1912.] WITH METAL FILAMENT LAMPS : DISCUSSION.

721
is lowered and the current increased. The increased current is only
maintained for a fraction of a second and cannot be measured satis-
factorily on an ammeter although the temperature of the filament is
obviously higher.
Whether such over-running in temperature can be produced in a
given case appears to be determined by the ordinary criterion for the
production of an oscillatory discharge, viz., that L is greater than
KR'
4
In practice L is given by the self-induction of the low-tension
winding of the transformer, which depends to a certain extent on the
frequency of the oscillatory discharge.
If a variable resistance is included in series with the lamp and
condenser and this resistance is increased until the over-running effect
K R2
disappears, the calculated value of L, viz., , is always considerably
less than the self-induction of the transformer winding at the frequency
of the supply circuit, and probably corresponds to that at the higher
frequency of the oscillatory discharge. If the lamp is supplied directly
from an alternator without a transformer and an ironless inductance
put in series with the lamp and condenser the correspondence between
K R2
the actual self-induction and that calculated from is fairly close.
4
With lamps and condensers in actual use this effect is hardly ever
produced by sparking at switches, but it is liable to occur if there
is a loose contact in the lamp-holder.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. W. PERREN MAYCOCK : Having made some experiments with Mr.
the condensers, I start with the assumption that their use is a practical Ma>'coc '•
proposition in certain cases, and I propose to show methods of
controlling the lamps. It may be mentioned, by the way, that one
of the incidental advantages of the condenser system is that the
spark-wear at switch contacts is almost negligible. Also, if two
condensers be used, bell and alarm circuits wired in the ordinary
manner might be connected between them. The adaptability
of what might be called the long-series connection in small
houses, flats, etc., depends upon the following points : (i) The
strict observance of the rule that the light in any given room
should never be left on when there is no one there, even if the room
be vacated for 5 minutes only. (2) The provision of means for
reducing the light in rooms (such as living rooms) where a good light
is sometimes, but not always, required. (3) The use of what I call
restricted lighting. In a bedroom, for example, it is convenient to get
light at two points ; and the restriction consists in preventing both
lights being used at the same time. These three necessities can only
be fully secured by employing up-to-date methods of switching, and
 722 ASHTON : CONDENSERS IN SERIES [16th May,

itfr. with your permission I will show you on the screen some of the various
R aycoc
arrangements available. All the switches used—it should be noted—
are of the tumbler pattern. (Here were exhibited lantern slides showing
the adaptability of various switch controls.) I would particularly direct
the attention of all concerned with electric lighting to the advantages
of these controls, which are a few of many that have been primarily
designed for use on ordinary circuits. The art of switching is only
slightly less important than the art of illumination. Both arts are
more or less ignored by the people who could and should understand
them ; and are as a rule left to be interpreted by people who only half
grasp their possibilities.
Rawiings. Mr. W. R. RAWLINGS : The author has brought to our notice some
very interesting facts in connection with the working of condensers in
series with metal filament lamps. There is, however, I think, something
still wanting in the paper, and that is some description of the apparatus
itself and also of its size. It should be remembered that the size of
the condenser has one of the most important bearings upon its
applications for domestic purposes. We are told in the paper
that a small condenser measures 2% in. by i\ in. by 6 in., with a
capacity of 6 microfarads. That I think is too bulky for ordinary
purposes when applied for single lamps such as the author suggests.
Many will doubtless remember in the earlier days small transformers
were introduced which had somewhat the appearance of half a German
sausage hung upon the lamp-holder. By reason of its awkward
appearance it never became popular. I venture to suggest that the
size of the apparatus, which is described by the author, will also check
its use. Again, the application of the condenser for incandescent
lighting has received its death-blow by the improvements in metal
filament lamps. This, however, I have felt as much as any one, for I
have devoted a considerable amount of time and money on experiments
in the development of the condenser for this particular application.
I may say that the condenser which I use is very much smaller than
that described by the author. For instance, the author's condenser
contains y 5 cub. in. or thereabouts. The condenser which I use
for the same capacity contains only 1*4 cub. in. I have samples
with me, and I will show you how I have applied them to domestic
apparatus. The author gives an estimate for the wiring of a house to
justify the use of the condenser as a saving in the wiring. I do not
think he has given us a typical case. In one case he suggests the
short-circuiting of the series system by switch lamp-holders, which is
not to be commended, because the switch is difficult to reach. In the
other case, the switch is apparently fixed at the door, and therefore
it is not, I suggest, a fair comparison. If he will short circuit his
lamps by a switch at the door, I think he will find that the figures he
quotes will be materially modified. Then I do hope that before the
paper is placed on record he will remove from it the suggestion that
an estimate is based upon a system of wiring which is prohibited by
this Institution. I should like to call attention to what I consider
1912.] WITH METAL FILAMENT LAMPS : DISCUSSION. 723
a better application for the condenser, namely, for the purpose of Mr.
dimming the light. I have brought out a dimming switch which has RawlmSs-
six or seven contacts in it, and is self-contained with the condenser. It
is practically the same size as the ordinary tumbler switch and block.
As an example of how the dimming switch may be applied, with a
lamp taking 58 watts, in the full-on position there is no condenser in
circuit; the second contact will reduce to 32 watts, and the next 22,15,
10, 5, 2, and finally off. In each of those stages there is an incan-
descence on the filament varying in proportion to the watts, and even
on the last contact there is a perceptible incandescence. It is not a
disfigurement to the fitting. I assure you that in practice it is
scarcely noticeable. I have a sample here which I will show you
afterwards.
There is one other thing I desire to say. I threshed this question
out a long time ago, and in dealing with series lamps I realised
that the amperage of the lamps was all-important. For that purpose
I devised a holder which would necessitate the right amperage
lamp being installed upon each individual system. For instance,
one holder would be a No. 2, and another, say, a No. 3. If, then,
the series system was a No. 3, all that was wanted was a No. 3
lamp giving the candle-power desired, whether it be 1 c.p. or 50 c.p.
I have abandoned all idea of working in series, and so I give this away
for what it is worth. I have, however, not abandoned the idea of
working the dimming arrangement, because I believe that will be the
best use to which the condenser can be put in connection with metal
filament lamps.
Mr. E. A. BAYLES : Representing the manufacturers of the con- Mr. Bayies.
densers on the table, I should like to say that those which are intended
for use on a circuit of 250 volts alternating have been subjected to a
strain of 1,000 volts alternating. In a system of this or any similar
kind it is essential that every portion of the apparatus should be
absolutely reliable, and I emphasise this point because the size of these
condensers has been brought before the notice of the meeting. While
I admit that they can easily be made of smaller dimensions and perhaps
work satisfactorily at the voltage I have mentioned, yet I would not
recommend the use of a condenser on a 250-volt circuit unless it was
capable of withstanding a strain of 1,000 volts alternating.
Mr. W. M. MORDEY : It is interesting to find that condensers for Mr. Mordey.
power purposes are receiving practical attention. Mr. Rawlings'
speech shows there are two sides to this question. I had hoped in the
discussion to-night to have heard something more on the principles of
the proposed system rather than on the details, although I realise that
the success of any system of this sort must depend largely on the
details. The author's paper brings before us for the first time a new
view of the use of condensers in practical work. I look upon it as an
interesting departure, and I cannot help thinking that in time it will
become important. It shows us that electrostatic condensers have now
arrived at such a stage of development that they may be regarded as
 724 ASHTON: CONDENSERS IN SERIES [16th May,
Mr. Mordey. practical engineering tools, ranking with transformers in their practical
qualities. This position has not been generally recognised by electrical
engineers hitherto. It is three years since I read a short paper on
"Some Tests and Uses of Condensers " * to which the author referred,
and I am pleased to find that his tests practically confirm the results I
then gave. Although too much may be made of no-load or magnetising
losses or their equivalent, there is an important difference that is well
brought out by the results given in the paper, between condensers and
transformers. A great difficulty, as we all know, in transformers, is
that whilst it is easy enough to make large ones with a small no-load
loss, it is not practicable to do that with small ones. With condensers,
on the other hand, the no-load losses are very small, even in the
smallest sizes. Taking from Fig. 3 the 8-microfarad condenser, for a
load of 50 watts, we see from a previous figure that the total loss
is less than half a watt. That is very satisfactory, especially in an
apparatus with so large a margin of safety. The proportional loss is
the same for all sizes—a large condenser being simply a collection of
small ones. Not only is the no-load loss small, but there is no other
loss, as the C2R is negligible. The qualities illustrated which seem
especially interesting and important, are the self-regulating pro-
perty for series or parallel working and preventing excessive current
due to a sudden rush of current when switching lamps on, or to other
causes.
Messrs. Messrs. L. PYKE and H. T. BARN'ETT (communicated): The description
Pyke and
Barnett. of the author's experiments reminds us that some twenty-five years ago
we were perhaps the first to use condensers in series with sources of
light in order to enable distribution of current to be effected with ease
where otherwise there would have been difficulty. The sources of light
we used in those days were vacuum tubes, and the condensers were
connected each in series with a tube or series of tubes in order that
a number of such sets might be worked in parallel from one of our
powerful spark coils. These condensers had foil surfaces only a few
inches square, so that their size was not such as to tempt us to make
exact measurements of their characteristics, especially as it was obvious
that in practice the losses involved by their use were negligible; there-
fore we employed them a good deal in the demonstrations of vacuum-
tube lighting in which at that time we were interested. In reference
to condensers of greater size, however, our work of those days in
developing the condenser for spark suppression on coil breaks may be
of interest now, indeed of far more interest now than then, if there is a
scope in practical utility for such apparatus in connection with metal fila-
ment lamps on alternating-current circuits. For our spark coils we needed
compact condensers of great capacity, good insulation, and great dielectric
strength, capable of remaining unchanged in any climate ; and not
being at all satisfied with paraffin wax condensers on these points we
did much tedious and. expensive experimenting, as a result of which
we were enabled to turn out quickly and cheaply a condenser insulated
• Journal 0/ the Institution of Electrical Engineers, vol. 43, p. 618, 1909.
1912.] WITH METAL FILAMENT LAMPS: DISCUSSION. 725
with ozokerit wax : in form a hard solid block and containing no vacua Messrs.
or watery or weak places formed by contraction of liquid wax within BarneU.
an already cooled outer crust. Ozokerit is a hard black mineral wax
(possibly also sold under other names), and the quality that we used
remains solid even at equatorial temperatures, and may be worked
when cold almost like ebonite, especially if impregnating some ab-
sorbent. Like paraffin wax, it is hygroscopic, and contains water when
purchased ; but it may safely be heated to a temperature that will drive
the water off, and, once got rid of, water is not re-absorbed at all readily.
The manufacture of the condensers was covered at the time by Patent
No. 1024 of 1888, but of course this has long since expired and the
method is now open to all to use. The only essentials to observe are
these : (1) That the water in the wax shall all be boiled off ; (2) that
cooling shall proceed from one direction only, in order that there may
be a steady flow of melted wax through the material to make up for the
contraction of that part already in process of hardening; and (3) that
the cooling shall proceed at such a slow rate as to render this move-
ment through the paper of the melted wax easily possible. One of
these condensers, made at that time and measuring 6£ in. x 7& in. x $ in.,
and which has been shifted from one damp cupboard to another during
the past twenty-four years, has recently been re-tested by the Silvertown
Company. Its capacity is found to be 2"8 microfarads, and its insulation
resistance after 1 minute's electrification amounts to o"2 megohms
per microfarad, it withstanding a dielectric stress of 450 volts. Of
course, in considering the capacity the thickness between foils must
be taken into account, and we used no less than three layers of strong
music demy between foil, as it is necessary for spark-coil work that the
dielectric strength should be great, the low resistance found being due
to re-absorption of moisture by the ozokerit during its long immersion
in damp air. Seeing how great a loss is produced by the small hygro-
scopic characteristic of the wax at the end of a considerable period of
time, it would appear to us to be advisable in all cases where the loss is
an all-the-year-round one, as in electric lighting plant comprising con-
densers permanently connected in circuit, that the condensers should
be hermetically sealed. We never tried tinned paper instead of the
usual foil; of course tin was a different price at that time, therefore in
view of present conditions we do not fail to estimate very highly indeed
the Helsby method of making condensers from the cheaper article.
We hope this short note may be useful in still further cheapening and
perhaps in also rendering smaller and more serviceable condensers for
use in the system the author is pioneering.
Mr. ALBERT CAMPBELL {communicated) : There are many matters of Mr-
great practical interest in the author's paper. The great improvement
in paraffin paper condensers due to the new process is very welcome,
and may point the way to further advance. The power factor is of
course a crucial point, and it is on this that I wish to make a few
remarks. The author states that the power factor is by no means
constant for different voltages, and, as Fig. 2 shows, the power factor
 726 ASHTON: CONDENSERS IN SERIES [16th May,
Mr. may increase by 200 per cent, when the voltage is reduced from 240
Campbell.
down to 80 volts. Now it is extremely difficult to accept this result as
correct, unless the condenser is of an entirely abnormal type. It appears
to contradict the results of so many previous experimenters, who
concur in finding these power factors constant with varying voltages
(for constant frequency and sine wave-form). For example, B. Monasch
has shown* that over a range of 2,000 to 5,000 volts the power factors
of condensers of glass, ebonite, impregnated paper, indiarubber, and
other materials, remain extremely constant. To take a case more
similar to that in question, the following table gives some results
which I have obtained with an ordinary small 2-microfarad telephone
condenser of Mansbridge type. The tests were made by the Carey
Foster method, which is without doubt one of the most accurate ways

FIG. A.

of determining condenser losses. The frequency was 100 psj per second,
and the detecting instrument a vibration galvanometer, so that the
results hold for a pure sine-wave voltage.
Volts. Power Factor.
5 0-00834
30 ... ... ... ... OOO84I
IOO ... ... ... ... 0*00839

The power factor here is seen to remain practically constant. With

a little more care in keeping the temperature and frequency constant,
it is probable that the three values would have shown agreement to the
last figure. Similar tests on a Fuller telephone condenser with real
tinfoil showed a power factor of 0-0035. It appears probable that the
variations shown in the author's tests were really only the errors of the
wattmeter method, which requires to be used with the utmost caution
for such low power factors. As this use of the Cary Foster method is
not sufficiently well known, I add a short description :—
* Electrician, vol. 59, p. 416, 1907.
1912.] WITH METAL FILAMENT LAMPS : DISCUSSION. 727
Let— Mr.
Campbell.
A be a source of alternating current,
G a vibration galvanometer or telephone,
M a mutual inductance,
K the condenser under test,
R, P, / and L the respective resistances and self-inductances
of the arms as shown,
S an added resistance,
s the effective internal resistance of the condenser,
u=2ffX frequency.
Then if a balance is obtained by adjusting S and M or S and P we have
K = M/PR (i)
where K and M are in microfarads and microhenries, and—

S + S R P
+ w
From equation (2) we immediately obtain s ; the power factor may be
taken aswKs. Although / is usually very small, the second term in (2)
is not necessarily negligible.
Mr. F. W. HEWITT (communicated) : In discussing the use of the Mr. Hewitt,
series system in small houses the author gives, for a typical case, the
cost of energy as £1 per annum and of lamp renewals as 16s. 6d. As
this may give a wrong impression of the relative cost of energy and
lamps, I wish to correct his figures for the cost of lamp renewals. The
author assumes a house requiring eight lights aggregating 140 watts;
that is, lamps averaging 17^ watts each. For the consumption of
500 watt-hours per day, this represents 28^ lamp-hours daily, or 10,400
lamp-hours per annum. The average life of 1,500 hours assumed by
the author therefore means seven lamp renewals per annum and a cost,
at is. 6d. per lamp, of 10s. 6d., instead of 16s. 6d. In practice the ratio
of the cost of energy to cost of lamps might work out at less than this.
I have noticed a peculiar flickering of the light of a lamp connected
in series with a condenser on a public supply circuit, which flickering
only occurs late at night, and may possibly be due to the type of
plant used for the all-night load. This flickering was not noticeable
on lamps used without the condenser.
Mr. A. W. ASHTON (in reply): With regard to Mr. Maycock's Mr. Ashton
suggestion that with the series system it would be very necessary to
switch off the lamp in any given room before vacating it, this appears
to me to be important only in so far as the lamp left on restricts the
use of other lamps on the same condenser. The danger of such a lamp
failing while alight, and so putting out all the lamps in the same series
connection, appears very remote. Experience has shown that lamps
very seldom fail after being alight for any considerable time, but that
 728 ASHTON : CONDENSERS IN SERIES [16th May,

Mr. Ashton. failures occur either when the lamp is cold or when it is first switched
on. Mr. Maycock's diagrams of switch circuits are very interesting,
and there appears to be room for considerable improvement in the
methods of switching at present generally adopted. The method
of obtaining " dim" lighting by putting parallel lamps in series, or
with a condenser by putting series lamps in parallel, is very inefficient.
The " dim " lamps give each about one-sixteenth of their normal candle-
power, and take about one-third of their normal wattage, i.e., the watts
per candle-power will be about five times the normal. Now with a
condenser it is possible to get a " dim " light by using a 5-watt lamp
run at a little less than its normal efficiency, provided the rated current
of the small lamp is the same as the lamp and condenser with which it
is in series.
Mr. Rawlings raises an important point with regard to the use
of slip socket fittings as the basis of the comparative estimates of
wiring costs. It does not appear clear that slip sockets are intended
to be prohibited by the Institution Wiring Rules, provided continuity
is obtained by some system of earthing grips. In any case I should
say that 99 per cent, of ordinary dwelling houses using electric lighting
are wired with slip sockets without any special method of obtaining con-
tinuity, and that wiring is being carried out on this system by a number of
large supply authorities. With regard to Mr. Rawlings' suggestion that I
should cut out all mention of this system from the paper, I shall be glad
to do so if he can prevail on the members of the Electrical Contractors'
Association to pull the slip socket out of the houses they have wired.
With regard to Mr. Rawlings' criticism of the size of the condensers for
a given capacity, this depends largely on the factor of safety considered
necessary. The condensers in use at present are strained at 1,000 volts
for use on circuits up to 250 volts ; by reducing the straining voltage to
500 it would be possible to reduce the dimensions of the condensers
to about one-quarter of their present size. It is not considered advis-
able to reduce the factor of safety, because it is realised that in order to
extend the use of condensers an absolutely reliable article must be
offered. Another possible method of reducing the dimensions is by
using a material having a higher dielectric constant than paraffin
paper. Unfortunately those substances which have a high dielectric
constant are characterised either by large dielectric losses or by want
of permanence in their mechanical and electrical properties, and are
thus quite unsuitable for general use on alternating-current circuits.
Mr. Rawlings is discreetly silent as to the method adopted to obtain the
small volume per microfarad in the condensers he has exhibited, nor
does he give any particulars of the dielectric strength or losses of the
condensers. I do not think the reduction of the dimensions is so
necessary as he assumes, as the condenser can generally be put in such
a position that its dimensions are relatively unimportant.
The particulars given by Messrs. Pyke and Barnett concerning the
use of ozokerit as a dielectric are very interesting; exhaustive tests
have, however, been made by the Helsby works, not only with ozokerit
1912.] WITH METAL FILAMENT LAMPS : DISCUSSION. 729
but with practically all waxes commercially available, and these experi- Mr. Ashton.
ments tend to show that paraffin wax, when properly treated, is the
most satisfactory dielectric for condensers of this type.
With regard to Mr. Campbell's communicated remarks on the
abnormal variation of power factor with voltage shown in Fig. 2, I
have made further tests on the same condenser, and have not been
able to obtain consistent results at voltages below about 150. The
question is complicated by the fact that if the current resistance is
varied in the electrometer test, the curve of watts loss plotted against
current resistance is not a straight line, so that the result obtained by
extrapolating for zero current resistance becomes rather indefinite.
This is particularly noticeable at the lower voltages, in which the loss
becomes so small. To obviate this difficulty, I have made further tests
at low voltages by using a number of exactly similar condensers in
series. The average of a large number of results obtained in this way
is 0*38 per cent, for 125 volts50 no, and C40 per cent, for 250 volts 50 PO.
I have also confirmed this result by Wien's bridge method using a
vibration galvanometer. The abnormal result shown in Fig. 2 may be
due to extra losses caused by the resistance of the connecting strips.
A certain amount of resistance may have been introduced in series with
the condenser at the lower voltages, due to imperfect connections
which would give disconnections at low but not at higher voltages.
The Carey Foster method described by Mr. Campbell would appear to
be a very satisfactory method of determining the losses in condensers
of the type described, as with Wien's method an air condenser must be
used which for maximum sensibility should be almost equal in capacity
to the condenser tested. This makes it rather difficult to use this
method for measuring the losses in condensers of about 20 microfarads.
In reply to Mr. Hewitt's communicated remarks, the cost of lamp
renewals has been calculated on the assumption of 5 hours use per day
of the maximum demand of 100 watts, thus giving 40 lamp-hours per
day instead of 28, as calculated on the assumptions made by Mr.
Hewitt. With regard to the flickering observed on the lamps at night,
this is probably due to rather violent cyclic variations of the prime
movers.