Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Technical Paper

Interfacial bonding features of friction stir additive manufactured build for T

2195-T8 aluminum-lithium alloy
⁎
Zijun Zhaoa, Xinqi Yanga, , Shengli Lia, Dongxiao Lib
a
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Advanced Joining Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300354, PR China
b
Beijing Spacecraft Factory, Beijing, 100080, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) was performed successfully using 2 mm thick sheets of 2195-T8
Friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) aluminum-lithium alloy. The influence of the tool pin shape and process parameters on the interfacial bonding
Aluminum-lithium alloy features among the additive manufactured layers was discussed, and the effects of interfacial defects on the
Tool pin shape performances of the additive build were analyzed based on microstructures, hardness profiles, and mechanical
Welding parameters
property evaluations. It is shown that the shape of the tool pin is one of the key factors in influencing the bonding
Interfacial defects
interface between two manufactured layers. The cylindrical pin and the conical pin with three flats are not
suitable for the FSAM process since very poor material mixing features are produced along the bonding interface.
Although the material mixing degree of bonding interface is obviously improved at the advancing side (AS)
interface of the nugget zone (NZ) by using the convex featured pin or the pin with three concave arc grooves, the
material mixing degree at the retreating side (RS) interface of the NZ is always insufficient. Meanwhile, the
weak-bonding defects along the bonding interfaces could be formed, which are originated from the hooking
defects on the RS. The weak-bonding defects are related to the oxides and impurities existing at the original
bonding interfaces as well as the insufficient stirring action of the tool pin. The back and forth double passes
welding is one of the effective methods to improve the material mixing in the whole NZ and eliminate the
hooking defects extending into the NZ. The welding rotation speeds of 800, 900 and 1000 rpm for giving welding
speed of 100 mm/min were used in the additive manufacturing processes of 2195-T8 aluminum-lithium alloy, in
which the optimum microstructure is obtained with the rotation speed of 800 rpm. The soften degree for the
multilayered build is obvious, and the hardness profiles across the different bonding interfaces are always un-
even. Meanwhile, compared with the AS interface, the fluctuation of the hardness value at the RS interface is
greater. The mechanical properties of the multilayered build are inhomogeneous, and the maximum tensile
strength of the multilayered build is only reached the 56.6% of the base metal. The mechanical properties are
closely associated with the soften tendency of the material and the degree of the amelioration of weak-bonding
defect along the bonding interface.

1. Introduction manufacturing field. It reported that many countries and enterprises

Additive manufacturing (AM) technology invented in the 1990s can
be defined as a process of increasing material layer by layer to make
parts [1]. As contrary to subtractive manufacturing, AM is expected to
use simple forms of block, wire or powder materials to directly produce
the parts with final size. In this way, it introduces many advantages
such as broadening the innovative way in the design aspect, reducing
the raw material consumption to the lowest level, saving the processing
time and lowering the manufacturing cost effectively. Therefore, over
the last 20 more years, the research and development of AM have been
one of the hotspot issues and widely paid attention by the industrial
around the world have invested capital in the AM industry recently. The
AM industry is valued about $6.063 billion, and the worldwide rev-
enues of this vibrant industry have grown by 17.4% in 2016 [2]. Al-
though AM technology is one of the frontier technologies, there are still
many challenges.
Up to now, much attention has been paid to Laser Beam Melting
(LBM), Electron Beam Melting (EBM) and Laser Metal Deposition
(LMD) for AM technology based on metal materials, which are based on
the principles of fusion welding processes [3]. These methods show the
ability to fabricate the multilayered component with complex geometry
and gradually develop maturely. However, there still exist some

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xqyang@tju.edu.cn (X. Yang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.01.042
Received 29 August 2018; Received in revised form 18 December 2018; Accepted 22 January 2019
Available online 30 January 2019
1526-6125/ © 2019 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Zhao et al.
limitations due to their fusion welding principles. Because of the
melting and solidification processes, metallurgical defects such as high
crack sensitivity and porosity defect will be inevitably produced in the
structure fabricated by fusion-based AM technology especially for light
alloys like titanium alloy, aluminum alloy, and magnesium alloy [4–6].
Meanwhile, organizational inhomogeneity and spatial dependence of
properties can also occur in the structure [7,8]. These severe influences
of the metallurgical defects and tissue heterogeneity on mechanical
properties are one of the main limitations of the fusion-based AM
technology. To avoid the liquid-solid transformation, solid-state AM
technology was developed. Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM)
based on solid phase ultrasonic welding is a relatively mature solid-
state AM technology. However, several researchers have found that the
local unbounded regions along the layer interface as well as the sig-
nificant difference between interfacial and non-interfacial macro-
structures should be the inherent drawbacks of UAM [9,10]. Therefore,
it is of great significance to explore the more innovative AM method to
overcome the above limitations and to further improve the structural
performance of the AM products.
Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing (FSAM) based on Friction Stir
Welding (FSW) principle was developed in recent years as one of the
innovative solid-state AM technologies, and some primitive researches
have shown that it has the potential to overcome the above limitations
especially for light alloy additive manufacturing. The products exhibit
the characteristics of no solidification defects, fine equiaxed grains in
the nugget zone (NZ), small deformation and low residual stress. The
first application of FSW technology in the field of AM was reported by
Airbus in 2006 [11]. However, there are only a few follow-up reports
and articles because of its initial developed stage and lacking the sci-
entific terminology for the process. Palanivel et al. reported that FSAM
is one of the routes to high structural performance for the AM of light
alloys [12]. It has shown that the mechanical properties of the four-
layered Mg-4Y-3Nd (WE43) alloy stack and AA5083 stack fabricated by
FSAM were all better than that of the base metal. Palanivel et al. made a
detailed study of the FSAM of Mg-based WE43 alloy for a high struc-
tural performance through microstructural control, and the micro-
structures of four-layered build were carefully analyzed [13]. It was
found that the microstructures are complex in different layers and in-
terface, including banding region, and equiaxed grains with different
degree of refinement. Furthermore, the FSAM heat input mainly de-
termined by the rotation speed of tool and the welding speed is one of
the major factors in affecting the microstructural evolution. Mao et al.
studied the formation characteristics, microstructures, and mechanical
performances of AA7075 components made by FSAM [14]. The shape
of the unconnected interface which is also known as the hooking defect
is closely related to the flow of material. Moreover, similar to the WE43
alloy stack researched by Palanivel et al. [13], the microstructures in
the NZ of the AA7075 stack are also complex. It was also found that the
strength of the whole AA7075 component is higher than that of the base
metal, while the elongation decreases slightly.
It should be noted that the FSAM is specifically based on the friction
stir lapped welding process rather than the friction stir butted welding
process. Hooking defect and weak-bonding defect are the main defects
in friction stir lapped welding joint. It is reported that the hooking
defect on the advancing side reduces the effective thickness of the top
sheet thus a greater crack growth tendency here [15]. During the fric-
tion stir lapped welding process, the bonding interfaces between the
additive multilayers are perpendicular to the axial direction of the tool,
and the frictional interfaces are not directly contacted and stirred by the
surface of the tool pin. Therefore, the tool shape can be considered to
play an important role in material mixing and defect formation in
friction stir lapped welding process [16–18]. Besides, the welding speed
and the tool rotation speed also have a great influence on the defect
formation during the friction stir lapped welding process. A higher tool
rotation speed or a lower welding speed will increase the heat input
leading to a higher volume of the material flow and a larger size of the
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
hooking defect [19–21]. In addition, a suitable welding method will
also improve the defect formation of the lapped welding joint.
Similar to the friction stir lapped welding joint, there may also be
the hooking defect and the weak-bonding defect in the FSAM build, and
the formation of these defects are also influenced by the tool shape, the
tool rotation speed, the welding speed, and the welding method.
Although FSAM and friction stir lapped welding are similar in terms of
the process principle, the emphases of the researches on them are dif-
ferent. The first difference is the requirement for defects. For friction
stir lapped welding joint, it is required to control the shape and size of
the hooking defect to increase the effective thickness of the joint so as to
obtain the higher mechanical properties. With regard to FSAM build,
friction stir additive manufacturing is only realized in the NZ. It is
necessary to ensure that the NZ, i.e. the additive zone, is defect-free.
Therefore, avoiding hooking defect extending into NZ is more im-
portant. Besides, compared to friction stir lapped welding, FSAM is a
process of increasing material layer by layer, and the pin needs to pass
through the upper plate and be inserted into the lower plate at a larger
depth to ensure the structural homogeneity of the NZ. However, in the
above studies on FSAM, the shapes of the tool pin are traditional conical
or columnar shape always used for the butted welding process, and
there are fewer researches on other process conditions like tool rotation
speed, welding speed, and welding method. In addition, the interfacial
bonding features are lack of in-depth analyses. Hence, it is necessary to
develop a better understanding of the interfacial bonding features of the
FSAM build and the influence of the above process conditions on the
generation and elimination of the interfacial defects.
Because of the interfacial bonding conditions should be the key
factor in performing FSAM process successfully, the objective of this
paper is to investigate the interfacial bonding features of FSAM build of
2195-T8 aluminum-lithium alloy. The influence of the tool pin shape,
welding method, and process parameters on the interfacial bonding
features among the additive manufactured layers was discussed, and
the effects of the interfacial defects on the performances of the additive
build were analyzed in depth based on microstructures, hardness pro-
files, and mechanical property evaluations. These results will provide
an important basis to understand the FSAM process.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Experimental materials
In order to ensure clear observation of the material mixing between
the two bonding interfaces, the additive materials used for double-
layered friction stir single pass and double passes additive experiments
were 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy sheets with dimensions of 320 mm × 30
mm × 2 mm and the base materials were 6061-T6 Al alloy plates with
dimensions of 320 mm × 105 mm × 5 mm. In five-layered friction stir
additive experiments, the additive materials coincided with that in
double-layered experiments, and the base materials were 2195-T8 Al-Li
alloy plates with dimensions of 320 mm × 105 mm × 4 mm. Tables 1
and 2 show the chemical composition of the experimental materials.
Tables 3 and 4 list the main mechanical properties of the experimental
materials.
2.2. Experimental principle
It should be noted that FSAM is a method of building material by
superimposing material layers upon the foundation of friction stir
Table 1
Chemical composition of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy (mass fraction/%).
Cu Li Ag Mg Fe Zr Al
3.99 1.09 0.42 0.38 0.17 0.1 Bal.
Z. Zhao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410

Table 2 the pin act as a paddle in moving material [23]. T2 was designed to
Chemical composition of 6061-T6 Al alloy (mass fraction/%). determine whether this tool can be used for FSAM. The pin of Tool 3
Mg Si Cu Fe Mn Zn Ti Al (T3) was a cylindrical pin with three concave arc grooves. Similarly, the
pin of Tool 4 (T4) was a flared pin with three concave arc grooves. The
0.92 0.68 0.43 0.33 0.013 0.01 0.01 Bal. pins of T3 and T4 were designed on the basis of Flared-Triflute™ tool
which can promote the vertical flow of materials and destroy the in-
terface oxide film more sufficiently due to the higher ratio of swept to
Table 3 static volume [24–26]. The pin of Tool 5 (T5) was a simple cylindrical
Mechanical properties of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy.
shape which was used for the comparison experiment. For these five
Tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%) tools, the sizes were the same. The diameters of the shoulder and pin
were Φ18 mm and Φ8 mm respectively. The pin length was 3 mm with
615 580 9
the intent of making the pin through the 2 mm thick additive sheet and
inserting it into the bottom sheet to form the additive connection.
Table 4
Mechanical properties of 6061-T6 Al alloy. 2.4. Process experiments
Tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
Friction stir additive experiments were conducted at position con-
310 276 12 trol mode using an FSW machine (model: FSW-RL31-010; make: CHINA
FSW CENTER). The double-layered friction stir single pass additive
manufacturing process used for tool selection is shown in Fig. 3(a).
lapped welding technology. Because the NZ of the friction stir lapped Optimization of double-layered FSAM process carried out by back and
welding joint has a flared shape, FSW is needed for each lapped layer to forth double passes welding method, as shown in Fig. 3(b), aims to
ensure the maximum area of the additive zone. In addition, direct FSW achieve an additive formation that both sides of the NZ are advancing
of multilayered sheets requires a longer pin which has a shorter service side (AS) thus avoiding the hooking defect extending into the NZ. In
life. Although the different weld passes may adversely affect the order to achieve a similar effect of back and forth double passes
strength of heat treatable aluminum alloys, it can be improved by welding, multilayered builds were manufactured by a method that the
subsequent heat treatment. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the welding directions of two adjacent lapped layers were opposite, as
specimens of FSAM processes in this study. After each lapped layer of shown in Fig. 3(c). In double-layered friction stir additive experiments,
the FSAM experiment, the fixture should be dismantled and installed the fixed parameters of tool rotation speed (800 rpm) and tool travel
repeatedly. Furthermore, the bonding surface of each lapped layer speed (100 mm/min) were used. In order to determine the effect of
should be treated necessarily to remove the frictional flash and oxides rotation speed on the formation of the multilayered build, three tool
to ensure the subsequent upper and lower bonding surfaces are tightly rotation speeds (800, 900 and 1000 rpm) for giving welding travel
contacted. It is important to note that friction stir additive manu- speed of 100 mm/min were used respectively.
facturing is only realized in the NZ of the build, and the multi-layer
lapped surfaces in the whole NZ should realize the metallurgical
2.5. Weld characterization
bonding. The improper tool pin shape and process conditions are easy
to cause interfacial defects in the NZ, such as weak-bonding and
The specimens used for metallographic observations and hardness
hooking defects. Therefore, the suitable shape of the tool pin should be
tests were wire cut perpendicular to the weld line. Thereafter, the
carefully designed for the following optimization of the process para-
specimens were ground and polished to a mirror-like finish. The
meters to avoid and eliminate the interfacial defects produced in the
structures were revealed by etching in Keller’s reagent (2 ml HCl, 3 ml
NZ.
HF, 5 ml HNO3 and 195 ml H2O) for approximately 25 s. For micro-
structural characterization, an optical microscope (OLYMPUS-GX51)
2.3. FSAM tools and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (SU1510) were employed. In
order to explore the effect of interfacial defects on mechanical prop-
In order to study the influence of the tool pin shape on the material erties of the multilayered build, 13 groups of hardness tests were car-
mixing state in the NZ and interfacial bonding conditions, five kinds of ried out with a hardness tester (HVS-1000) under a load of 50 g as
screw free tools were designed according to the published researches. shown in Fig. 4 (each black line perpendicular to the interface re-
The geometries of the tools are shown in Fig. 2. Tool 1 (T1) was a presents a group of tests). Of the 12 groups of hardness tests, with the
convex featured tool. The related report illustrates that the traversing interface as the midpoint, seven hardness values are collected along the
and down forces are lower under the effect of the pin with this shape build direction at an interval of 0.1 mm as one group of hardness tests.
[22]. Tool 2 (T2) had a conical pin with three flats which is a common Meanwhile, the 12 groups of hardness tests were performed on the AS,
tool used in friction stir butted welding. It is reported that the flats of middle, and RS of each interface in the NZ respectively with the intent

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) process.

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Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 2. Different types of tool pin profiles used in this investigation (dimensions in millimeter).
Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams of (a) double-layered friction stir single pass ad-
ditive experiment, (b) double-layered friction stir double passes additive ex-
periment and (c) five-layered friction stir additive experiment (dimensions in
millimeter).
of comparing the difference of the hardness distribution in different
positions. With regard to the thirteenth group of hardness tests, seven
hardness values are collected in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the
base plate along the build direction at an interval of 0.1 mm for the
comparative analysis.
Miniaturized dogbone tensile specimens sampled from the NZ along
the welding direction. The sampling location and size of the tensile
specimens are shown in Fig. 5. The tensile tests were carried out at
room temperature using a WDW-100 testing machine at the loading
rate of 3 mm/min. During the multilayered FSAM process, the surface
depression will appear on the surface of each layer, therefore the
thickness of the specimens is design to be 2 mm so that the interfacial
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
Fig. 4. Schematic of positions of hardness tests (AS: Advancing Side; RS:
Retreating Side).
defects appear in the cross section of the specimens, so as to study the
effect of the interfacial defects on the mechanical properties of the
build. It is worth noting that six 2 mm thick tensile specimens were
initially expected to be machined from the five-layered build, but the
build depressions lead to only five specimens sampled from the build
and more than 2 mm thickness of the top specimen.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Macrostructure of double-layered friction stir single pass additive builds
The cross-sectional macrostructures of the builds manufactured by
T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 are shown in Fig. 6. The interfacial bonding
conditions of the builds can be observed obviously due to the difference
of the material between the additive sheet and the baseplate. For the
builds manufactured by T1, T3, and T4, onion ring features can be seen
in the baseplate NZ and interesting material mixing characteristics exist
on the AS of the NZ. In comparison, no obvious mixing characteristic of
the upper and lower materials occurs on the RS of the builds manu-
factured by all the five tools. Fig. 7 shows the magnified images of the
AS interfaces in the NZ of the builds manufactured by the five tools. As
can be seen in Fig. 7(a), (c), and (d), when T1, T3, and T4 are used, the
material of the upper plate is involved in the baseplate NZ from the AS
thus forming the onion ring features. For the builds manufactured by T3
Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 6. Macro cross sections of the double-layered builds manufactured by (a)
T1, (b) T2, (c) T3, (d) T4 and (e) T5 (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side;
ESZ: Effective Shear Zone).
and T4, more materials are involved leading to the obvious effective
shear zones (ESZ) generated on the AS of the NZ. As shown in Fig. 7(b),
when T2 is used, the material on the AS of the upper plate NZ has a
tendency to be involved in the baseplate, but there is no mixing char-
acteristic of the upper and lower materials. It can be seen in Fig. 7(e)
that the material on the AS of the upper plate NZ has almost no ten-
dency to be involved in the baseplate when T5 used.
Thus it can be seen that the upper materials of the builds manu-
factured by the five tools all have the tendency to get involved in the
baseplate on the AS. Compared with T5, the three tools of T1, T3, and
T4 which have special geometries intensify this trend. It is reported that
the concave arc grooves on the pins of T3 and T4 increase the ratio of
swept to static volume of the tools and promote the downward flow of
the material, thus obtaining the wider NZ [24–26]. Colegrove and
Shercliff also found that the vertical flow characteristics of the material
in the welds with the convex featured pin (T1), however, it cannot be
explained by their three-dimensional flow model [22,27]. The flats of
T2 can impart a local rocking motion that rotates around the pin to the
material leading to the high ratio of swept to static volume of the tool
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
Fig. 5. Schematic of sampling location and size of the tensile
specimens (dimensions in millimeter).
[28]. However, they only enhance the flow in the horizontal direction
of the material, and cannot promote the vertical flow of the material. It
also suggests that the tool used for friction stir butt welding is not
suitable for FSAM.
3.2. Interfacial bonding features of double-layered friction stir single pass
additive builds
Based on the above results, an analysis of the interfacial bonding
conditions of the builds manufactured by T3 and T4 will be made
below.
In order to further display the interfacial formation, magnified
macrostructures, optical micrographs and SEM images in the corre-
sponding regions are shown in Figs. 8 and 9 It can be seen in Figs. 8(a)
and 9 (a) that the four regions of A, B, C, and D represent the interface
of the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) on the AS, the in-
terface of the TMAZ on the retreating side (RS), the interface of the ESZ
and the remnant original joint line, respectively. As shown in
Figs. 8(b)–(c) and 9 (b)–(c), the hooking defects in the region A of AS
both move upwards and bend far away from the NZ. In comparison, the
deformation of the hooking defects in the region B of RS (Figs. 8(d)–(e)
and 9 (d)–(e)) is smaller than that in region A, and the hooking defects
keep the direction of extension into the NZ. Furthermore, the SEM
micrographs of hooking defects on both sides of the builds (Figs. 8(c),
(e) and 9 (c), (e)) show that no metallurgical connection occurs in the
hooking defects and the hooking defects are gradually closed along the
stretching direction. Moreover, the hooking defect on the RS of the
build manufactured by T3 (Fig. 8(d)–(e)) is slightly extended into the
NZ and that of the build manufactured by T4 (Fig. 9(d)–(e)) ends in the
TMAZ.
Thus it can be seen that the hooking defects on the AS always bend
far away from the NZ, while the hooking defects on the RS maintain the
direction of stretching into the NZ. The formation of the hooking defect
is related to the flow of materials during the FSAM process. In the cross-
section perpendicular to the weld, as shown in Fig. 10, the upper layer
material always flows from the RS to the AS (labeled as F1 in Fig. 10)
leading to an accumulational state of the material on the AS and a
missing state of the material on the RS. Therefore, the excess material
on the AS is continuously extruded from the upper layer into the base
material resulting in the original interface bending outward. Mean-
while, the mixing characteristics of the materials around the interface
are obvious. Conversely, the base material on the RS flows upward and
enters into the NZ (labeled as F2 in Fig. 10) to fill the space which is in
the missing state of the material, and the mixing degree of the materials
around the RS interface is poor due to the space in the missing state of
the material. Therefore, the original unconnected interface on the RS is
deformed slightly to form a hooking defect and still maintains the
original direction.
The details of region C in the build structures are shown in
Figs. 8(f)–(h) and 9 (f)–(h). Wavy curves can be observed from the
optical micrographs (Figs. 8(f) and 9 (f)). As can be seen in the SEM
images of this region before etching (Figs. 8(g) and 9 (g)), a small
number of oxide particles dispersed on the wavy curve with T3 used.
Comparatively, the oxide particles are more dispersive with T4 used. In
addition, a small number of dispersive interface voids left after the
oxides being etched (Figs. 8(h) and 9 (h)) also prove that a defect-free
Z. Zhao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410

Fig. 7. Interfacial formations on the advancing side of the builds manufactured by (a) T1, (b) T2, (c) T3, (d) T4, and (e) T5.

metallurgical connection has occurred at the interface of the ESZ. It
owes to the obvious vertical flow characteristics on the AS. The material
of the upper plate at the interface is squeezed into the base plate (F1 in
Fig. 10) and mixed with the base metal in the form of shear to form the
ESZ. Because of the difference in the material of the upper and lower
plates, the degree of metallographic corrosion is different leading to the
formation of the wavy curves.
The remnant interfaces in region D both have no apparent de-
formation, as shown in Figs. 8(i)–(k) and 9 (i)–(k). The region can be
also referred to as the weak-bonding defect zone which is usually seen
as a dark line appearing in the NZ (Figs. 8(i) and 9 (i)). Small corrosion
voids left behind by the etching of oxides (Figs. 8(j) and 9 (j)) are
densely distributed along the weak-bonding defect (Figs. 8(k) and 9
(k)). It is considered that the weak-bonding defect is the extension of
the RS hooking defect to the NZ. Although the region is affected by the
extrusion and stirring of the tool, the oxides at the interface cannot be
completely broken owing to the insufficient deformation of the inter-
face, resulting in the partial metallurgical connection at the interface.
The oxides may come from the original plate surface in spite of the
surface cleaning before welding, and oxidation reaction may also occur
at the interface during and after welding [29,30]. Compared with the
wavy curve, the weak-bonding defect has a more significant influence
on the mechanical properties of the build due to the partial me-
tallurgical connection.
By carefully comparing Figs. 8(i)–(k) and 9 (i)–(k), it can be seen
that the interface voids are deeper and denser when T3 was used. Hence
the color of the weak-bonding defect is deeper in the optical micro-
graph. The presence of micro-cracks is also found at the interface with
T3 used due to the relatively lower degree of the interface oxide frag-
mentation. Consequently, the plastic flow of the upper and lower ma-
terials is quite different, resulting in the generation of micro-cracks.
3.3. Effect of welding mode on double-layered friction stir additive builds
In order to achieve an additive formation that both sides are the AS
to avoid the hooking defects extending into the NZ, the back and forth
double passes welding method was performed on the double-layered
friction stir additive experiment.

Fig. 8. (a) Optical macrograph of the interface in the build manufactured by T3, (b) optical micrograph and (c) SEM image of region A, (d) optical micrograph and (e)
SEM image of region B, (f) optical micrograph, (g) backscattered SEM image and (h) SEM image of region C and, (i) optical micrograph, (j) backscattered SEM image
and (k) SEM image of region D (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side; ESZ: Effective Shear Zone; TMAZ: Thermo-Mechanically Affected Zone; NZ: Nugget Zone).

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Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 9. (a) Optical macrograph of the interface in the build manufactured by T4, (b) optical micrograph and (c) SEM image of region A, (d) optical micrograph and (e)
SEM image of region B, (f) optical micrograph, (g) backscattered SEM image and (h) SEM image of region C and, (i) optical micrograph, (j) backscattered SEM image
and (k) SEM image of region D (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side; ESZ: Effective Shear Zone; TMAZ: Thermo-Mechanically Affected Zone; NZ: Nugget Zone).
Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of metal flow in builds (AS: Advancing Side; RS:
Retreating Side).
Figs. 11 and 12 show the cross-sectional macrographs of the double-
layered friction stir additive builds with T3 and T4 used and high-re-
solution images of particular sections. Compared with single pass ad-
ditive builds, the ESZs exist on both sides in the double passes additive
builds (Fig. 11(a) and Fig. 12(a)). Moreover, a symmetrical additive
formation is obtained by the back and forth double passes welding
method with T3 used, as shown in Fig. 11(a). Hence more upper ma-
terial is squeezed into the parent plate. The hooking defects on both
sides (region A and region B in Fig. 11(a)), as shown in Figs. 11(b) and
12 (c), both bend to the outside of the NZ. By comparison, a left-right
asymmetric formation is achieved by the same method when T4 used
(Fig. 12(a)). On the right-hand side, it is similar to the build with T3
used (Fig. 12(d)). However, the direction of the hooking defect on the
left-hand side is obviously changed, i.e., not to bend to the outside of
the NZ, but to follow the shear direction of the ESZ (Fig. 12(b)). As can
be seen in the SEM micrograph (Fig. 12(c)), the hooking defect on the
left-hand side is gradually closed along the shear direction and even-
tually disappears. The original AS and RS in the first pass are changed
into the RS and AS in the second pass due to the opposite welding di-
rections of the two passes. Therefore, the symmetrical additive forma-
tion is obtained in the case of T3 used. With regard to T4, the area of the
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
ESZ is larger owing to the special flared shape. Accordingly, the ESZ of
the second pass covers the hooking defect on the original RS. Thus the
hooking defect on the left-hand side deforms along the shear direction
and is gradually closed.
In the case of T4 used, the presence of the weak-boding defect can
be still found (Fig. 12(e)-(f)). Compared with single pass additive build,
the oxides in the weak-bonding defect of the double passes additive
build are more dispersed, as shown in the SEM image (Fig. 12(f)). It can
be assumed that during double passes additive process, the weak-
bonding defect has undergone the mechanical agitation twice by the
tool. Meanwhile, the heat generated by the tool is larger. Therefore, the
oxide films are destroyed more sufficiently.
3.4. Interfacial bonding features of multilayered FSAM build
AM is a manufacturing method of building component by stacking
material layer by layer. Therefore, it is necessary to study the formation
and the interfacial bonding features of the multilayered friction stir
additive manufactured build. To achieve a similar effect of the back and
forth double passes additive process, the welding directions of two
adjacent layers were opposite in five-layered additive experiments.
3.4.1. Effect of tool rotation speed on formation of multilayered FSAM build
Macrostructures of five-layered builds manufactured at different
rotation speeds for giving welding speed of 100 mm/min with T4 used
are shown in Fig. 13. The structure of the five-layered build is uniform
when the rotation speed is 800 rpm, as shown in Fig. 13(a). However,
cavities exist in the fifth layer corresponding to 900 and 1000 rpm,
especially in the case of 900 rpm, as shown in Fig. 13(b) and (c). It can
be assumed that the top layer is affected by the extrusion and the agi-
tation of the tool only once thus more prone to defects in the top layer
compared to the other layers. Meanwhile, as reported by Palanivel et al.
[13], the lower the heat input is provided, the greater the constraint
effect of the shoulder on the material is. Generally, the existence of the
defects, like cavity, is closely related to the poor constraint effect. To
further explain the findings, the average plunging forces on the fifth
layer at different rotation speeds are listed in Table 5. It can be seen that
Fig. 11. (a) Optical macro cross-section of the
double passes welding build manufactured by
T3, (b) optical micrograph of the region of A in
(a), and (c) optical micrograph of the region of
B in (a) (ESZ: Effective Shear Zone).
Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 12. (a) Optical macro cross-section of the double passes welding build manufactured by T4, (b) optical micrograph and (c) SEM image of the region of A in (a),
(d) optical micrograph of the region of B in (a) and, (e) optical micrograph and (f) SEM image of the region of C in (a) (ESZ: Effective Shear Zone).
the average plunging force on the fifth layer when the rotation speed is
800 rpm is far greater than that when the rotation speeds are 900 and
1000 rpm. Higher plunging force provides the necessary compaction
pressure to ensure that the material is constrained under the tool
shoulder and to close the defects forming after the tool moved [13].
Therefore, the large difference in the average plunging forces can ex-
plain the obvious difference in the quality among the three builds.
As shown previously, the build manufactured at 800 rpm for giving
welding speed of 100 mm/min has a relatively best formation.
Consequently, the interfacial defect distribution and mechanical prop-
erties of this build will be analyzed below.
3.4.2. Formation of interfacial defects of multilayered FSAM build
Fig. 14 shows the details of the RS hooking defects in the four re-
gions of A, B, C, and D in 13 (a) with optical micrographs and SEM
images. As can be seen in Figs. 14(a), (c), (e) and (g), the closer the
layer is to the base metal, the more obscure the RS hooking defect is,
and the greater the degree of bending to the outside of the NZ is. Be-
sides, the RS hooking defect in the fifth layer extends into the NZ, and a
cavity is found at the end of it, as shown in Fig. 14(g) and (h). Com-
paratively, the RS hooking defects of other layers are closed as similar
to the partial metallurgical connection, as shown in SEM images
(Fig. 14(b), (d), and (f)). However, large quantities of oxides gather in
the RS hooking defects due to the more inadequate agitation of the tool
in the RS TMAZ. Compared with the weak-bonding defect, the remnant
interfaces in the RS TMAZ can be also regarded as hooking defects due
to the aggregation of deeper and denser interface voids after etching.
Fig. 13. Transverse sections of FSAM builds obtained at (a) 800 rpm, (b) 900 rpm and (c) 1000 rpm with T4 used (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
Table 5
Average plunging forces of the fifth layer under different rotational speeds.
Rotation speed (rpm) 800 900 1000
Plunging force (kN) 16.143 7.998 9.967
Except for the fifth layer, the other layers are equivalent to going
through the back and forth double passes additive process and affected
by the extrusion of the tool and the thermal cycle twice or more times
resulting in bending and closing of the RS hooking defects in the other
layers. Furthermore, the higher layer experiences the less squeezing of
the tool and exhibits the lower degree of material softening. Therefore,
with the increment of the number of layers, the RS hooking defect is
more and more obvious, and the degree of deformation is smaller and
smaller. Relatively speaking, the fifth layer corresponds to going
through the single pass additive process thus affected by the extrusion
of the tool only once. Consequently, the RS hooking defect in the top
layer still maintains the direction of extension into the NZ. The surface
sag of the layers increases with the increment of the number of layers
leading to the larger interval between the surfaces of the first four-
layered build and the fifth slat. Therefore, the RS hooking defect in the
fifth layer stretches into the NZ. At the origin of the weak-bonding
defect, namely the end of the RS hooking defect, no metallurgical
bonding occurs on one side of the hooking defect, while a partial me-
tallurgical connection is realized on one side of the weak-bonding de-
fect. This interface difference leads to the formation of the cavity at the
Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 14. Optical micrographs and SEM images of the hooking defects in the four regions of (a)-(b) A, (c)-(d) B, (e)-(f) C and (g)-(h) D.
Fig. 15. Optical micrographs and SEM images of the weak-bonding defects in the four regions of (a)-(b) E, (c)-(d) F, (e)-(f) G and (g)-(h) H.
end of the RS hooking defect.
The details of the weak-bonding defects in the four regions of E, F,
G, and H in Fig. 13(a) are shown in Fig. 15. As the number of layers
decreases, the color of the black line of each layer is getting lighter and
lighter or even disappearing indicating that the weak-bonding defects
are gradually improved, as shown in the optical micrographs
(Fig. 15(a), (c), (e) and (g)). As can be seen in the SEM images
(Fig. 15(b), (d), (f) and (h)), the decrease of the depth and the quantity
as well as the more diffuse distributions of the corrosion voids re-
confirm the gradual improvement in weak-bonding defects with the
decrement of the number of layers. Due to material softening and the
multiple extrusion of the tool, the interface will have a good me-
tallurgical connection. Meanwhile, the closer the interface is to the
bottom, the better the metallurgical connection is, and the greater the
degree of the improvement of the weak-bonding defect is.
In order to verify the presence of oxides at the remnant interface
which is likely to affect the metallurgical connection of the interface,
the chemical composition at the remnant interface was analyzed by
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The backscattered SEM image in
Fig. 16(a) shows the weak-bonding defect in the NZ between the fourth
and third layers. An indication of the levels of Al, O, Cu, Mg, Ag, and
Mn in this region is obtained from the EDS maps in Fig. 16(a). As shown
in O EDS map, the weak-bonding defect corresponds to the O rich re-
gion. Besides, it is also visible that oxygen elements are dispersed in
some of the other regions, which may be the polishing compound re-
sidues [31]. Nevertheless, the reduction of Al elements in the weak-
binding defect is shown in Al EDS map. Furthermore, other elements
are evenly distributed in their respective map.
EDS line scan results illustrate the distribution of O, Al, Cu, Ag, Mg
and Mn in more detail, as shown in Fig. 16(b). There are two traces
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
perpendicular to the weak-bonding defect in the backscattered SEM
image. With regard to Trace 1, an obvious increase in the level of O and
a decrease in the level of Al occur in the weak-bonding defect. Com-
paratively, the levels of Cu, Ag, and Mg in the black area decrease
slightly. However, the level of Mn is almost unchanged. For Trace 2, the
changing trend of the levels of each element is similar to that of Trace 1
except that the level of Mg is basically unchanged. It reconfirms the
reduction of Al and oxygen enrichment in the weak-bonding defect.
Besides, Cu is one of the most important elements of the precipitates in
2195 Al-Li alloy, such as T1 (Al2CuLi) and θ’ (Al2Cu). Meanwhile,
Sidhar and Mishra reported that T1 precipitate is one of the most major
strengthening phases in 2195 Al-Li alloy [32]. The decrease in the level
of Cu means the reduction of the strengthening phases in the weak-
bonding defect. In addition, Ag is the element which can promote T1
precipitation in 2195 Al-Li alloy [33]. Consequently, the reduction of
Ag delays the precipitation of T1 phase. Moreover, the difference of the
changing trend of the level of Mg between Trace 1 and 2 is indicative of
different types of oxides at the interface.
There are mainly two kinds of black and white particles in the
backscattered SEM image. Black particles mostly distribute in the weak-
bonding defect, and white particles can be found in all places. However,
the white particles in the defect are relatively smaller. Two black par-
ticles and two white particles were selected for EDS point scanning. The
scan locations and results are shown in Fig.16(c). The black particles
exhibit the high level of O. Besides, one of the black particles contains a
high content of Si, whereas no Si exists in the other black particle.
Meanwhile, the white particles correspond to Cu-containing particles.
This is in general consistent with the findings of Jiang et al. [34]. It
suggests that the oxide in the defect is probably the remaining oxide
film on the plate and may be also the residual gravel with a high
Z. Zhao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410

Fig. 16. (a) Backscattered SEM image showing interface and EDS maps showing levels of Al, O, Cu, Mg, Ag, and Mn, (b) EDS line scan results showing levels of Al, O,
Cu, Mg, Ag, and Mn, and (c) EDS point scan results showing content of elements in different locations.

content of Si after grinding with sandpaper before the experiment. This
indicates that the sandpaper needs to be replaced by other methods
such as wire brush when surface cleaning. Furthermore, the white
particles are the aggregations of strengthening phases. The smaller size
of the white particles further confirms the reduction of strengthening
phases in the defect.
3.4.3. Effect of interfacial defects on mechanical properties
Fig. 17 shows the sampling position of the tensile specimens num-
bered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in the cross-section of the five-layered build
manufactured at 800 rpm with T4 used. It is noted that the weak-
bonding defects exist in the cross sections of Specimen 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Fig. 18 shows the tensile curves of the specimens, and the statistical
data of the tensile properties are listed in Table 6. It can be seen that the

405
Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 17. Sampling position of tensile specimens in the transverse section of the
build (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
Fig. 18. Stress-strain curves of the tensile specimens.
Table 6
Results of tensile tests on the five-layered build with T4 used at 800 rpm.
Specimen Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
Base metal 615 9
Specimen 1 348 9.6
Specimen 2 318 15.2
Specimen 3 315 6.4
Specimen 4 287 3.2
Specimen 5 272 1.6
tensile strength of Specimen 1 obtained from the HAZ of the base metal
is the highest, reaching 348 MPa, which is 56.6% of the tensile strength
of the 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy. Meanwhile, the elongation rate is 9.6%,
which is 9.7% higher than that of the 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy. Specimen 2
includes three regions of the HAZ and the TMAZ of the base metal, and
the NZ. It exhibits the highest elongation of 15.2% which is 68.9%
higher than that of the 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy corresponding to a great
improvement of plasticity. Comparatively, the tensile strength de-
creases to 318 MPa. The tensile strengths of Specimen 3, 4 and 5 ob-
tained from the NZ decrease as the sequence number of the specimens
increases, which are 315 MPa, 287 MPa, and 272 MPa respectively.
Likewise, the elongations of Specimen 3, 4, and 5 are 6.4%, 3.2%, and
1.6% respectively. It shows that for these three specimens, the elon-
gations decrease with the increase of the sequence number of the spe-
cimens which are all lower than that of the 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy.
In order to further study the effect of the weak-bonding defects on
the mechanical properties of the build, the hardness distributions of the
build were analyzed. The maps in Fig. 19 shows the hardness profiles
perpendicular to the weak-bonding defects between every two layers
and the hardness distribution in the HAZ of the base metal. In order
from the bottom to the top of the build, the weak-bonding defects are
represented by Interface 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. As shown in
Fig. 19(a), (b), (c), and (d), the hardness profiles perpendicular to the
Interface 1, 2, 3, and 4 show the same law, i.e., the hardness value in
the RS weak-bonding defect decreases obviously, and the more close to
the AS, the smaller the fluctuation of the hardness values. Furthermore,
the average hardness values around the Interface 1, 2, 3, and 4 (exclude
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
the hardness values at the interface) are 95.7 HV, 100.9 HV, 106.9 HV,
and 116.8 HV respectively. Namely, the closer the interface is to the
bottom, the lower the average hardness value around it is. The hardness
profiles perpendicular to each RS weak-bonding defect are integrated in
Fig. 19(e). It can be seen that the closer the interface is to the top of the
build, the greater the fluctuation of the hardness values is. Meanwhile,
the hardness value at Interface 4 is the lowest, which is 79.1 HV, and
the hardness value at Interface 3 is the next, which reaches 87.0 HV.
The hardness values at Interface 2 and 1 has no much difference which
are 91.2 HV and 90.3 HV respectively, and they are both higher than
that at Interface 3. As can be seen in Fig. 19(f), the hardness profile in
the HAZ of the base metal is relatively uniform, and the average
hardness value is 105.7 HV.
The decrease of the hardness in the weak-bonding defects corre-
sponds to the aggregation of the oxides, the reduction of strengthening
phases and the partial metallurgical connection in the weak-bonding
defects. It illustrates that the weak-bonding defect is an important
factor affecting the mechanical properties of the build. As stated in the
previous section, with the increment of the number of layers, the
number times of thermal cycle decrease, and the poorer metallurgical
connection occurs at the interface resulting in an increase in the
hardness fluctuation in the weak-bonding defect. Therefore, the spe-
cimen closer to the top of the build has the lower tensile strength and
elongation. Compared with the RS interface, there are obvious mixing
characteristics of the upper and lower materials at the AS interface.
Therefore, the weak-bonding defects on the AS of the NZ are improved
or even eliminated leading to the smaller fluctuation of the hardness
values at the AS interface. Besides, the greater fluctuation of the
hardness values at the RS interface implies the weak-bonding defect on
the RS is the weakest area of the mechanical properties. In addition,
2195-T8 Al-Li alloy is a precipitate strengthened alloy, and the incre-
ment of the number times of thermal cycle leads to the greater dis-
solution of strengthening phases and the larger grain size thus a de-
crease in the average hardness value around the interface. Combined
with the tensile test results, the effect of the weak-bonding defect on the
mechanical properties of the build is greater than that of the material
softening. The HAZ of the base metal is affected only by thermal cycles
without the agitation of the tool. Therefore, compared with the NZ of
the second and third layers, the dissolution of strengthening phases in
the HAZ of the base metal is relatively less leading to a relatively higher
average hardness. Meanwhile, no interface exists in the HAZ of the base
metal leading to a uniform hardness profile and a relatively higher
tensile strength.
3.4.4. Fracture mode of multilayered FSAM build
The fracture mode of the build will be discussed below in combi-
nation with the SEM images of the fracture surfaces of the tensile
specimens shown in Figs. 20–24.
Fig. 20(a) shows the macroscopic fractograph of Specimen 1. It can
be seen that the fracture of Specimen 1 is uniform. At higher magnifi-
cation (Fig. 20(b)), the fracture surface is relatively flat, and there is no
obvious plastic deformation on the surface. Consequently, it can be
judged that the fracture mode of Specimen 1 is a brittle-like fracture. As
mentioned previously, the hardness distribution of the HAZ of the base
metal is uniform indicating that Specimen 1 obtained from the HAZ of
the base metal has the homogeneous tensile properties. Meanwhile, the
microstructure of the specimen is only affected by the thermal cycles
resulting in a large amount of dissolution of strengthening phases, a
decrease in tensile strength and an increase in toughness. Nevertheless,
the grains in the HAZ grow up and keep the original rolling direction
thus leading to the brittle-like fracture.
As can be seen in the macroscopic fractograph of Specimen 2
(Fig. 21(a)), the fracture of Specimen 2 is also comparatively homo-
geneous. The macroscopic fractograph of Specimen 2 can be divided
into I, II, III, and IV four regions representing the NZ, the weak-bonding
defect zone, the TMAZ, and the HAZ, respectively. Fig. 21(b) shows the
Z. Zhao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410

Fig. 19. (a)-(d) Hardness profiles in the positions of AS, middle and RS of the NZ perpendicular to (a) Interface 1, (b) Interface 2, (c) Interface 3 and (d) Interface 4,
(e) comparison of the RS hardness profiles perpendicular to different interfaces, and (f) hardness profile of the HAZ of the base metal (AS: Advancing Side; RS:
Retreating Side; NZ: Nugget Zone; HAZ: Heat Affected Zone).

Fig. 20. (a) Macroscopic and (b) microscopic fractographs of Specimen 1.

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Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 21. (a) Macroscopic fractograph of Specimen 2, (b) magnification of the Zone A in (a), and microscopic fractographs of the regions of (c) II, (d) I, (e) III and (f) IV
in (a) (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
magnification of a typical zone (Zone A) in Fig. 21(a) including these
four regions. A groove exists in the weak-bonding defect zone. At higher
magnification, the inner sides of the groove are covered with small
dimples (Fig. 21(c)). Meanwhile, the dimples on the fracture surface of
the NZ are relatively larger and deeper (Fig. 21(d)). Compared to the
HAZ (Fig. 21(f)), a number of shallow dimples connected with plastic
tearing ridges are distributed over the fracture surface of the TMAZ
(Fig. 21(e)). It suggests that the fracture mode of the TMAZ presents
more features of the ductile fracture than that of the HAZ. The partial
metallurgical connection occurs in the weak-bonding defect due to the
accumulation of oxides, leading to the deterioration of mechanical
properties. However, according to the previous microstructure and
hardness analysis, the best metallurgical connection occurs at the in-
terface between the first and second layers. Hence the weak-bonding
defect has little effect on the mechanical properties, and the fracture
behavior of the weak-bonding defect zone presents more features of the
Fig. 22. (a) Macroscopic and (b) microscopic fractographs of Specimen 3 (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
ductile fracture. In addition, compared with Specimen 1, the elongation
is relatively higher and the tensile strength is relatively lower due to the
existence of the NZ.
Figs. 22(a), 23 (a), and 24 (a) show the macroscopic fractographs of
the Specimen 3, 4 and 5. It can be seen that the cracks start with the RS
weak-bonding defects, and extend to the whole cross-section. Moreover,
it can be clearly found that the crack propagation path appears on one
side of the groove. Besides, the closer the specimen is to the top, the
wider the crack propagation path is, meanwhile, at higher magnifica-
tion (Figs. 22(b), 23 (b) and 24 (b)), the flatter the path surface is. The
observations can be also indicative that the weak-bonding defect is the
most important factor in affecting the mechanical properties of these
three specimens. As mentioned previously, the RS weak-bonding defect
is the weakest area of the mechanical properties. Meanwhile, in the
stretch process, the shear force is caused by the different soften degree
of the upper and lower materials. Therefore, the maximum stress
Z. Zhao et al.
Fig. 23. (a) Macroscopic and (b) microscopic fractographs of Specimen 4 (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
concentration is formed in the RS weak-bonding defect, and then the
crack originates from the RS weak-bonding defect. Combined with the
preceding analysis, the closer the specimen to the top, the less the
metallurgical connections occur at the interface thus the faster the
crack propagation speed. Therefore, the specimen which is closer to the
top shows a greater brittleness and a lower tensile strength.
As mentioned above, the weak-bonding defect is the main factor in
affecting the mechanical properties of the multilayered build.
Therefore, it is necessary to take some methods for the further additive
process optimization, such as back and forth double passes welding for
each layer, although the process will increase the cost and reduce the
efficiency.
4. Conclusions
1 The shape of the tool pin is the main factor in affecting the material
mixing degree of two lapped layers during friction stir additive
manufacturing (FSAM) process. The conical pin with three flats (T2)
and the cylindrical pin (T5) are not applicable to the FSAM process
due to the very poor material mixing degree across the bonding
interface. In comparison, the convex featured tool (T1) and the tool
with three concave arc grooves (T3 and T4) are more conducive to
the mixing of materials across the interface, especially the latter.
2 The formations of the double-layered friction stir single pass ad-
ditive builds manufactured with T3 and T4 used are asymmetric.
The defect-free metallurgical connections occur at the advancing
side (AS) interface of the nugget zone (NZ). The material mixing
degree at the retreating side (RS) interface of the NZ is still poor.
The hooking defects on the RS both have the trend of extending into
the NZ, and the weak-bonding defect is originated from the hooking
defect on the RS.
3 In the cross-section of the NZ, the material of the upper layer always
flows from the RS to the AS leading to an accumulational state of the
material on the AS and a missing state of the material on the RS.
Therefore, the AS hooking defect is squeezed by the excess material
and bends outward, and the materials across the AS interface have
good mixing characteristics; however, the RS hooking defect always
has a trend of extending into the NZ, and the material mixing degree
at the RS interface is poor. The asymmetrical interfacial bonding
features generated by the asymmetric material flow is an inherent
limitation of FSAM.
Fig. 24. (a) Macroscopic and (b) microscopic fractographs of Specimen 5 (AS: Advancing Side; RS: Retreating Side).
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 38 (2019) 396–410
4 The weak-bonding defect is always related to the existence oxides at
the lap interface and insufficient stirring of the tool. The back and
forth double passes welding method can promote the mixing of the
upper and lower materials, avoid the hooking defects extending into
the NZ and improve the weak-bonding defect. However, this process
will obviously increase the workload, reduce the work efficiency
and increase the manufacturing cost, which is another limitation of
FSAM.
5 The welding rotation speeds of 800, 900 and 1000 rpm for giving
welding speed of 100 mm/min were used in the five-layered ad-
ditive manufacturing experiments of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy. The op-
timum microstructure is obtained with the rotation speed of
800 rpm. However, cavities exist in the builds manufactured at
900 rpm and 1000 rpm. The welding method that the welding di-
rections of two adjacent layers are opposite can partially improve
the interfacial bonding features and promote the material mixing of
the whole NZ.
6 The hardness profile of the five-layered build of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy
is inhomogeneous. The range of the change of the average hardness
value from first to fifth layers is 95.7–116.8 HV. The layer which is
closer to the top of the build has a higher average hardness value
because of experiencing less thermal cycles. Compared with the AS
interface, the fluctuation of the hardness value at the RS interface is
greater. The closer the interface to the top of the build, the greater
the fluctuation of the hardness value at the RS interface.
7 The distributions of the tensile strength and elongation of the five-
layered build of 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy are inhomogeneous. The max-
imum tensile strength is only 56.6% of the tensile strength of the
base metal. Compared with the maximum tensile strength, the
minimum tensile strength is reduced by 21.8%. Meanwhile, the
closer the specimen to the top of the build, the less the tensile
strength and the greater the brittleness. The above indicates that the
softening of the material and the interfacial defects are the main
factors in affecting the mechanical properties of the build.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (grant number 51775371).
Z. Zhao et al.
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