratio and the probability graph.
As a result, the factor with the most significant impact on the height of the pieces is
the vertical step, a fact confirmed by Table 10. From the graph of main effects, it can be
observed that the maximum heights can be achieved by using combinations of sheet blank
thicknesses of 0.8–1 mm and 1–1 mm. Additionally, employing a vertical step of 0.75 mm
and a punch with a diameter of 8 mm leads to obtaining the maximum heights for pieces
made from AA1050 welded sheet blanks on both sides using the WIG process. From the
probability graph, it can be observed that nearly all measurements can be reproduced with
a confidence level of 95%.

4. Conclusions
Aluminum alloy sheet blanks welded using the WIG process were analyzed compre-
hensively. Initial research indicated a notable difference in the behavior of these blanks
compared to unwelded sheet blanks, particularly in their inability to produce identical
parts with depths of 40 mm. This discrepancy led to a critical modification: reducing the
piece height to 25 mm to facilitate an in-depth study of the various technological factors
influencing them.
A significant portion of the analysis focused on examining the impact of the vertical
step and the punch diameter on the AA1050 alloy sheet blanks welded through the WIG
process. Despite the efforts, achieving a height of 25 mm for the pieces remained elusive,
with the maximum reached height being 17 mm.
To enhance the deformability of aluminum alloys subjected to WIG welding, a novel
proposal suggested the two-sided welding of the aluminum alloy sheet blanks. This
approach, tested against cases previously conducted on one-sided welded AA1050 sheet
blanks, demonstrated a favorable shift in behavior during the SPIF process, culminating in
increased piece depths. Remarkably, the implementation of a 0.5 mm vertical step and a
6 mm punch diameter facilitated the attainment of a 25 mm piece depth with sheet blank
thicknesses of 1–1 mm.
In summation, it is plausible to utilize AA1050 aluminum alloy sheet blanks welded
on both sides for incremental forming processes, although with a requisite reduction in
parts height.
Potential directions for future research include the exploration of alternative welding
techniques subjected to the SPIF process, including the prospective study of friction stir
welding as proposed by other researchers. Furthermore, expanding the scope to explore
various alloy types, either derived from the same base material or different alloys such
as magnesium and titanium, offers a fertile ground for study. Additionally, refining the
suitable technological parameters for specific types of welding technology holds great
promise for further advancement in this field.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.-P.R. and M.-O.P.; methodology, M.-O.P. and V.O.;
software, R.-E.B., V.O. and G.-P.R.; validation, G.-P.R., S.-G.R. and M.-O.P.; formal analysis, M.-O.P.
and V.O.; investigation, G.-P.R.; resources, S.-G.R. and V.O.; data curation, G.-P.R., R.-E.B., S.-G.R., V.O.
and M.-O.P.; writing—original draft preparation, G.-P.R. and M.-O.P.; writing—review and editing,
S.-G.R., V.O. and R.-E.B.; project administration, R.-E.B.; funding acquisition, R.-E.B. and S.-G.R. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu (Knowledge Transfer Center)
& Hasso Plattner Foundation research grants LBUS-HPI-ERG-2023, grant LBUS-HPI-ERG-2023-02.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Materials 2023, 16, 6408 20 of 21

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are openly available.
Acknowledgments: Project financed by Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu (Knowledge Transfer
Center) & Hasso Plattner Foundation research grants LBUS-HPI-ERG-2023, grant LBUS-HPI-ERG-
2023-02.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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