Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

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Measurement

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/measurement

A survey o ault prediction and location methods in electrical energy

distribution networks
Rahman Dashti a, **, Mohammad Daisy b, Hamid Mirshekali a, Hamid Reza Shaker c, *,
Mahmood Hosseini Aliabadi b
a
Clinical-Laboratory Center o Power System & Protection, Faculty o Intelligent Systems Engineering and Data Science, Persian Gul University, Bushehr 7516913817,
Iran
b
Department o Electrical Engineering, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
c
Center or Energy Inormatics, The Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller Institute, University o Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: One o the main actors that disrupt reliability and stop energy provision is the ault occurrence in distribution
Fault location networks. Thus, accurate and ast ault prediction and location in distribution networks are essential or
Fault prediction increasing reliability, ast restoration, optimal electrical energy consumption, and customer satisaction. This
Distribution network
study reviews and investigates ault prediction and ault location topics. To this end, the existing methods and
Smart grid
Microgrid
views in the context o ault prediction are reviewed rst; then, ault location is investigated. This paper in-
vestigates various methods, their advantages, disadvantages, technical reports, and patents in conventional
distribution networks, smart-grids, and micro-grids. Comparison o this study with other surveys indicates that it
is more comprehensive and despite others covers ault prediction. In addition, it includes an up to date review o
the methods or distance measurement and ault location considering dierent network types (AC/DC), presence
o DG, communication and automation standards, synchronous and unsynchronous measurement, magnetic
measurement, and state estimation-based ault location methods.

1. Introduction predicting the absence or presence o a ault in the power system.

One o the essential tasks o the power system operators is the ault
location. The ault might result in problems like network device dam-
ages, service interruption, the network instability, hence, reducing the
network reliability. Accordingly, nancial losses are imposed on the
customers and electricity companies. The traditional ault location
methods in eeders o distribution networks are not ecient in partic-
ular when the geographical distribution o the network is vast. Covering
a vast area is expensive both in terms o the required manpower and
devices and also takes time. Thereore, predicting and locating ault
automatically and quickly are important in distribution networks.
Automatic ault prediction and location have advantages like saving
time, human resources, enhancing system readiness to maintain power,
modiying the uture schedule, and improving economic actors. These
actors increase customers’ satisaction and improve the reliability
indices o the system [1–3].
Fault prediction is the analysis and mining o historical data or
Pattern recognition methods and machine learning algorithms have
become important or ault prediction in power systems [2].
According to the literature, various methods have been presented to
measure ault distance in transmission networks. However, the pre-
sented methods cannot be used to locate aults in the distribution net-
works due to structural dierences in the distribution network
compared to the transmission network. Thus, impedance methods, di-
erential equations, traveling waves, ault indicators and magnetic sen-
sors, protection coordination and current analysis, state estimator, and
articial intelligence methods have been presented to solve the ault
location problem in distribution networks. However, these methods
have some problems. The main problem o employing impedance
methods in distribution networks is the multiple response problem. The
dierential methods have some disadvantages, such as requiring
connection links with high bandwidth, high sampling rate, ast and ac-
curate data synchronization. The traveling wave methods have a
complicated structure and require a high sampling rate. Using magnetic

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: R.Dashti@pgu.ac.ir (R. Dashti), hrsh@mmmi.sdu.dk (H.R. Shaker).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2021.109947
Received 11 January 2021; Received in revised orm 10 July 2021; Accepted 27 July 2021
Available online 9 August 2021
0263-2241/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

sensors and ault indicators is uneconomical because o the distribution
network’s size. The main disadvantage in the methods o protection
coordination and current analysis is the intererence in the detection o
the main section o the ault. This problem occurs when the ault resis-
tance is high and aects the current domain. As a result, the peror-
mance o the relay is aected. The need or high sampling rates and
accurate line parameters, and also complexity are disadvantages o state
estimation methods. Finally, requiring accurate and large data banks
that should be updated when a small change is applied to the network is
the disadvantage o intelligent methods [3,4].
In this part, presented studies in the context o ault location and
prediction in distribution networks, are compared and investigated.
Table 1 shows the results o this comparison. In this table, comparisons
are made based on the investigated methods, network type, smart grid,
state estimation, presence o DG, ault type, ault section estimation,
ault distance determination, ault prediction, load estimation, line pa-
rameters estimation, line model, unbalanced system, load model,
communication and automation standards, magnetic measurement, and
synchronous/unsynchronous measurement. To the best o our knowl-
edge, this review paper is the only work which reviews the state-o-art in
ault prediction. In addition, it also gives an up to date comprehensive
overview o dierent ault location methods.
The rest o the paper is organized as ollows. In Section 2, rstly,
various aults are introduced or power systems. Secondly, unsystematic
and systematic ault prediction using various methods, including SVM,
neural network, etc. are analyzed. Fault distance determination and
ault section estimation methods in the conventional distribution
network, smart grid, and microgrid are evaluated, and operations, ad-
vances, pros, and cons o the proposed methods are studied in Section 3.
The uture research is presented in Section 4. Finally, the paper is
concluded in Section 5.
2. Fault prediction methods in electrical distribution networks
Faults may occur in distribution networks due to lightning, insu-
lation deect, sabotage, tree branches, and animals, which result in a
short circuit. Many aults are naturally transient, which are resolved
without losing supply or with minimum interruption time. Persistent
aults result in longer interruptions, and they are resolved ater ault
detection and location [1].
Faults in three-phase AC systems are classied as asymmetric and
symmetric aults based on the types shown in Fig. 1. Examples o
asymmetric aults include a single phase to ground short circuit ault
(LG), two-phase short circuit ault (LL), and two-phase short circuit ault
to ground (LL-G). On the other hand, symmetric aults also include
three-phase aults such as three-phase short circuit (LLL) and three-
phase short circuit to ground (LLL-G).
There are two types o aults in DC networks: pole to pole (PP) and
pole to the ground (PG). PP aults occur when the conductors are con-
nected directly. Thus, the resistance o PP aults is low, and it is known
that low-resistance aults are more dangerous. PG aults occur when one
o the conductors or both are connected to the ground. Thus, the resis-
tance o PG aults is high [14].
Faults occur in energy systems and cause hazardous transients,
equipment ailure, and power outages that decrease system reliability
and result in customer dissatisaction. To move rom the reactive and
inecient maintenance approaches to a more proactive maintenance
strategy, ault prediction plays an important role. I we detect early
symptoms beore a ault maniest, we can predict ault in the energy
systems components, and start the remedial actions early in the process
and prevent aults and ailure. For example, we can change or repair the
components which show symptoms (a cable with a spark in it, a trans-
ormer with partial discharge, etc.). These devices malunction in such a
way that in case o any abrupt transitions (thunder, overload, etc.), they
may ail and cause the whole system to shut down. The ability to care or
systems and components in a healthy condition by predicting what
happens in the uture is known as predictive maintenance [15,16]. In
electrical distribution networks, aults can be predicted using machine
learning tools and model training designed by employing real and/or
simulated data. This approach allows the system to prevent the ault
rom happening by predicting it and increasing the system’s reliability.
To this end, the real data o the studied system must be categorized.
These data may include the recorded weather condition rom weather
stations and the ailure records with geographical coordinates or even
periodic recorded voltage and current o the energy system component.
Thereore, two general cases may exist based on the data type: (i) pre-
dicting ault in an electrical network using weather condition and/or
characteristic data o systems components, (ii) predicting ault in the
equipment o the network such as transormer, cable, etc. using periodic
recorded voltage and current, load value, etc. In the second case, there is
an assumption o having labeled data. On the other hand, ault can be
divided into two general cases o systematic and unsystematic aults.

Table 1
Comparison o this paper and others presented in the context o ault location and prediction.
Reerences [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] This paper

DG – √ √ √ √ – √ √ √ √
Smart grid – Automation √ √ √ Automation – √ √ √
Fault Prediction – – – – – – – – – √
Fault Distance √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Section Estimation √ √ √ √ – √ √ – – √
Network Type AC AC AC DC AC AC AC DC DC AC-DC
Fault Type All All All PP-PG All All All PP-PG PP-PG All
Methods ML IB-TW-ML IB-TW-ML TW-ML TW IB-TW-ML TW-IB-ML IB-TW-SCS TW-IB-SCS All
State Estimation – – – – – – – – – √
Load estimation – √ – – – – – – – √
Line Parameters estimation – – – – √ √ – – √ √
Line Model √ √ – – – – √ – √ √
Unbalanced system – √ √ – – – √ – – √
Load Model – √ – – – – √ – – √
Communication and automation standards – √ – √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Magnetic measurement – – – – – √ – – – √
Synchronous and Unsynchronous measurement √ √ √ √ √ – √ √ √ √

TW = Traveling Waves.
IB = Impedance Base.
ML = Machine Learning (Pattern Recognition, Articial Intelligent, Knowledge-based).
PP = Pole-to-Pole.
PG = Pole-to-ground.
SCS = Sensors and Communication Systems.

2
R. Dashti et al.
Fig. 1. Faults in power system [7].
The systematic aults are those that can be predicted using recorded data
o the network by ollowing the right patterns. Faults in transormers,
power insulators, transmission cables belong to the systematic aults
group. Unsystematic aults are related to weather conditions and human
abruptions that cannot be predicted. Lightning, external object inter-
erence, and human-made aults are common examples o unsystematic
aults. The ault prediction could be made by training a prediction model
using sample data. It is run continuously on voltage and current data and
detects the disturbances. According to dened indices, the disturbances
which can cause a ault in the uture are distinguished and introduces as
a priority item or predictive maintenance [17–19]. In the past decades,
various articial intelligence methods have been investigated or ault
prediction in power systems. For example, expert systems [20,21],
Bayesian Network [22,23], rough sets [24,25], Petri nets [26,27], neural
networks [28,29] etc., can be mentioned. Besides, various studies have
ocused on relay protection and perormance o electrical devices
[30,31]. System ailure detection is to be optimized through testing
ailure assumptions. However, these processes have problems dealing
with power system aults. Incorrect operation o relay protection and
electrical elements has adverse impacts on the results. Studies on data-
based methods have become more common in recent years. Recently,
articial neural networks (ANNs) have been widely used or ault pre-
diction. The ault prediction model accuracy has been improved using an
optimized ANN based on a multi-level genetic algorithm [32]. Recurrent
neural networks (RNNs) can extract the hidden correlation o the big
data. Also, they have shown sucient capability to operate during aults
[33]. However, the main RNN suers rom the vanishing gradient
problem, because the understanding o the next nodes rom the previous
nodes decreases. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks outper-
orm conventional RNNs in terms o eature extraction in a longer time
interval. For example, the authors o [34] have presented a ault
detection and prediction method based on the LSTM network. This
method perorms well in complex operations, hybrid aults, and strong
noises. In general, LSTM is an improved RNN that is more compatible
with long time series. However, studies on ault prediction presented
based on data using LSTM are still in their inancy. Classication is one
o the main steps o the ault prediction process. SVM is a discriminant
classier dened by a hyperplane [35]. Data mining based ault pre-
diction method has been presented or distribution networks [36]. First,
the eective actors (operational actors, device-related actors, and
external actors) are analyzed. Next, the resources are investigated, and
the obtained data are pre-processed. Ater that, the Relie F algorithm is
used as a eature selection algorithm to eectively select the model input
vectors. Then, the aults are classied based on ault requency and ault
range. Finally, SVM is used with PSO to construct the prediction model.
In the technical report IEEE PES-TR73 [37], the eects o dierent
equipment ailures on the waveorm and RMS graphs o voltage and
current. This report uses dierent research works and voltage and cur-
rent data extracted rom the installed CTs and PTs at the beginning o the
eeder. This inormation can be used to predict various aults. This
reerence has classied various equipment ailures as ollows:
3
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
• Cables (Incipient Failures o Cables, Failures o Cable Joints, Failure
o Cable Terminations, Experimental Results on Cable Insulation
Failure)
• Overhead Lines
• Transormers (Failures o Tap Changers, Failures o Transormer
Bushing)
• Switches (Failure o Line Switch, Arcing o Capacitor Bank Switch,
Restrikes during Capacitor De-energization)
• Capacitors (Capacitor Failure Caused by Misoperation o Controller,
Unsuccessul Synchronous Closing Control, Capacitor Energization
Triggering Resonance, Other types o ailures in a capacitor bank)
• Lightning and Surge Arresters (Failure o Lightning Arresters, Failure
o Surge Arresters)
• Potential Transormers (No corresponding response on the current
channels, Only phase-A voltage is aected, Perturbation at voltage
peak, Notching at zero crossings)
In the ollowing two types o unsystematic and systematic ault
prediction are reviewed.
2.1. Unsystematic ault prediction
In the technical report by EPRI1 [38], the power quality disturbances
have been used in distribution lines to present a number o criteria using
which it has perormed statistical and waveorm analyses on transient
aults such as lightning strike, and collision o animals and trees. For
example, Fig. 2 shows the waveorms o three-phase voltage and current
due to a lightning strike. This waveorm has been obtained rom power
quality monitors in a 161-kW system.
In [39], the ailure data obtained rom a distribution network in
Beijing is used or short-term prediction o ailure. This data is shown in
Fig. 3. First, the eect o weather conditions on the number o aults is
studied to develop an SVM classier. The actor with the maximum
impact on ault occurrence is specied, and the actor with minimum
impact is eliminated through analysis. Then, the classication predic-
tion model o the distribution network (DN) short-term ailure requency
(weekly) is developed to predict the number o DN aults. The accuracy
o this method is reported as 70%.
In [40], the eect o various weather conditions on device ailure
(underground) in MV networks has been studied. Also, a prediction
model has been presented using the basket analysis. First, the correlation
between weather and ailure is evaluated statistically. Then, several key
weather actors o one day are classied to “high, medium and low” or
big data analysis and develop a prediction model. This model predicts
risk in various areas in the day ahead. In [41], a ault risk prevention
model in DN based on the hidden Markov chain has been presented. This
method combines various risk development conditions in a DN, like ault
prevention, event, and control, to develop a state machine model. The
1
Electric Power Research Institute
R. Dashti et al.
Fig. 2. Three-phase voltage and current waveorms o a lightning event captured at a 161-kV system [38].
Fig. 3. Failure causes in a DN in Beijing [39].
state sequence o the ault events can be observed by the hidden Markov
chain, and the hidden ault cause is excavated. The accuracy o this
method is 82.8%.
2.2. Systematic ault prediction
2.2.1. Line trip ault prediction
One o the most common aults that occur in power systems is the
line trip ault, which has been studied in [42,43]. I the recloser does not
operate successully, an outage occurs, and nancial losses are imposed.
In [2], a method has been presented or line trip ault prediction in
power systems using the LSTM network to extract time eatures and SVM
or classication. Current, voltage and active power measurements
beore trip aults or during normal operation are selected as input. The
parameters can be learned ofine and updated online. The accuracy o
dierent methods (BPNN2, SAEs3, RNNs, SVM, and LSTM) in this area
are shown in Fig. 4 [2].
In [44], a probabilistic sequence classication method is presented to
predict early aults in distribution grids. In this work long-short term
memory (LSTM) neural network is used. Typically, the machine learning
approach and historical electrical network data are used to predict the
risk o ailure or the distribution network ingredients. This will give us
the opportunity o replacing the improper equipment o the network
2
Back Propagation Neural Networks
3
Stacked Autoencoders
4
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
which is more likely to ail in the next severe network conditions (bad
weather, lightning, og, part o the network, etc.). Many works have
been published which have presented a model to predict early aults
using high-resolution data [45–47]. Despite recent works, in [44] low-
resolution data are applied or early aults in the network. The data
are gathered rom pre-existing data collection devices and ed to LSTM
neural network model. This signicantly reduces the cost o predictive
maintenance. In this work, a model is presented that can predict the
state o dierent areas o the network or providing a general early
warning system. This system can detect and predict the ault in the
network beore it happens which gives an opportunity to prevent the
network rom shutting down. An important point in the ault prediction
problem is the predictability o ault. For instance, network aults such
as object alling on the cable and human disruptions cannot be predicted
using data-driven methods because these do not cause any specic
signature in the network signals beore their happening. Faults that
occur due to aging and corrosion in the network which aect the
network parameters such as voltage, current and requency can be
predicted. In the ollowing LSTM neural network method; which is a
variant o recurrent neural networks (RNNs); as a leading advanced
approach or modeling sequential data is summarized.
• LSTM neural network
LSTM is an articial recurrent neural network which is used in the
deep learning eld. In spite o conventional neural networks, it contains
eedback connections in its structure. This eature allows it to be used in
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 4. Accuracy o various trip ault prediction methods [2].

sequential processes such as ault prediction in the distribution network

using time series data. A simple computational node o an RNN is • Modelling
depicted in Fig. 5. It contains input, output, computation block and in-
ternal states. A eedback structure o its states exists in RNN. The LSTM In order to predict the ault in the underground cables in the distri-
module consists o our gates: orget, input, update and output gates and bution network, low-resolution data o voltage, current and power have
a cell state. The mathematical description o orget gate’s output is as been used. Due to the reduced accuracy o ault prediction, the measured
ollows: raw data cannot be used and instead the ault prediction is done by
  dening state goals or each parameter. State goals or voltage (V g ),
ft = σ Wf .[ht1 , xt ] + bf (1)
current (Ig ) and power (Pg ) are dened as ollows:
It is important to decide what inormation is going to set in cell state ⎧ ⃒ ⃒
⎪ ⃒ ⃒
ct . The update and input gates which have the output values in the ⎪
⎪ ⃒V  V ⃒
⎪
⎪ 1  , = Vmin
if Vmax ∕
boundary o [ 1 1 ] and [ 0 1 ] are described as ollows: ⎨ Vmax  Vmin
Vg = ⃒ ⃒ (7)
it = σ (Wi .[ht1 , xt ] + bi ) (2) ⎪
⎪ ⃒ ⃒
⎪
⎪ ⃒V  V ⃒
⎪
⎩ 0, if 1  <0
Vmax  Vmin
ut = tanh(Wu .[ht1 , xt ] + bu ) (3)
⎧ ⃒ ⃒
To move the only relevant part to the next module the ollowing ⎪ ⃒ ⃒
⎪
⎪ ⃒I  I ⃒
equation is needed: ⎪
⎪ 1  , = Imin
if Imax ∕
⎨ Imax  Imin
Ig = ⃒ ⃒ (8)
ot = σ (Wo .[ht1 , xt ] + bo ) (4) ⎪
⎪ ⃒ ⃒
⎪
⎪ ⃒I  I ⃒
⎪
⎩ 0, if 1  <0
The two hidden states can be calculated rom the two ollowing Imax  Imin
equations:
⎧ ⃒ ⃒
⎪ ⃒ ⃒
ct = ct1 ⊙ ft + it ⊙ ut (5) ⎪
⎪ ⃒P  P⃒
⎪
⎪ 1  , = Pmin
if Pmax ∕
⎨ P P
max min
ht = ot ⊙ tanh(ct ) (6) Pg = ⃒ ⃒ (9)
⎪
⎪ ⃒ ⃒
⎪
⎪ ⃒P  P⃒
⎪
⎩ 0, if 1  <0
Pmax  Pmin
One o the most common diculties with predicting is the lack o
real data. Hence, in [44], virtual data is generated using Gaussian dis-
tribution. The Gaussian distribution with the mean value μ and variance
σ 2 is as ollows:
1
P(x) = √̅̅̅̅̅e(xμ) /2σ
2 2
(10)
σ 2π
The generated sampling data are dierent rom the real one as
depicted in Fig. 6.
The results o this work show that it has good accuracy to predict
ault in the network. The accuracy percentage o the model or the test
data set or three networks’ operation modes o normal, early warning,
and critical are 0.932, 0.842, and 0.921.

Fig. 5. RNN computational node [44].

5
R. Dashti et al.
Fig. 6. Comparison o generated data and the real data or a specic aulty
situation [44].
2.2.2. Voltage sag ault prediction
Voltage sag is perturbations o the voltage supply at any point o the
power system, which reduces the amplitude o the voltage amplitude
and voltage restoration ater a short time. Voltage sag is the result o
ault occurrence or sudden load increase in the power system. Their
characteristics depend on ault location, ault characteristics, and pro-
tection systems. Since the aults occur at dierent times and locations,
voltage sag has a probabilistic nature [48]. In [49,50], the ault position
method and Monte-Carlo simulation method have been compared. It is
concluded that both methods can generate similar results. One disad-
vantage o the ault position method is that ault resistance is usually
considered to be constant and equal to zero. Thereore, low accuracy
results are obtained or voltage sag in ground aults. In [51] the ault
position method has been used to determine an area o the power system
in which aults result in voltage sag and aect the perormance o the
sensitive devices connected to the network. This concept has been used
to introduce “predicted voltage sag abundance,” corresponding to the
occurrence probability o these aults in the area o vulnerability. In
[52,53], Monte-Carlo simulation employs normal probability distribu-
tion unctions to determine ault resistance. In [54], voltage sags are
considered to be stochastic. Thereore, the results are obtained as
probability distributions o occurrence that can be used to extract mean
values. Finally, the voltage sags are analyzed statistically to predict the
outage o devices.
2.2.3. Arc and high impedance ault prediction
High energy arc aults in MV boards might interrupt processes and
threaten personnel and devices. High energy arcs are mainly caused by
bad connections and insulation degradation [55]. The energy o such
aults depends on actors, including current, voltage amplitude, and arc
duration [56]. To reduce the occurrence o arcs as a result o accidental
contacts, training sta, insulated buses, and improved maintenance can
be used to prevent such aults [57]. Studies at the end o 80 s showed
that open-ended coaxial type connector is used as a sensor to measure
permittivity or dielectric o biologic material [58,59]. These sensors are
similar to D-dot sensors in terms o operation principle and structure. In
[60], D-dot sensors have been presented to measure high voltages and
ast-ront, including the waste voltage o surge arresters. In [61], a di-
erential electric eld sensor (D-Dot) has been presented to monitor the
electric board with air insulation online. Also, Discrete Wavelet Trans-
orm (DWT) has been used or noise depletion o partial discharge sig-
nals and transient states created as a result o an electric arc. DWT
analyzes multi-resolution signals in time and requency domains. The
comparison between the primary signal and the noise depleted signals in
time and requency domains shows the superiority o DWT compared to
innite impulse response (IIR) in noise depletion o PDs and low power
arcing signals.
In [62], a device or detecting the arc ault on a power line carrying a
load current has been presented. This device monitors and analyzes the
fowing load current through the line. The analyzed energy values have
6
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
been compared to several threshold values. To determine the occurrence
o the arc ault on the power line, a number o energy values greater than
the threshold have been used. In another patent, a system or arc ault
detection in electrical power systems has been presented [63]. This
system consists o a data collection unit and a computing device. This
computing device has been programmed to: i) receive the rst data rom
the data collection unit representing the transient behavior o the rst
signal, ii) eliminate the normal load component rom the rst data, and
iii) determine whether an arc event is present on the electrical power
system.
In [64], some problems have been evaluated such as evolving aults,
DC decay, transients, inrush, clipping, and intermittent aults, and has
analyzed various waveorms. Then, based on the phase currents and
currents in symmetrical components, it has presented a criterion or
detecting the ault type or system health. In another part o this report,
the eects o the arc voltage on various waveorms have been evaluated,
and the arc ault has been detected using the arc voltage estimation
method.
A practical method has been presented in [65] or detecting high-
impedance aults in distribution eeders. This system studies the be-
haviors o the electrical variable and high-impedance aults using
several algorithms and input data in an on-line manner. Then, the
probability o the occurrence o a ault in the system is computed using a
smart processing system.
A patent in 1996, an on-line expert detection system has been pre-
sented or detecting high-impedance aults in a distribution network
connected to an AC power source [66]. This system consists o an
apparatus that detects high-impedance aults based on an expert’s
knowledge o the behavior o this type o ault and the eciency o
various ault detection techniques.
2.2.4. Overvoltage ault prediction
In [67], the prediction o temporary overvoltage in the radial MV
distribution network generated ater a single phase to ground ault has
been studied. This reerence shows that neutral voltage or MV distri-
bution networks might exceed 1pu (a maximum o 2.5p.u.) at low
resistance aults and crucial parts o overhead lines. Transient over-
√̅̅̅
voltage on healthy phases might be larger than 3 p.u. (a maximum o
3.5p.u.). Fault currents are also aected and reach two times the values
calculated by simple methods, i.e., ignoring the series impedances. In
[67], analytical ormulas have been presented or predicting the
maximum overvoltage, ault currents, and critical ault distances. Also,
they are validated using ATP-EMTP simulations.
2.2.5. Transient stability ault prediction
One o the eective methods o reducing global outages or cascading
ailures is the accurate and ast prediction o transient stability. Authors
o [68] have presented a transient stability prediction method by
combining trajectory tting (TF) and extreme learning machine (ELM).
An ELM-based method has been utilized in the central station to reduce
the time interval o the prediction process. While the TF-based method
has been used in the local station to ensure accuracy. Besides, data
corruption has been considered to ensure that the proposed algorithm is
robust. Fig. 7 compares this method’s perormance with prediction
methods based on TF and ELM and the method based on SVM. The re-
sults indicate the superiority o the hybrid method [68].
2.2.6. Insulator ault prediction
Predicting ault in the network components is vital because it may
cause a ault in the whole electric network. In [69], a new wavelet group
method o data handling (GMDH) is presented to predict ault in power
insulators. The insulators’ surace may contain contamination so stuck
that rain could not naturally remove the contamination and cause short
circuits in severe weather conditions. Thereore, there could be a way to
predict the probable time that a ault may happen. An ultrasound is a
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 7. Comparing the transient prediction methods in terms o accuracy and response time [68].

device that generates an audible time series-based noise that is applied number o unction components. The fowchart o ault identication
to detect possible ailures. The wavelet transorm has been used to and orecasting is shown in Fig. 8. This method allows us to prevent a
extract all sampled data that is generated by ultrasound devices. These ault in insulators beore it happens and increase network reliability.
eatures are ed to GMDH or time-series prediction and/or long-short
term orecasting. For each specic set o inputs (x i , i = 1, ⋯, n), the 2.2.7. Transormers ault prediction
predicted output ( ̂
y ) is determined using (11): Transormers are one o the most important pieces o equipment in
the distribution network which have the task o changing voltage level.
∑
m
y (x1 , ⋯, xn ) = a0 +
̂ ai fi (11) By predicting aults in transormers, power outages in microgrids and
i=1 distribution networks can be prevented. Also, nancial losses due to
power outages and complete ailure o transormers can be minimized
where i , ai , and m are elementary unctions, coecients, and the by timely detection o a ault in this equipment. In a report rom EPRI, a

Model Feature
Laboratory
Signals Recorded Configuration
Analysis Extraction
Assessment

YES

NO Calibrated Definition of Data Wavelet

Equipament? for Training and Transformation
Testing

Laboratory Definition of
Number of Wavelet
Analysis Working? NO
Neurons
YES YES

NO Definition of Statistic Analysis

Possible Fault? Number of and Benchmark
Layers Comparison

Inspection on the Final

Electric Power Best Setting
NO Found? YES Consideration
System

Initialization Optimal Setting Main Process

Selection
Fig. 8. Flowchart o insulator ault identication and orecast analysis [69].

7
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

large number o actual ault data, incipient aults, and operational

problems with power system apparatus (such as wind-induced
conductor slap, ailing external transormer bushing, internal ailure
o transormer primary bushing, etc.) have been collected to predict and
prevent the occurrence o aults. This project has been carried out by 14
companies on about 60 eeders rom 14 substations [70]. For instance,
one part o this project relates to the ault o the internal winding o the
transormer. All the voltage and current data have been recorded one
week beore the occurrence o this ault. These data showed that 5
transient aults have occurred during one week, ultimately leading to a
power outage. Fig. 9 shows one o the rst measurements. In Fig. 9(a),
the measured load current o the substation was about 105 RMS am-
peres, and ailure precursors caused intermittent ve- to ten-ampere
increases. The waveorms corresponding to the same episode are
shown in Fig. 9(b).
In summary, these data can be employed to predict aults as ollows:

• Announcement o a developing problem: no other apparatus shows

the problem and no complaint has been made by the customer.
• Locating the problem: locating the ault can be dicult even i a ault
is intermittent, not causing a persistent outage, and even i the eeder
is long and geographically dispersed.
• No complaint rom customers: This incipient ailure is detected and
repaired without any event causing the customer to complain at any
time.
• Prevention o persistent outage: These requent aults cause Fig. 10. The fowchart o Gaussian mixture model [73].
momentary disruptions in an interval but do not cause a persistent
outage. Frequent aults do not resolve on their own. They can be
applied or detecting the ault in the busbar because o its fexibility in
hidden or a considerable amount o time. However, they ultimately
nature regardless o data uncertainty or incompletion. A brie explana-
occur and increase damaging eects and cause a permanent outage.
tion o a simplied Bayesian network with Noisy-And and Noisy-Or
nodes, which are the basis o the element-oriented models or aulty
Gaussian mixture models are widely used or estimation, clustering,
estimation sections in power system networks, is as ollows:
and extracting eatures [71,72]. In [73], a method is presented to predict
aults in transormers based on the hidden markov model o dissolved
• Noisy-Or model:
gases analysis. Gaussian mixture model is used to extract the eature
rom the ault data. Transormer operating modes are divided into three
The belie degree o Nj or the sets o conditional Ni nodes that have
types: healthy, sub-healthy and aulty. The fowchart o the algorithm
associated inhibitory infuence probability to N j o qij each is obtained as
or updating the model parameters is shown in Fig. 10.
ollows:
In this work, by observing and predicting the trend o the charac-
  ∏ 
teristic o gases CH4/H2(=R1), C2H2/C2H4(=R2) and C2H4/C2H6(=R3) Bel Nj = True = 1  1  cij Bel(Ni = True) (12)
ault can be classied and predicted. For instance, or any value o R 1 i
and R2 < 0.1 and R3 < 0.1, the operation o the transormer is normal.
For the case o R1 > 0.1, R2 < 0.1 and R3 > 3, the thermal problem has where cij = 1 qij cij show the degree to which Ni causes Nj . A Noisy-Or
happened and the temperature o transormers’ oil has been exceeded o node operates like a conventional logic connector OR with a simple
700 degrees o centigrade. dierence o not implying necessarily true i only one o its conditions is
true.
2.2.8. Line and busbar ault diagnosis
In [22], ault diagnosis in electrical power systems has been per- • Noisy-And model:
ormed based on the Bayesian network’s approach. The tree-model is

(a) RMS (b) Waveforms

Fig. 9. Precursors one week beore transormer ailure [70]

8
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

The belie degree o Nj or the sets o conditional Ni nodes which conjugates (ϕ(t), ψ (t)).
have associated causing infuence probability to N j o qij each is obtained
∑ J ∑
∑
using (13): f (t) = cJ,k ϕJ,k (t) + dj,k ψ j,k (t) (15)
  ∏  k j=1 k
Bel Nj = True = 1  1  cij Bel(Ni = True) (13)
i ∑
cJ,k = f (t)ϕJ,k (t) (16)
k
where cij = 1 qij cij show the degree to which Ni reuse Nj . A Noisy-And
node operates like a conventional logic connector AND with a simple ∑
dj,k = f (t)ψ J,k (t) (17)
dierence o not implying necessarily alse i only one o its conditions is k
alse.
As can be seen rom Fig. 13, by passing a signal x[n], which is the
• The model or line ault: sampled version o continuous signal (t), through two high and low
pass lters, wavelet and scaling coecients, which represent the high
The ault in line L2 is depicted in Fig. 11. The circuit breaker and and low-requency component o the input signal, are computed to
busbar are represented by CBx and Bx , respectively. With the assumption extracting the eature o recorded aulty current or detection and
o ault in L2 , the relays located at the beginning and end o each section classication purpose. The criteria or selecting the mother wavelet
could operate individually. These relays in the networks can be divided (decomposition scales and wavelet unction) should be chosen properly
into three kinds o main protection relay without time delay consist o because these parameters impact the calculation burden and precision o
pilot, rst zone distance, and zero-sequence current protection, primary the ault detection method.
and secondary backup protection relay. The operation o these relays in
the power system, their coordination with each other, and the circuit • Feature extraction and classication:
breakers hold the ault diagnosis model or ault in the section (B 2 B3 )
as depicted in Fig. 12. The output o wavelet multiresolution analysis (approximation and
The model’s parameters are determined by a learning method like detailed coecients) cannot be used directly as the classier input
the error backpropagation algorithm, which is used to train a multilayer because o the need or reducing eature dimension. Besides, the existing
eedorward neural network. This method needs the power system’s eature extraction methods, such as standard deviation, RMS, mean, and
topology data, alarming and status data o all isolators, and circuit Shannon-entropy, which are among statistical approaches, are not
breakers rom power plants and substations. robust against noise. Thereore, an energy-based method, namely Par-
seval’s theorem, which is robust against noise, could be a key solution.
2.2.9. Short circuit and grounded ault classifcation and diagnosis The energy o the ault signal can be written in terms o the orthonormal
In [28], eature extraction, detection, and classication o ault in the basis o wavelet and scaling unctions which is shown in (18)
DC network have been done by applying wavelet transorm multi- ∑
qJ qj
∑ ⃒ ⃒2
resolution analysis methods with articial neural networks. Parseval’s Ec = |cJi |2 , Edj = ⃒dji ⃒ (18)
J

theorem is used or pre-processing and eature extraction steps because i=1 i=1

o its robustness against collected signals’ noise. In the ollowing, a The vector or eature extraction can be selected rom the dierence
glimpse o wavelet-based multiresolution analysis, eature extraction, o energy held in the wavelet coecients at each scale between normal
and articial neural network application or the case o ault detection signal and aulted signal. The mathematical representation o eature
and classication in DC networks is presented: vector x is as ollows:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
• Wavelet theory: x1 EFault.d1 ENormal.d1
⎢⋮⎥ ⎢ ⋮ ⎥ ⎢ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ xj ⎥ = ⎢ EFault.dj ⎥  ⎢ ENormal.dj ⎥ (19)
Wavelet transorm is used or analyzing the high-requency compo- ⎣⋮⎦ ⎣ ⋮ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⋮
nent (transient incident) o recorded power signals considering various xJ EFault.d1 ENormal.d1
scales o its coecients. Continuous-time wavelet transorm W(a, b)
with scale and transient actor a and b o a signal x(t) or a given mother Features o grounded and short circuit ault in DC and AC bus have
wavelet ψ (t), is as ollows: been extracted by applying a wavelet transorm-based multiresolution
analysis algorithm with db10 and Parseval’s theory. The extracted
∫∞  
1 tb eature vectors are the input o an articial neural network (ANN) or
W(a, b) = √̅̅̅ x(t)ψ dt (14)
a ∞ a training and testing the determined model’s perormance. The structure
o the selected neural network is depicted in Fig. 14.
Note that the ormula, as mentioned above, usually is rewritten in its
To demonstrate the operation o the system and to gure out i it is
discrete orm or engineering problems. The multiresolution analysis is a
normal or aulty, two binary output is considered with the ollowing
ramework to represent the dierent scales and hierarchical orm o a
description:
signal. The wavelet transorm-based multiresolution analysis has the
task o illustrating a signal (t) with respect to wavelet and scale unc-
tions. The ollowing ormulations are the representation o a signal (t)
regarding the scaling ϕ(t) and wavelet ψ (t) unctions, and their

Fig. 11. The schematic diagram or a line ault [22].

9
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 12. A tree model or diagnosing aulty section o distribution line [22].

Fig. 13. The structure o wavelet transorm with high and low pass lters [28].

2.3. A combined results and discussion or ault prediction methods in

electrical distribution networks

In this part, many state-o-the-art methods or ault prediction in

distribution networks have been reviewed. It can be seen that as the
main tool or ault prediction, machine learning methods have been
employed to predict the ault in the distribution network. The most
widely used methods or predicting aults are expert systems, Bayesian
neural networks, LSTM networks, and SVM. Since this eld is still in its
inancy and there are not many reported results and reerences, it is not
possible to nd a comprehensive method that can be used to predict the
types o aults. In addition, because each method is specically used to
predict one type o ault, it is not possible to examine the disadvantages
and advantages o these methods. However, the authors tried to show
the accuracy and brie comparison between dierent methods using
Fig. 14. Structure o a three-layer eedorward neural network [28]. Fig. 4 and Fig. 7. Our investigation clearly shows that ault prediction
although oers great benets, needs urther research to be employed
⎧
⎪ C1 = 0, C2 = 0→Normal Operation widely in the electrical industry.
⎪
⎨
C1 = 1, C2 = 0→Short Circuit Fault on DC bus
(20)
⎪
⎪ C = 0, C2 = 0→Short Circuit Fault on AC side 3. Fault location in electrical distribution networks
⎩ 1
C1 = 1, C2 = 1→Ground Fault in Zone Three
Electrical distribution networks have various sections and branches.
Fault classication in distribution networks equipped with distrib-
Thus, ault location not only has to determine ault distance like trans-
uted generations has been done using a convolutional neural network
mission line but also must locate the aulty section. The distribution
(CNN) [74]. The raw sampled data o current and voltage are used as an
systems dier rom the transmission systems regarding the ollowing
input o CNN, which has several advantages o no need or pre-
[3,4]:
processing steps, converting input data to a grayscale image, and
eature engineering step. This method can classiy all types o ault and
• Presence o load branches on the main eeder and outside the main
even no-ault conditions as an output o the model. The block diagram o
eeder.
ault classication using CNN is shown in Fig. 15.

10
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 15. Block diagram o the CNN-based ault classication [74].

• Heterogeneity o the eeder due to the presence o the underground ault location part is just accurate or straight lines without laterals and
cables and overhead lines with dierent characteristics. branches and needs special load conditions. Some ault indicators are
• Imbalance because the lines are not displaced. installed at eeders. When a ault occurs at downstream o these in-
• Imbalance due to the presence o single-phase, two-phase and three- dicators, they turn on the fasher and send a message or the operator to
phase loads. know that ault has happened. Furthermore, other methods that use an
• Measuring current and voltage values at the beginning o the eeder. alarming ampere meter, automatic oscilloscope, have been presented;
but these methods have not been widely used because they require
In this part, determining ault distance, identiying the aulty section, primary operation and skills in addition to being time-consuming and
and the relevant studies in electrical distribution networks are investi- inaccurate. Thereore, these practical methods cannot solve the ault
gated. In addition, ault location methods in the presence o DG, smart location in power networks. The methods which are recently presented
grid and microgrid are reviewed separately. or ault location in power systems measure voltage and current on one
side or both sides o the line to calculate the ault distance. These
methods are classied into the ollowing three classes [3,75]:
3.1. Fault distance determination in electrical distribution networks
• Methods based on the main requency o the voltage and current
The aulty lines should be detected, repaired, and connected again in
signals (impedance methods)
minimum time to improve the restore the electricity supply. A lot o
• Methods based on dierential equations.
methods have been presented to determine ault distance in the distri-
• Methods based on transient waves and high-requency components
bution networks. In the past, the power networks were protected by
o the voltage and current (Traveling waves).
mechanical relays, and accessing voltage and current data was not
possible. Thereore, ault location was done through operators and line-
by-line patrolling. Furthermore, in this way, the use o expert knowledge
3.1.1. Determining ault distance using impedance based method [3,75,76]
in locating aults in eeders is very important and suitable. In this
The rst group includes the methods that employ main requency
traditional practical method, the line was rst divided into two or more
components (50 or 60 Hz) o the voltages and currents, line parameters,
parts by opening the installed power switches along the PDS line. Then,
and load inormation to estimate the ault location. Thus, the impedance
they do switching rom the beginning o the eeder to detect the ault
seen rom the beginning o the eeder is calculated, and then the ault
part. So, i it is interrupted it means that the ault is in the section be-
distance is estimated using a heuristic algorithm. These methods are
tween the substation and the rst opened power switch else the ault is
cheap and simple; but, they have to deal with the multiple response
in other sections ater the rst power switch. This process should
problem (in DNs).
continue till the ault section is ound by the maintenance group. This
action was repeated in all eeders to determine the point and location o
• Determining the Equivalent Load at the End o each Section
the ault. It should be noted that in places where the line did not have
power switches in the middle o the line, the operators would open the
In this part, considering Fig. 16, calculating the impedance o
jumpers and perorm the same actions as mentioned beore. Then, with
equivalent load at the end o each section is described.
the advancement o technology, power switches such as reclosers and
I a ault occurs between bus i and bus j, the equivalent impedance at
sectionalizers were installed along with the eeders and using them and
the end o each section (the equivalent impedance at bus j) should be
the relevant perormance inormation, the aulty section is located aster
determined as ollows:
than beore. Today, ault locators such as the sel400 entered trans-
mission lines. Furthermore, the installed distance relays have a ault ZLeq = Z 1 +Z 1 +Z 1 +Z 1 1 (21)
j ( 1 2 3 Lj )
locator that is only used on transmission lines. Moreover, today, some
reclosers such as ABB, Tavrida, Entech, have a ault location part. This Impedances Z1, Z2, and Z3 are determined through the calculation o

11
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

⎛⎡⎛( )1 ⎞1 ⎤⎞

/ /
Yj5 Yj5
Y3 = ⎝⎣⎝ ZL1 + + Zj5/ ⎠ + ⎦⎠ (24)
5
2 2

• Determining Voltage and Current at the Beginning o each Section

Using the inormation recorded at the beginning o the eeder

(voltage and current) and considering that each node is at the down-
stream o the node at the beginning o the eeder, the voltage o the
downstream node (voltage and current) and its input current rom the
previous node (Vkj ) can be obtained using (25) and (26).

Vkj = k0 + k1 lij + k2 l2ij + k3 l3ij + k4 l4ij + k5 l5ij (25)

Ikij = kI0 + kI1 lij + kI2 l2ij + kI3 l3ij + kI4 l4ij + kI5 l5ij (26)

in which:

lij : is the length o section i-j.

k0 kI5 coecients: are described entirely in [77].
Fig. 16. Single-line diagram o the sample DN.
In [77], Eq. (27) is ormulated to obtain the ault distance or single-
the equivalent impedance seen rom the jth node. The load impedances phase, two-phase, and three-phase to ground aults. In each ault type
and line impedances are put either in series or in parallel to calculate and number o phases involved with ault, the number o terms existing

these impedances. It should be mentioned that the distributed line in is determined. When a ault occurs, kdm coecients are determined
model is used or each section to obtain higher accuracy, as shown in using current and voltage at the beginning o each section, and ault
Fig. 17. distance is obtained using the improved impedance method calculated
Eqs. (22), (23), and (24) show how the equivalent impedance o each using (27).
section connected to node j is determined.      
∑   ∑   ∑  
⎛⎡ ⎤1 ⎞1 x 5 *
Im k5m IFm + x 4 *
Im k4m IFm + x 3 *
Im k3m IFm
)1 )1 /
Yj/
((
/ /
⎜ Y / Y Y / ⎟
m∊p m∊p m∊p
Y 1 = ⎝⎣ + 1 ⎦ + Zj1 ⎠ + 1
j
ZL1 + 12 + Z12 + 12 + ZL1      
2
2 2 1
2 2 ∑   ∑   ∑  
* * *
+ x2 Im k2m IFm + x Im k1m IFm + Im k0m IFm = 0
(22) m∊p m∊p m∊p

(27)
⎛⎡ ⎤1 ⎞1
)1
Also, (28) has been presented or the two-phase ault between phases
(( )1 / /
/ /
⎜ Y / Y Y / ⎟ Yj3
Y 2 = ⎝⎣
j3 ⎦
ZL1 + 34
+ Z 34 + 34
+ Z 1
L + + Z j ⎠ + A and B [77]. The other two-phase aults have similar equations.
4
2 2 3
2 3
2

(23)

Fig. 17. Circuit model o each section o the DN.

12
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

{ }
Im (k5a  k5b ).IF*a x5 + Im{(k4a  k4b ).IF*a }x4 + Im{(k3a 3. The location o ault can be determined using Eq. (29).
} } { 4. Fault current is updated using the ollowing equations:
 k3b ).IF*a }x3 + Im{(k2a  k2b ).IF*a x2 + Im{(k1a  k1b ).IF*a x + Im (k0a ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
} VFa VSa Zaa Zab Zac IS a
 k0b ).IF*a ⎣ VFb ⎦ = ⎣ VSb ⎦  x.⎣ Zba Zbb Zbc ⎦⎣ ISb ⎦ (33)
VFc VSc Zca Zcb Zcc IS c
=0
(28)  1
Ypq = (l  x)Zpq + ZLpq (34)
In [78], ten dierent impedance-based methods have been investi-
gated in terms o using the inormation beore and ater ault time, load ILm = [ Yma Ymb Ymc ][ VFa VFb VFc ]T (35)
model, line model, presence or absence o branches in the DN, consid-
ering system imbalance, considering system heterogeneity, and addi- Firstly the voltage o ault point, then admittance o load rom ault
tional inormation. Also, various methods have been simulated, and point o view and nally load current are calculated using Eqs. (33)–
their advantages and disadvantages have been presented. The results (35).
presented in this reerence show that the higher ault resistance and the Check the ollowing convergence condition
longer the ault distance, cause an increase in the estimation error. |x(α)  x(α  1) | < σ (36)
In [79], an iterative algorithm has been presented to nd ault dis-
tance in radial distribution systems. In this reerence, the currents and I the condition is satised, stop.
voltages calculated at the beginning o each branch and the dynamic Authors o [80] have presented an algorithm considering the pres-
load model are used to achieve higher accuracy. The presented method ence o cable lines in distribution networks, which has extended the
in [79] locates all ault types. In this reerence, the eects o dierent impedance methods considering the eect o parallel capacitances in the
ault resistances, ault inception angles, load variation, and ault dis- model. This reerence is used the current and voltage inormation at the
tances on the accuracy o the proposed model have been examined. The beginning o the eeder and the dynamic load model to determine ault
simulation results in [79] have been obtained using data rom an actual distance. With this dierence that the parallel admittance o the studied
distribution system in Southern Brazil. Currently, this ormulation is section is assumed to be equal to the total parallel admittance o the
used as sotware in the CEEE-D distribution operations center. The section. Then, the capacitive current and the load current obtained using
maximum error o this method in three-phase to ground ault and 100 Ω the pre-ault condition, and the initial current o the studied section is
ault resistance, considering the distributed parameter line model, is used to determine the ault current. Next, using the calculated distance
10.97%. In this reerence the main ormula or determining aults’ or ault location, new reactance, and current o the capacitive branch
location and impedance is as ollows: and the new load current are calculated, and the algorithm is repeated.
      This algorithm is continued until the dierence in the calculated dis-
x 1 IFm i IFm r VSm r tance o the current and the previous states becomes lower than a pre-
= × (29)
RF M1m IFm  M2m IFm r M2m M1 m VSm i determined value. The fow-chart o this algorithm is depicted in Fig. 19.
i

Various reports have been presented to study and locate aults by

where i and r indices represent the imaginary and real part and m ∈ {a,b, EPRI. For example, in [81], the Takagi, arc-voltage, current phasor only,
c}. VSm , x and IFm are upstream voltage, ault distance, and ault current, current magnitude only loop reactance, and current-prole methods
o a aulty section respectively. M1m and M2m are two calculated pa- were used in one eeder rom a distributed network to estimate the
rameters which are determined using the ollowing sums: location o actual aults that occurred due to capacitor cutout and
∑  lightning arrester. These aults are shown in Fig. 20 and Fig. 21. It was
M1m = Zmkr ISkr  Zmki ISki (30) eventually observed that the accuracy o these methods had decreased
with an increase in the distance o the ault rom the monitoring station.
∑ 
M2m = Zmkr ISki  Zmki ISkr (31) Two ault location techniques have been tested in 3 actual distribu-
tion eeders in [82]. Reactance to Fault (RTF) is an impedance-based
A single line diagram o ault is depicted in Fig. 18. The ault location ault location technique that uses the substation voltage and current
algorithm is as ollows: measurement. On the other hand, Voltage Drop Fault Location (VDFL) is
a ault location technique based on voltage drop and operates based on
1. Recording pre-ault load current and using as post-ault load current distributed-voltage measurements. Long Island Power Authority (LIPA)
2. According to Fig. 18 ault current can be calculated as: and Hydro-Québec (HQ) hosted this project in coordination with EPRI.
Evaluation o the ault location technique on the eeders o LIPA was
IFm = ISm + IRm = ISm  ILm (32)
only perormed or the VDFL method, and its error was reported to be
rom 600t to 700t. The accuracies o both methods were reported to
be very good in the HQ eeder. VDFL has been presented with an error
percent o 1.76% or 2100t, and RTF has been presented with an error
percent o 2.59% or 3084t. The results show that VDFL perorms
slightly better than RTF. This study shows that both methods are suitable
or short urban eeders and long rural eeders.
In [83], an impedance-based method has been presented to deter-
mine ault distance in DN. In this reerence, the model is considered or
each section, and the presented modied impedance method improves
accuracy. To enhance the preciseness o the ault location π line model is
used or each section. Ater some simple mathematical operations two
quadratic equations are acquired or both phase to phase and grounded
aults, respectively as ollows:

Fig. 18. Single diagram o ault [79].

13
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 19. The fow-chart o iterative ault location algorithm [80].

Fig. 20. Single line-to-ground ault in phase C evolving into phase A [81].

[ ∑ { }] [∑ { }] [ ∑ { The matrices M and N contain line parameters. The maximum error

x2 . 0.5. Im Mk × IF*k  x. Im Nk × IF*k + . 0.5. Im VS k
}] or an IEEE 34-bus network is 1.58%, which means 1551 m, or the total
× IF*k network length (98,180 m).
Another method has been presented in [84], which determines the
=0
ault distance using the distributed parameter line model, current, and
(37) voltage at the beginning o the eeder. This method has presented
{ } { } {  } dierent equations or determining ault distance, which are unctions
x2 .0.5 × Im (Mi  Mk )IF*i  x × Im (Ni  Nk )IF*i + Im VSi  VSk IF*i o current and voltage at the beginning o the eeder. This method is
sensitive to load and ault resistance. The maximum error o this method
=0
in the ault resistance o 10 Ω is 1.11%.
(38)

14
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 21. Single line-to-ground ault in phase C [81].

In [85], ault location is determined in our-wire networks through  

di(t)
improving the presented algorithm in [3]. All o these algorithms are Vx1 (t)  Vx2 (t) = (x2  x1 ) ri(t) + l (39)
iterative. dt
A non-iterative two-terminal ault location algorithm that employs The above equation can be rewritten as ollows using the sequence
only positive-sequence data is presented in [86]. The time-domain conversion:
approach is used or its ormulation. To extend the approach to
diB
untransposed lines, a modal transormation technique is used. A quartic V = xf RiA + xf L (40)
equation considering synchronism mismatch has been expressed, and dt
the angle o signal alignment mismatch is provided by its solution. Voltages and currents o phases are comprised depending on the ault
type. Using the digitalized samples o voltage and current, Eq. (40) is
3.1.2. Fault distance determination based on dierential equations extended concerning x R and x L using a proper dierential approxi-
The second group includes ault location methods based on dier- mation. Thus, by obtaining a set o equations, the unknowns x  R and x L
ential equations. These methods use line transition models. In some o are obtained. According to Eq. (41):
these methods, ault resistance can be considered as an additional
diB
parameter and estimated concerning the ault point voltage. Although xf RiA + xf L V = ε (41)
dt
considering or ignoring ault resistance changes the equations a little, it
does not change the basics o the methods; thus, resistance is the ault is x R and x L should be determined such that the error unction ε is
considered to be zero. The dierential method has some disadvantages, minimized. These equations can be solved using dierent methods,
among which requiring communication links with high bandwidth, including metaheuristic algorithms, mathematical methods [87].
requiring a high sampling rate, ast and accurate data synchronization Knowing the voltage and current inormation at both terminals and
can be mentioned. These methods are classied into two classes, considering Fig. 22, ault location can be calculated or short DC lines
including the dierential equation method based on the lumped line based on Eq. (42) [90].
model and the distributed parameter line model. The dierential
equation method based on the lumped line model o the line calculates urec (DC)  uinv (DC)  Rliinv (DC)
x= (42)
the line resistance and inductance between the locator and ault point R(irec (DC)  iinv (DC) )
using the measured time samples. The above method is sensitive to the
integration o the sampling rate and signal spectrum. Although where:
increasing sampling rate increases estimation accuracy, numerical
problems are created. Also, this method is not appropriate or long lines urec (DC) and uinv (DC) are the DC components o voltage at terminals
[87,88]. In the distributed parameter line model, the line parameters are o the rectier and the inverter. Also, i rec (DC) and iinv (DC) are the
distributed along the line uniormly. This model considers the parallel current components at the terminals o the rectier and the inverter.
capacitances o the lines also. Thereore, the accuracy o the method • Fault Distance Determination Based on Dierential Equations using the
based on the distributed model is highly dependent on the sampling rate Distributed Parameter Line Model (AC and DC)
constraints. Consequently, accuracy is sensitive to the selected data
window [89]. In the distributed parameter line model, the ollowing equations are
used:
• Fault distance determination based on dierential equations methods ∂VP (x, t) ∂IP (x, t)
using lumped line model (AC and DC)[87].  = RI p (x, t) + L (43)
∂x ∂x

Considering the lumped model o the line, i x 1 and x2 are two points ∂IP (x, t) ∂VP (x, t)
 = GV p (x, t) + C (44)
on the line, (39) can be used to represent the relationship between phase ∂x ∂x
currents and voltages in a three-phase line.
where: Vp and Ip are voltage, and current o phases, and R, L, G, and C
are 3 × 3 matrices associated with series resistance, inductance,

15
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 22. Short line model when a ault occurs.

conductance, and capacitance where G is usually ignored in the over- the ault event to go rom the terminal to the ault location and return is
head lines [87]. Using modal transormation, uzzy variables can be measured. This method is passive because no signal is injected into the
calculated or systems with un-transposed lines, and the high-requency line.
transients can be used or calculating the ault distance in the minimum Consider Fig. 24, assuming that measurements are perormed at
time. terminal M and the time dierence between TM1 and TM2 is considered as
Considering Fig. 23 and knowing the voltage and current inorma- Δt, by knowing the wave speed in the line (ϑ) which is equal to the light
tion at both terminals, ault location can be calculated or DC distributed speed, the ault distance rom terminal M can be calculated as ollows
line based on Eq. (45) [90]. (TM1 and TM2 are the times at which the rst and second traveling waves
arrive rom line to terminal M):
urec (DC)  uinv (DC)  Rli2 (DC)
x= (45)
R’(i1 (DC)  i2 (DC) ) 1
xM = ϑΔt (46)
2
In the above equation, x is the distance o the ault rom the rectier
terminal, urec (DC), and uinv (DC) are DC components o the voltage at Type B is a two-terminal algorithm. In this method, the time dier-
terminals o the rectier and inverter. irec (DC) and i1 (DC) are the cur- ence o arrival o the wave resulting rom ault occurrence to two ter-
rents at the terminal o the rectier, and iinv (DC) and i2 (DC) are the minals o the line is calculated. The required relationships or
currents at the inverter terminal. R’ is the resistance per unit length o calculating ault distance can be obtained as ollows:
the line. 1
xM = [ϑ(TM1  TN1 ) + L] (47)
2
3.1.3. Traveling waves methods
The third group includes methods operating based on traveling 1
xN = [ϑ(TN1  TM1 ) + L] (48)
waves. Traveling waves methods were rst used in the 1950s or Fault 2
location. However, due to high cost, low reliability, and maintenance In the above equations, TN1 is the time at which the rst traveling
problems, they were put aside in the 1970s. With the development o wave resulting rom ault arrives at terminal N, and L is the line length,
technology, digital signal processing techniques, and the possibility o
using accurate GPS systems, ault location methods based on traveling
waves emerged again. Traveling waves are the current and voltage
waves generated at the beginning o ault at the ault location and
propagated towards the line terminals. These waves move in overhead
lines with light speed and damp gradually at the terminals and ault
locations due to the damping eect and wave refection laws. The
methods within this group are ast. However, they are complicated, and
their implementation is dicult. The accuracy o these methods de-
pends on line parameters, the accuracy o the measurement devices, and
bandwidth [91].
Traveling waves-based ault location methods are perormed based
on required measurements in one or two terminals o the power net-
works. These methods are divided into 5 classes based on being active or
passive. In the passive methods, the transients resulting rom ault are
used or location. The active methods inject a signal to the lines ater
resolving the ault by a key, and the generated transients are used to
determine the ault distance [92,93].
Type A is an algorithm in which only one side o the line is sampled.
In this method, the time required or the traveling wave resulting rom Fig. 24. Traveling wave propagation diagram.

Fig. 23. Fault occurrence on the two-terminal line in the distributed line model.

16
R. Dashti et al.
XM, and XN are the distances o the ault rom terminals M and N. This
method is passive also because the transients caused by the ault are
used or calculations.
Type C employs measurements o a terminal, and it is similar to type
A. This method is active. Because it uses the transients caused by signal
injection to the line ater line outage by the switch to determine the ault
distance instead o using the transients caused by the ault. Type D is
similar to type B and to operate correctly, and requires measurements o
both terminals to be done simultaneously. This method is active. The
relationships given or type B can be used to measure ault distance in
this method. Type E employs measurements o one terminal and the
transients generated when the switch electries the line to calculate the
ault distance.
In [94], a method is presented based on correlation unctions and
traveling waves to determine the aulty section. This method presents a
criterion and species a standard range or the presented criterion.
When a ault occurs, this criterion is calculated separately or each
section. I the calculated criterion o a section is smaller than the dened
value, the section is introduced as the aulty section.
A ault location approach based on a traveling wave or two-terminal
lines with unsynchronized current measurements rom (IEDs) 4 captured
at both ends is presented in [95]. The only inormation needed to use as
an input to the algorithm is the velocity o the line propagation and the
arrival time o the 1st and 2nd traveling wave. The IED hardware, the
error o data synchronization, and the delay o sotware processing are
taken into account or this algorithm ormulation. The rst two ault
location points are calculated employing the peak arrival times o two
traveling waves seen at two terminals o the line in the presented
method. Next, the aulted hal-section inormation is used to choose the
correct location o the ault. Analyzing the rst traveling wave at two
terminals o the line, the aulted hal section has been specied. This
approach is sensitive to load switching and transormer switching.
3.1.4. Advantages and disadvantages o ault distance determination
methods in electrical distribution networks
Considering the studies reviewed in the ault distance determination
part, the pros and cons o these methods are summarized in Fig. 25.
3.2. Fault section estimation and hybrid methods in electrical distribution
networks
Various methods have been presented or ault section estimation in
distributed networks. On the one hand, articial intelligence methods
can estimate both the ault distance and the ault section estimation. On
the other hand, some methods (ault indicators and Magnetic sensors,
protection coordination and current analysis, and state estimators
methods) can only estimate the ault section. All o these methods can
complement the methods o determining the ault distance to design a
hybrid method (a method is used or ault distance determination and a
method is used or ault section estimation). These methods include:
• Methods based on magnetic sensors and ault indicators.
• Methods based on protection coordination and current analysis.
• Methods based on state estimators
• Methods based on Articial intelligence.
In the ollowing, the studies on ault section estimation in DNs are
reviewed.
3.2.1. Magnetic sensors and ault indicators
In recent years, researchers have been studying magnetic sensors or
monitoring power systems. These sensors include those with anisotropic
magnetoresistance [96], those with giant magnetoresistance [97] along
4 5
Intelligent Electronic Devices
17
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
with other sensors [98,99]. These sensors are capable o measuring the
electric current straight rom the magnetic eld in the environment.
These advanced sensors have been proven to be applicable to transient
analysis in power system applications involving both medium and high
voltages [100,101]. They can gather reliable data or detecting, classi-
ying, and locating aults in power systems since they are ree rom CT
saturation along with other types o measurement errors that aect the
accuracy o a number o techniques. These sensors are applied similarly
to distribution and transmission networks. Hence, the techniques
employed in transmission lines are equally valid or distribution lines.
[102] has introduced a ault location method that leverages non-contact
measurements o magnetic elds and the autoregressive model o the
magnetic signature taken rom the surroundings o the power system.
This strategy is unable to sel-adjust to handle usual changes in the
magnetic elds. The researchers in [103] consider the magnetic eld
strength signal to be a THIF5 signature. In this method, the ault location
criterion consists o the particular trend between the phases o high-
requency magnetic eld components during a single period. This cri-
terion assumes that the spatial changes in the magnetic eld’s high-
requency components appear in the magnetic eld vectors’ phase
shits at the sensing point. The algorithm presented to determine the
exact distance between the THIF ault and the sensing point is shown
below:
1. Determining the data window o the magnetic eld strength’s x and y
high-requency components
2. Calculating the high-requency components o the generated mag-
netic eld strength in the XY-plane
3. Determining the phase shit o the magnetic eld strength’s high-
requency components or every sample individually in the ob-
tained data window
4. Calculating the total phase shit
5. Determining the distance between the ault and the sensing point
according to the total phase shit
Each higher and lower envelops o high requency inormation o the
x component are determined. The mean o all pre-determined high and
low envelops are calculated as ollows:
 
ui,j (t) + li,j (t)
mi,j (t) = (49)
2
The rst requency component determines using the ollowing iter-
ative equations:
Hx (t)  m1,1 (t) = h1,1 (t) (50)
 
h1,k1 (t)  m1,k (t) = h1,k (t) = Hx (t)  m1,1 (t) + m1,2 (t) + ⋯ + m1,k (t)
(51)
 
c1 (t) = h1,k (t) = Hx (t)  m1,1 (t) + m1,2 (t) + ⋯ + m1,k (t) (52)
where c1 is the rst requency component. The second requency
component can be determined in the same way. The stopping condition
o iteration is reached when only one extremum remains. The aulty
eeder identies using the energy o both components o the signal using
the quantile regression method [104].
According to Fig. 26 ault types can be determined, i the measured
magnetic eld satises Eqs. (53)–(58) or phase A to G, phase B to G,
phase C to G, phase A to phase B, phase A to phase C, and phase B to
phase C aults, respectively:
By sinθ
≈ = tanθ (53)
Bx cosθ
Tree-Related High Impedance Faults
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Fig. 25. Pros and cons o the ault distance determination methods.

waveorm o triangular, vertical and horizontal congurations produced

at single-phase to ground ault. The mathematical presentation o the
magnetic eld component is given as ollows:
⇀  
B = Bb + (Ba cosθ1 + Bc cosθ2 )ix + (Ba sinθ1  Bc sinθ2 )iy + 0iz (60)
   
⇀ μ0 Ib μ0 Ia μ Ic μ0 Ia
B= + cosθ1 + 0 cosθ2 ix + sinθ1
2π rb 2π ra 2π rc 2π ra
 
μ Ic
 0 sinθ2 iy + 0iz (61)
2π rc
In the aorementioned equation, Ba , Bb and Bc represent magnetic
eld components which are generated by phase-a, -b and -c. The mag-
netic eld sensor is linear and measures the magnetic eld along its
Fig. 26. Magnetic eld component at the measurement point [104]. direction. In the case o a single three-phase circuit, its direction is
horizontal and it could represent the triangular and vertical directions as
By ≈ 0 (54) depicted in Fig. 27.
The equations o three congurations are as ollows:
By sinθ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎤
≈ =  tanθ (55)  
Bx cosθ ⎣ μ0 Ib ⎝μ0 Ia xj1 ⎠ ⎝ μ0 Ic xj2 ⎠ ⎦ ix
Bx,horizontal = + ×   + ×  
2π yi2 2π x2 + y2 2π x2 + y2
j1 i1 j2 i3
1
By sinθ
≈ 1 rA 1 (56) (62)
Bx rB + rA cosθ
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛
Bx ≈ 0 (57) ⎣⎝ μ0 Ib xj1 ⎠ ⎝μ0 Ia xj1 ⎠ + ⎝ μ0 Ic
Bx,vertical = ×   + ×  
2π 2 2
xj1 + yi2 2 π 2 2
xj1 + yi3 2π
By r1C
sinθ ⎞⎤
≈ (58) xj1
Bx r1B + r1C cosθ ×  ⎠ ⎦ix (63)
xj1 + y2i1
2
Finally, the exact location o the ault can be determined using the
ollowing equation: ⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛
μ Ib xj1 μI xj2 μI
d = 0.00062ϕT + 0.36 (59) Bx,triangular = ⎣⎝ 0 ×  ⎠+⎝ 0 a ×  ⎠+⎝ 0 c
2π xj12 + y2i2 2π x2j2 + y2i3 2π
The aorementioned equation is estimated using curve-tting on the ⎞⎤
total phase shits at various locations. xj2
The authors in [105] have presented a magnetic-eld-based non- ×  ⎠ ⎦ ix
x2j2 + y2i1
contact ault localization technique and have used it to locate SC aults
in 11 kV distribution lines. This technique requires the deployment o (64)
magnetic eld sensor modules at the substation and on selected distri- The fow-chart o ault localization is depicted in Fig. 28.
bution poles. This sensor module is capable o eectively localizing SC In [106], or radial distribution networks, a ault location algorithm
aults according to levels o the magnetic eld measured on various is presented, employing the observers o synchronized and distributed
branched main eeders. The mathematical model o magnetic eld voltage traveling waves. The approach presented is based on the time-
theory is derived rom the Biot-Savart law and describes its eects in stamping and the capture o the arrival time o a traveling wave
balanced and unbalanced load circumstances. The magnetic eld

18
R. Dashti et al.
Fig. 27. Magnetic eld waveorm o vertical, horizontal and triangular congurations at single-phase to ground ault [105].
Fig. 28. The fow-chart o ault localization based on magnetic eld [105].
(ault-induced) at a high requency. The Monte Carlo method, an un-
certainty analysis, is used to explain the robustness as well as the ac-
curacy o the algorithm. For solving the aulted section localization issue
in MV power distribution networks with asymmetrical ault, an
approach is presented in [107]. It employs only voltage measurements
such as voltage angle, magnitude, and sequence components obtained
by sensing devices mounted at the low voltage side o step-down
transormers, which are not needed to be time-synchronized.
Re. [108] has presented a non-contact ault location technique. This
technique depends on magnetic elds generated rom current signals
that are measured via magnetoresistive sensors placed only on power
line terminals under the rst tower’s phase conductors at the substation
portals or at both terminals. It utilizes the Extended Kalman lter or
processing these measurements. Moreover, this technique uses a trav-
eling wave strategy or localizing aults.
19
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
In ault section estimation using ault indicators, a message is
transmitted to the dispatching center by a sudden increase in current
and a drop to zero o voltage, and the ault is reported [109,110]. In
[111], a ault location system has been presented or an IEEE 34 bus
network. This system has at least one sensor and one ault location
evaluation system. This sensor is placed in the distribution network to
measure the current and divide the distribution network into at least two
areas. This system includes one ault area identication unit, which
selects one o the areas in which the ault has occurred by calculating the
ault current rom the sensor.
A large number o sensor data is required by the distribution
network. Consequently, using these measurements is uneconomical
because o the distribution network’s size.
3.2.2. Protection coordination and current analysis methods
In protection coordination methods, the ault section is determined
based on the placement o various protection equipment in suitable lo-
cations and the introduction o a special protection coordination method
capable o ault detection in every section using the current pattern at
the beginning o the eeder [112,113]. In [76], the current and voltage
recorded at the beginning o the eeder and impedance method are
employed or determining the possible ault locations and determining
the main ault section using the protection devices. The disadvantage o
this method is that unique characteristics are not generated in each
section’s current pattern. Because the number o protection devices is
limited, and there are a large number o distribution eeder branches.
Also, the accuracy o this method depends on the ault resistance. The
error o this method is 2.95% or a ault resistance o 50 Ω and 1% or
aults with resistances smaller than 30 Ω. In current analysis methods,
the aulty section is calculated using the ault current pattern and
introducing a criterion [75,114]. The main problem in the methods is
the intererence in the detection o the main section o the ault. This
problem occurs when the ault resistance is high and aects the current
domain. nally, the perormance o the relay is aected.
3.2.3. State estimators
In the state estimator-based methods, sucient data is provided to
estimate the aulty section using recorded data rom a set o measure-
ments, process monitoring, eedback control, parameter updating, and
transient data matching [115]. The main challenge o ault location is
that the number o measurements is limited, and the ault location al-
gorithm implementation is dicult due to high computation volume,
high implementation cost, and low reliability in the presence o DG with
high penetration and a high unbalanced current and changes o the
network topology. A state estimator should be used to overcome these
constraints. The state estimator is executed online and estimated
incorrectly and accessible measurements o the network to evaluate the
system [116]. The state estimation process can be applied to a three-
R. Dashti et al.
phase power network with unbalanced loads and lines [117]. Also, this
process uses the power or current injected into the network as pseudo-
measurements or online measurements (previous or predicted inor-
mation o the network) and the line data. Thereore, this method does
not depend on the dynamic behavior o DGs and the Thevenin equiva-
lent o the external network [118]. In addition, phasor measurement
units (PMUs) have been used in DNs recently which could help the
estimation [117,118].
In [119], the ault location is perormed considering a small number
o measurements and the distributed parameter line model. Fault loca-
tion using positive current and voltage sequence equations beore the
ault is converted to an optimization equation. This method is robust
against various actors, including cyber-attack and measurement errors.
The presented algorithm automatically employs the least absolute value
estimator to detect and eliminate aults and determine their location.
Authors o [117] have assumed a PMU on all buses o the network, and
active ault location is perormed. This method is presented or online
ault detection and location through computing parallel synchrophasor-
based state estimators. Parallel estimators use PMUs data and obtain
network states considering a hypothetical ault location at dierent
points. In [120], a method based on state estimation is presented or
ault location in DNs using measurements obtained rom AMI. The errors
in real or virtual measurements during normal operation can be sup-
pressed using state estimation methods to present the best estimate o
the system. Besides, they can detect large measurement errors known as
bad data. This concept is extended under ault conditions. The ault is
assumed to be an unknown and temporary load, considered as bad data.
This study has used bad data detection techniques in a variable weight
matrix to speciy the ault location. In [115], an algorithm is presented
or active DNs to detect short-circuit aults using the state estimator. This
modied algorithm is the conventional version o the state estimator,
and it is compatible with a ault condition. This presented algorithm
locates ault ater detecting it. To locate a ault, estimated states beore
ault and the voltage and current recorder ater ault are used. In [121],
a method based on a state estimator is presented or ault location. This
method uses the voltage measured by a limited number o PMUs and the
ault current in the presence o DG sources. In this method, permutation
matrices and admittance matrices are constituted using pseudo-
measurements. The error vector o each bus is obtained, assuming a
ault in each bus and updating system states. Then, the Euclidean norm
o the calculated error vector is calculated by the estimator or each bus
as its error; the maximum error is determined by the aulty bus. In [122],
a set o nonlinear current and voltage equations between measurements
and the ault points is used to locate aults. An algorithm is presented to
determine the minimum number o devices required to locate aults. At
rst, the algorithm reduces the search space to increase the location
speed. Then, the ault location problem is converted to a linear least-
squares problem regarding ault location to obtain the ault point.
3.2.4. Artifcial intelligence methods
Articial intelligence methods are used or determining the ault
section and location in distribution networks. The conventional ault
location methods use mathematical theories (including the dierential
equation, Fourier Transorm) to nd the ault location. In intelligent
methods, tools such as neural networks, genetic algorithm, uzzy logic,
and machine learning algorithms are used. In these methods, unda-
mental requency components o current and voltage are used as the
input data. The requirements such as big data bank and updating in-
ormation are its disadvantages [123–125].
In[126], the wavelet transorm has been used to detect the ault and
its type. Then, the neural network is trained based on the angle and
magnitude o the undamental requency o voltage and current.
Furthermore, it is trained by the magnitude ratio and angle dierence o
the undamental requency waveorm and the third harmonics. By
comparing the inormation, the real ault characteristics in the main
ault section are determined.
20
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
In [127], current and voltage inormation at the beginning o the
eeder and some other eeder points is used during a ault event to
determine voltage and voltage sag at each node. In this method, it is
assumed that ault might occur in each section and the ault current is
ound. It then calculates the voltage sag at nodes with measurement
devices and compares the ault current with the measured one. A ault is
detected, i the values agree, ault has occurred, and its distance is
specied using the current and voltage at the beginning o the eeder.
In [128], SVM and K-nearest neighbor algorithms are used to reduce
the multiple-response problem in ault distance determination or
detecting the aulty sections. This method operates based on the line
voltage dierence, line current dierence, and power changes beore
and ater a ault at the beginning o the eeder.
A technique or localizing phase to ground aults in a distribution
system is presented in [129]. Based on that, the energy spectrum is
divided into various levels, and the transient voltage is decomposed by a
wavelet lter. The signal that is decomposed in each level includes a
specic percentage o energy which is dependent on the wavelet lter’s
bandwidth and the requencies o the path characteristic. Aterward, a
method based on a neural network is presented or a line ault locator o
the distribution system. The candidate eature or training data in the
articial neural network is the percentage o energy in each level.
Multiresolution analysis can help to nd applicable eatures o a signal.
The multiresolution analysis involves symbolizing a unction at
dierent scales. For a given unction F(x), the basic notation o wavelet
decomposition can be written as ollows:
∑∑
F(x) = dm,k ψ m,k (x) m, k ∈ Z. (65)
m k
In the aorementioned ormulation, ψ m,k (x) is the mother wavelet.
Eq. (65) can be approximated rom the beginning start point as ollows:
∞ ∑
∑ +∞
F(x) = F0 (x) + dm,k ψ m,k (x) m, k ∈ Z (66)
m=0 k=∞
The increase in the mother wavelet time dilation can bring about the
decreasing o the requency bandwidth o higher levels which allows
wavelet transorm to be as a multiresolution lter bank. The details o
each resolution output can be calculated with the help o the ollowing
ormula:
∑
Dm (x) = dm,k ψ m,k (x) m, k ∈ Z. (67)
k
As a result, the energy details o each level can be computed as
ollows:
∫ +∞ ∑
EDm = D2m = 2
dm,k m, k ∈ Z. (68)
∞ k
Eq. (68) enables us to extract rich enough eatures or ault location
purposes.
To begin the ault location process, a suitable training dataset is
prepared. Then, an application or the appropriate ANN structure is
selected. A multilayer eedorward network is presented to estimate the
ault location. A multilayer perceptron o our layers (an input layer, two
hidden layers, and an output layer) is considered. The hyperbolic
tangent sigmoid transer unction and a linear transer unction are used
or the hidden and the output layers respectively. In this reerence, ANN
uses 498 samples as inputs. To train the ANN, the back propagation
technique with Levenberg-Marguardt method is used. Ater training,
using an independent data set o ault scenarios are tested.
In [130–132], the magnitude and phase o voltage sag are calculated
and stored in the data bank or the ault simulated at each node. Then,
the voltage sag magnitude and phase are obtained according to the ault
voltage inormation and compared with the data bank to extract the
possible ault locations. Finally, a criterion is dened to speciy the main
ault location among the possible ault locations. In [130], the presented
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

method has been tested on a 25 kV eeder in an urban distribution

network in Canada, and the maximum error o this method or ault
resistances o 50 Ω has been reported to be 1.4%. Moreover, the eect o
the DG on the ault distance accuracy has been presented, and it is
observed that the error depends on the power injected rom the DG and
that the DG can reduce the accuracy o the method.
In [133], a method is presented to detect ault distance and section
considering the high-requency transient waves between the ault
location and the beginning o the eeder. This work uses mode 1 o the
requency spectrum or the aults between phases and applies mode 0 o
the requency spectrum or the phase to ground aults. In this method, a
criterion is used that introduces the dierence between the main and the
side requency components or detecting the aulty section. Ater
determining the aulty section through traveling waves, the ault dis-
tance is measured. The disadvantage o this method is that it requires an
accurate data bank, and the side dominant requency component might
be detected incorrectly.
Fig. 29. The fowchart or ault location method using wavelet analysis, ANN,
The outcome o a ault location and classication method study
and FLS [134].
employing EMTP sotware is presented in [134]. The simulated data
analyzed with an advanced signal processing method according to
an absolute square o decomposition levels o that signal. Signal wavelet
wavelet analysis to derivate benecial inormation rom the signals.
energy spectrum at jth scale and its wavelet energy can obtain as ollows:
Discrete wavelet transorms which is used in this work is written as
ollows: ∑
N

  Ej = Ejk , j = 1, ⋯, L (72)
1 ∑ n  kam0 k=1
DWT(f , m, n) = ̅̅̅̅̅
m
f (k)h* m
(69)
a0 k a0
Ejk
Pjk = , j = 1, ⋯, L (73)
Ater passing a signal through a wavelet transorm dierent details Ej
appear according to the output lter’s requency scale. The requency
band o scale is dened as ollows: where: L is the number o decomposition level.
to /
WEE and its per unit index are calculated as ollows and use or the
Frequency band of scale 2m = F 2m+2 → F 2m+1 (70)
/
eature extraction and selection process.
∑
One o the main actors that determine the applicability o wavelet- WEEjp =  Pjkp logPjkp , j = 1, ⋯, L (74)
based ault location methods in the real word distribution network is the k
choice o wavelet mother. Thereore, Daubichies’ wavelet with 4db 
wavelet with 8 decomposing levels has been chosen. For eature  k Pjkp logPjkp
EPU jp =        
extraction purposes, statistical relations such as mean, median, mode,  k PjkA logPjkA +  k PjkB logPjkB +  k PjkC logPjkC
skewness, correlation coecients, and central moment are considered (75)
or obtaining a proper decreasing or increasing model as input o the
These extracted eatures are ed to the ANN model or training pur-
neural network. Due to the choice o statistical relations, the standard
poses to locate and identiy the distance and aulty section. The designed
deviation equation which is written in the ollowing can be helpul.
ANN models are trained or all types o ault separately. To estimate the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 ∑ n ault distance, these models take in sets o our inputs o EPU/WEE o the
STD(ν) = (ν i  ν )2 (71) zero and three phase sequence line currents, and one output node. The
n  1 i=1
sigmoid activation unction and the linear activation unction are
Ater the ault type is recognized, the aulty phase and its type o non- employed in the hidden and output layer respectively. The ollowing
grounded and grounded can be identied using standard deviation perormance criteria are used to select the optimal ANN model: (i)
voltage and current phases. To locate the aults, the uzzy logic system Correlation coecient (ii) Neural network size (iii) Testing with un-
(FLS) and the articial neural network (ANN) are employed in a real trained datasets (iv) Error histogram. The untrained dataset accuracy is
underground distribution system. The fowchart or the presented resolved by the percentage error o the ANN accuracy. The architecture
method is shown in Fig. 29. o the ANN model designed or the ault location method is shown in
For ault location and ault section identication in the distribution Fig. 30.
network, a hybrid 2-stage approach is presented in [135], which is based A hybrid method is presented or locating short circuit single phase
on the level-5 detail coecients gained by Discrete Wavelet Transorm to ground aults in Re. [4]. First, the improved impedance methods are
decomposition employing db4 mother wavelet. Two indices can be used to speciy the possible ault locations. Then, the aulty section is
calculated by the Discrete Wavelet Transorm detail coecients: En- determined online using a voltage sag matching algorithm. This method
tropy Per Unit (EPU) and Wavelet Energy Spectrum Entropy (WEE). The has been tested on an actual distribution eeder in Iran. The error o this
training data in the articial neural network model employ these indices method has been reported to be 0.42% in the simulations.
or the ault location and ault section identication tasks, respectively.
The articial neural network model Comparison, which is trained by the 3.2.5. Advantages and disadvantages o ault section estimation methods in
WEE and EPU indices, is provided or parameters like the computation electrical distribution networks
time, processor consumption, prediction accuracy, and memory Considering the studies reviewed in the ault section estimation part,
consumption. the pros and cons o these methods are summarized in Fig. 31.
Raw signals cannot be used or eature extraction goals. Thereore,
discrete wavelet transorms (69) with a0 = 2 and WEE o the signal can
provide energy inormation o a signal. The wavelet energy o a signal is

21
R. Dashti et al.
Fig. 30. Structure o the ANN model or the ault location method [135].
3.3. Fault location methods in DNs in the presence o DG resources
Due to the increase in electrical energy consumption in the recent
decade, the transmission systems’ current capacity has become irre-
sponsive. Thus, to supply the demand and use renewable energies,
various DGs are used in the DNs. A DG is a generating resource in the
range o a ew kilowatts to a ew megawatts which can be connected and
disconnected to the network at any time. DGs have dierent work scales
based on their types (photovoltaic, wind turbines, uel cell, etc.).
Although DGs have many advantages, they cause protection problems in
the DNs. Mainly, DGs inject a short-circuit current to the DN when a
ault occurs that makes using ault location algorithms in radial DNs,
dicult. Moreover, photovoltaic-based DGs output power is highly
Fig. 31. Pros and cons o the ault section estimation methods.
22
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
dependent on the irradiation o the sun. Besides, the utility may not have
adequate control over the placement and number o DGs which lead to
high penetration in the distribution networks. Thereore, DGs behavior
is not steady and can lead a network to islanded mode. Fault location in
such a network is a challenging task. Impedance-based ault location
algorithms are inapplicable when aced with high penetration DGs. In
[136,137], the ault location method ails when a ault occurs between a
substation and a low-capacity DG (kilowatt-DG) because o the low DG-
side ault current. The gathered data o a network with DG is not rich
enough to train a model properly (machine learning methods) when
using intelligent methods because o their stochastic natures against
ault. To overcome this diculty a well-chosen pre-processing step is
needed. Hence, ault location in the networks with DGs has its own
diculties that should be considered.
In [138], a high-requency impedance-based ault location method is
proposed, which is proper or systems with DGs. A short rectangle
window with 6 ms ault transient states is used to prevent control loops
with a cascade response time o about 10 ms. Also, the eect o ault
resistance and ault starting angles have been considered.
In [139], a ault location method is presented using the sel-repair
concept in DNs in the presence o DGs. In this study, the ault location
algorithm requires the transient and steady-state o the signals, the
power fow algorithm, and the synchronization angle.
In [136], ault distance in DN in the presence o DGs is measured
using an impedance method. In the presented method, current and
voltage at the beginning o the eeder and DGs are measured, and the
ault location is calculated by the π line model. The accuracy o this
method is 98.5%. This reerence includes an experimental test in the
Clinical-Laboratory Center o Power System & Protection at Persian Gul
University. The error obtained in this test was reported to be 0.9273%,
indicating the high accuracy o this method.
In [140], a ault location approach is presented, which is based on
the energy analysis o the zero-sequence current (transient) in the
selected requency band (SFB), by the use o a methodology based on
coordinated measurements in DNs. An equivalent network is used to
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

study the equivalent impedance o a distribution network containing
lateral branches. Moreover, the phase-requency properties o the
equivalent impedance are evaluated. In the SFB, the aulty line section
transient energy that is greater compared with the energy (transient) o
the healthy ones is established. A combined ault section estimation
criterion is presented, and the execution scheme is explained using
distribution level phasor measurement units.
In [141], a ault location method has been proposed or a single-
phase to ground ault through synchronous measurement in active
DNs in the presence o DGs. In this method, the ault location method
includes 2 steps. First, the aulty section is estimated based on the ault
characteristic model and inormation o PMUs. Then, the current and
voltage o the phases o the estimated sections and a criterion or ault
location are calculated. In this step, the Fibonacci algorithm is used to
search or the exact ault location. The maximum error o this method
or resistances o 100 Ω is 0.767%, and its response time is 0.847 s.
3.4. Comparison o dierent reerences in ault section estimation and
ault distance methods in electrical distribution networks
Table 2 shows various ault location methods in DNs based on the
DN’s inherent characteristics and their impact on the accuracy o these
methods. In addition, a comparison o properties, advantages, and dis-
advantages in dierent methods o ault location in DNs are shown in
Table. 3.
3.5. Fault location methods in smart grid and microgrid
o Fault Locating Challenges in Smart grids and Microgrids Compared to
Conventional DNs.
The previous sections studied the ault location methods in con-
ventional DNs. Considering the development o the DNs, distance
determination and ault location methods have changed. The most
challenging problem in the smart grid and microgrids protection section
is the integration o renewable energy resources resulting in two-sided
power fow and various ault current levels in grid-connected or islan-
ded modes. The ault current component is several times the rated
current regarding the variable source type. Line impedance in DC
microgrids is very small; thereore, ault current deviation is very large,
and the ault current rises to hundreds o amperes in a ew milliseconds.
The problems mentioned above result in incorrect ault classication.
Also, i the microgrid is islanded, the ault current component resulting
rom the energy resources might not reach the peak-up level o the
protection device or ault detection; thereore, the sampling rate o the
sensors should be high, the communication system should be very ast
and reliable. The ault location methods should detect aults ast, reli-
ably, and accurately considering the implementation o sensors,
communication, and control systems. All o the above are the challenges
o ault location methods. These challenges are given in the ollowing:
• Because o DGs in the smart grids and microgrids, the power fow and
ault current are rom each DG’s side which makes the ault location
procedure a challenging task
• Fault location algorithms must well perorm in both islanded and
grid-connected modes
• Fault current levels in the microgrid is dierent or islanded and grid-
connected modes which complicate ault location procedure
• Dierent control algorithms are applied to inverter-based DGs that
has an eect on ault current and voltage
• Energy storage systems can be connected and disconnected to the
network randomly in every possible node which brings about a
robust ault location algorithm
• Many uncertainties in line parameters, loads, and a huge amount o
data or processing can cause many diculties
o Communication and Automation Standards in Smart grid and Microgrid
Smart grids use communication sensors to collect inormation and
send it to the control center. This inormation is used or ault detection,
ault location, ault prediction and several other applications including
automation, energy management, AMI, etc. Advanced communication
technologies are needed to send this inormation. Various standards are

Table 2
Comparing various ault location methods and their characteristic in DNs.
Reerence [83] [147] [75] [3] [146] [145] [4] [144] [143] [85] [142] [136]
a a a a a a
Line model π DPLM DPLM DPLM π model DPLM DPLM short line short line DPLM DPLM π model
model model model
Load model static static static constant constant constant static constant constant static constant constant
load load load load load load load load load load load load
Load √ √ √ – – – √ – – – – –
estimation
Non- √ – √ √ – – √ – √ √ – √
homogeneity
Unbalanced √ – √ √ – – √ – – √ – √
system
Laterals √ – √ √ √ – √ √ √ √ √ √
Load taps √ – √ √ – √ √ √ √ √ – √
Fault type All All All All All SLGd SLGd All All All All All
Section – – CPb and – – Support Voltage – – –
– –
detection PDc vector sag
machine
Network Type Redial Redial Redial Redial Radial loop Radial Redial Redial Redial Redial Redial and
loop
Smart Grid – – – – – √ – √ – – – √
Distributed – – – – – – √ – – – √
generation
Time domain – √ – – √ – – – – – – –
Phase domain √ – √ √ – √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Sequence – – – – – √ √ – – – – –
domain
a
DPLM = distributed – parameter line model.
b
CP = current pattern.
c
PD = Protective devices.
d
SLG = Single-phase-to ground ault.

23
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Comparison o properties, advantages, and disadvantages in dierent methods Reerences Properties Advantages Disadvantages
o ault location in DNs.
–π line model is –Does not need to –Needs high
Reerences Properties Advantages Disadvantages used. know the type o the sampling rate
[77] –An impedance- –It presents two –It is hard to –Locates high ault. devices.
based method section estimation generate rich impedance arc –No need to know –Needs sampling
–Two section methods enough simulated aults. the line parameters. devices in all buses
estimation methods: –The section data or comparing –Distribution –Is applicable or o the network.
First: based on the estimation methods with real recorded networks without loop networks. –Highly sensitive to
comparison between are simpler data DGs are considered. measurement error.
real data and compared to –It is inapplicable or –A searching-based
simulated data o intelligent and state the networks with method is applied.
ault. estimation-based DGs [150] –Distributed line –Does not need to –Needs high
Second: based on the methods –Needs accurate line model is used. know the type o the sampling rate
comparison o those –It only uses parameters values –Locates all types o ault. devices.
data requency substation recorded –It needs the exact steady-state aults. –Does not need to –Needs sampling
spectrum. data value o the load o –Transmission lines know the type o the devices in all buses
each node are considered. ault. o the network.
[145] –Distributed line –Does not need to –Needs rich data –Time domain –No need to know –Highly sensitive to
model is used. know the type o the bank. equations-based the line parameters. measurement error.
–Locates single- ault. –Its structure is method is applied. –Is applicable or
phase aults. –No need to know complex. loop networks.
–Distribution the line parameters. –Has high [151] –Distributed line –Has a simple –Is inapplicable in
networks without –Estimates the real computational model is used. structure. ace o loop
DGs are considered. aulty section. burden. –Locates all types o –Needs only networks.
–A machine –Needs special pulse steady-state aults. recorded data at the –Has low accuracy
learning-based generator devices. –Distribution beginning o the or the unbalanced
method is applied. –Has slow time networks without eeder. load.
response. DGs are considered. –Applies phase –Has low accuracy
–Needs continues –Impedance-based domain data. against high DGs
training. method is applied. –Has low penetration.
–Is inapplicable computational –Has low reliability
against changing in burden. because o load
topology. characteristics and
[4] –Distributed line –Has a simple –Is inapplicable in ault varieties.
model is used. structure. ace o loop –Cannot detect a real
–Locates single- –Estimates real networks. section o the ault.
phase aults. aulty section. –Has low accuracy [152] –A state estimation- –Applicable on the –Needs accurate line
–Distribution –Needs only or unbalanced load. based method networks with DGs parameters
networks without recorded data at the –Has low accuracy –Faulty zone –No need to locate –Compared to
DGs are considered. beginning o the against high DGs separates with the measurement in all Impedance-based
–Impedance-based eeder. penetration. rest o the network node methods it needs
method is applied. –Applies phase –Has low reliability using revised state –It can detect the much more data
domain data. because o load estimation method. location o ault in –It has high
–Has low characteristics and the network with computational
computational ault varieties. high penetration burden compared to
burden. –Is inapplicable DGs Impedance-based
against changing in methods
topology. –The real aulty
[148] –π line model is –Does not need to –Needs high section can be
used. know the type o the sampling rate estimated with
–Locates single- ault. devices. higher accuracy
phase arc aults. –No need to know –Needs sampling [137] –An impedance- –Low computational –Needs accurate line
–Distribution the line parameters. devices in all buses based method. burden section parameters
networks without –Is applicable or o the network. –A section estimation method –The section
DGs are considered. loop networks. –Highly sensitive to estimation method –Applicable on both estimation method
–Time domain measurement error. based on the least- smart and needs an accurate
equations-based squares error o the traditional simulation o ault
method is applied. real and simulated distribution which is almost
[136] –π line model is –Has a simple –Is inapplicable in voltage samples. networks impossible in the
used. structure. ace o loop Distributed line –It only needs real word network
–Locates all types o –Needs only networks. parameters are used. voltage and current because o
steady-state aults. recorded data at the –Has low accuracy o substation and uncertainties
–Distribution beginning o the or unbalanced load. DGs –The section
networks with DGs eeder. –Has low accuracy estimation method is
are considered. –Applies phase against high DGs not robust against
–Impedance-based domain data. penetration. measurements error
method is applied. –Has low –Has a low –It is inapplicable in
computational reliability because o ace o high
burden. load characteristics unbalance load fow
and ault varieties. and DGs penetration
–Is inapplicable [153] –Distributed line –Does not need to –Needs high
against changing in model is used. know the type o the sampling rate
topology. –Locates all types o ault. devices.
–Cannot detect real steady-state and –Does not need to –Needs sampling
section o ault. transients’ aults. know the type o the devices in all buses
[149] –Distribution ault. o the network.
(continued on next page)

24
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Table 3 (continued ) measurements are used with a new impedance matrix or determining
Reerences Properties Advantages Disadvantages the location o various aults under noisy conditions. The proposed
method does not require ault characteristics and impedance o the
networks with all –No need to know –Highly sensitive to
types o DGs are the line parameters. measurement error.
external network and the DGs. In [161], a ault location approach based
considered. –Is applicable or on impedance is presented in smart distribution networks, which utilizes
–A hybrid time loop networks. synchronized/non-synchronized types o measurements in the pres-
domain equations- –Line parameters are ence/absence o distributed generators. This approach only involves the
based and meta- estimated using pre-
measurement o voltage drops at a ew buses and branch series imped-
heuristic-based ault data.
method is applied. –Is robust under ance. Although drops in voltage at DG buses are to be assessed syn-
dierent DGs chronously, synchronization amongst voltage drop measurements across
operations and the network is unessential.
modes. In [162], a method is presented or determining the aulty sections in
the smart grid, which is based on changing the old devices o the pro-
proposed by institutions such as ETSI, IEEE, IEC, ISO and ANSI to ensure tection systems through intelligent switches with ault sensors that can
the smooth exchange o this inormation [154–156]. Table 4 shows transmit their state to the operational centers.
some examples o these standards and their applications. In [163], zero sequence transient current distribution ater ault
Re. [157] presents a Wide-Area Traveling Wave Fault Location (WA- event is obtained at various requencies using S-transorm. The residual
TWFL) technique that uses IEC61850. This algorithm initially identies energy is used to describe the signal dierences at the end o each sec-
the network monitoring area where the disturbance source originates by tion. The section with maximum residual energy is considered as the
examining the propagation times o the traveling wave via the extended aulty section. This method does not require the voltage magnitude. The
double end technique. Subsequently, the line with the ault and the ault zero-sequence transient current ater ault is considered as the analysis
distance are ound through chosen records rom the detected distur- target. The residual energy between two ends o the aulty section is
bance area. The authors also provide data models or traveling waves larger than two ends o a section without ault. This method is robust
derived rom IEC61850, which supports interoperability and open against ault location, ault angle, and transition resistance.
communication between data acquisition devices and the WA-TWFL In [164], an adaptation method is presented based on load estima-
master station. The researchers in [158] presented a protection tion and using PMU in DNs. The proposed algorithm does not require
scheme based on traveling waves or an intelligent substation in distri- load distribution inormation and is not aected by load capacity, load
bution systems according to IEC61850. They have adopted WLAN type, and ault type. The sel-adaptation measure ater ault is calculated
communication based on the Sample Value (SV) and have calculated the in real-time to prevent the eect o switching and DG output. This al-
SV packet size specically or the traveling wave base ault location gorithm is suitable or monitoring short-circuit aults and determining
method. Nevertheless, they have not described the inormation their location in smart grids with high penetration DGs.
modeling o traveling wave intelligent electronic devices or invoking In [137], a novel impedance-based ault location algorithm has been
IEC61850 SV services. Re. [159] investigates the location o the ault in presented or the smart distribution network equipped with micro-
an IEEE 34 bus network via the SCADA system, current and voltage phasor measurement units, data loggers, and distributed generations.
measurements, and the impedance-base technique. The communication Two types o ully and not ully observable networks are considered. For
o the data collection devices with the control equipment has been the rst type, the network is ully observable by a minimum number o
standardized using DNP3. These protocols play a crucial role in SCADA micro-phasor measurement units. There are a limited number o micro-
systems by providing communication between the SCADA master sta- phasor measurement units in the network (on the substation and DGs as
tion and the smart electronic devices and Remote Terminal Units. a minimum requirement) and data loggers on the rest nodes in the
second type. A new two-stage algorithm is proposed to determine each
3.5.1. Fault location methods in smart grid node’s initial and accurate load by applying the particle swarm opti-
In [160], an impedance method is introduced or ault location in mization algorithm. As impedance-based algorithms determine several
DNs, which can be used or single-source and multiple-source smart locations or ault in the network, a new simple least-squares error-based
grids. Two algorithms have been presented or ault location in which method, which has a lower computational burden than its other coun-
synchronous voltages beore ault and during ault received at multiple terparts, has been presented.
buses by PMUs, or data o the asynchronous AMI are used. Voltage drop
3.5.2. Fault location methods in microgrid
Upon ault occurrence, the initial current and voltage traveling
Table 4 waves propagate in the DC microgrid. Thereore, ault location can be
Some examples o communication and automation standards in DNs and smart determined through analyzing characteristics o the traveling waves
grid [154–156]. including time intervals at dierent locations [165], subsequent arrival
Name o Standard Application/details times to a terminal, the time interval between the rst arrivals at both
IEC 61850 Communication standard or the power utility automation
terminals, and measuring the rst arrival time o the traveling waves to
IEC 60870-5 Communication standard or telecontrol the transormer stations [166]. However, ault location based on trav-
IEC 60870-6 Communication between the control centers eling waves requires ecient devices or data collection. Also, in
IEC 60834 Teleprotection Equipment microgrids with short distribution lines and complicated topology, many
IEC 61970 Energy management services application program interace
refections occur that aect accuracy adversely. The arrival time o the
(EMS-API)
IEC 61968 System interaces or distribution management (Synchrophasor waves is also short, which requires many samplings. Thereore, ault
measurement) location based on traveling waves is not suitable or microgrids.
IEC 61334 Distribution automation using distribution line carrier systems The methods based on active impedance estimation (AIE) and power
IEC 61499 Distributed control and automation probe unit (PPU) are used to determine ault location based on injection.
IEEE C37.118.2 Synchrophasor Data Transer
IEEE 1815 (DNP3) Electric power systems communications- distributed network
In the ault location method based on AIE, ater detecting a ault, a
protocol triangular waveorm is injected by a power converter. Then, the
ETSI EN 300 132- Operating voltage range in normal condition or DC system impedance is calculated at the connection point. Finally, the ault is
3-1 located by the reactive component [167]. In another method, a PPU is
ANSI C12.22 Data network communications
used to constitute the second-order RLC circuit through the ault route.

25
R. Dashti et al.
Then, the current response o the problem is analyzed, and ault distance
is obtained in damped resonance requency [168]. The essential
advantage o these methods is that they do not require a communication
system and high accuracy; but, their implementation cost is high since
they require additional devices.
In [169], a ault location method is presented or single-phase
microgrids. The ault is located by a linear relationship between the
magnitude o the transient signal resulting rom ault obtained by the
sensor and the distance between the sensor and the ault location. As the
distance between the sensor and the ault location increases, the
magnitude o the received transient signals increases. Finally, an algo-
rithm is designed to determine ault location based on a new relationship
and integration o the inormation obtained rom various sensors. The
error o this method is <10%.
Generally, to detect a ault and protect the network, a dierential
protection system is used. However, dierential protection-based ault
location methods have been investigated in various studies. Authors o
[170] have measured the current at both ends o the line, and Ethernet
cable (IEC 61850) is used to send the obtained inormation to both ends.
In the rst step, the ault is detected using the modied cumulative sum
average method considering several dierential current samples. A set
o samples, including voltage and currents o both ends, are collected
and used to calculate resistance and impedance rom one end to the
aulty point by the non-iterative Moore-Penrose pseudo-inverse tech-
nique. The main disadvantage o the dierential methods depends on
the presence o reliable and ast communication systems.
Authors o [171] have presented an online ault location method or
islanded DC microgrids. The presented algorithm specied ault location
based on transient states o current and voltage. Line-to-line and pole-to-
ground aults are analyzed independently, and the algorithms are
developed based on the current change rate. Transient measurements
are recorded locally and used to locate short-circuit aults. While the
communication-based method is used to locate impedance aults. The
error o the proposed method or line-to-line short-circuits ault is 0.37%
and 0.4% or pole-to-ground ault.
In [172], local current and voltage values and di/dt signals at each
PD are measured or estimating the inductance between PD and ault.
The online moving window least-squares method uses the samples at
dierent times to estimate the inductance. The ault location accuracy
can be increased using ast di/dt; but making it noise-sensitive. There-
ore, a digital and advanced method is required or calculating di/dt, and
a digital lter is required to obtain the desired accuracy. Also, this
method is based on a type o DC microgrid. In this microgrid, the
capacitor is connected to one end o the cable; DC microgrids are not
usually designed like this.
In [173], a method is proposed or locating aults in AC mesh
microgrids. In there, a set o eatures measured rom the signals are
selected and extracted. Then, they are given to an SVM or ault detec-
tion. The presented method can determine ault locations or grid-
connected and islanded microgrids with various congurations. A
ault is usually detected in 20 ms, and the ault location is determined
based on harmonic injection strategies in 80 ms.
In [174], a ault location method based on an impedance is presented
or a three-phase microgrid. In this method, current and voltage mea-
surements at both ends o the section are used to locate the ault. This
method can be applied to various ault types. The maximum error o the
presented method is obtained or resistance o 50 Ω and a line-to-line
error o 0.8%.
In [175], a transient state o voltage and current is used to design an
online method to locate the ault in the absence o communication
systems in the islanded DC microgrids. A mathematical model is ob-
tained or a aulty network which is used in the proposed algorithm or
estimating the ault location. An estimation-based method is applied to
this model to determine the accurate location and resistance o the ault.
The internal aults with an error rate o <2% and reliability higher than
95% are located. The ault location time is 0.75 ms. The proposed
26
Measurement 184 (2021) 109947
method can be used or both pole-to-pole and pole-to-ground aults. This
algorithm does not depend on the operating point and the topology o
the microgrid.
Another method or ault location based on the concept o the ratio o
the transient voltage dened as the ratio o the measured voltages at
both sides o the inductor terminal is dened in the time domain [176].
This method has two states: a single terminal and a double terminal. In
the single terminal method, local measurement is used. However, i the
ault resistance is large, its accuracy would be low. On the other hand,
the double-terminal method’s accuracy is higher, but it has an additional
communication system and two voltage sensors.
In [177], a method is presented to detect and determine ault loca-
tion in circular LVDC microgrids. This method is based on a multi-
criterion system or ault detection and a neural network or ault
location. This presented method requires a big data bank and is operated
ofine. Among the disadvantages o this method, inormation updating
can be mentioned. The maximum error o the presented method is re-
ported as 0.0089%.
Table 5 compares the ault location methods in microgrids.
3.6. A combined results and discussion or ault location methods in
electrical distribution networks, smart grid, and microgrid
In this part, dierent ault location methods are investigated and
reviewed or traditional and smart power distribution networks. Ac-
cording to the studies, it was observed that each o the methods is not
able to determine the location o the ault 100%. Thereore, all cases and
problems o the methods are based on the block diagram expressed in
Figs. 25 and 31, so to overcome these problems, researchers try using
hybrid methods, the data o various measuring instruments approved in
the network with dierent sampling rate, pattern recognition algorithms
and learning machine based on a large and accurate database, etc.
urthermore, the accuracy o the presented methods is depended on
some vital characteristics such as load model and data, ault resistances,
line parameters, ault time, ault type, data resolution, updating data,
data volume, network conguration, and instrument accuracy. There-
ore, given the above, achieving a simple and comprehensive approach
still requires deeper and broader research.
4. Future research
Ater reviewing and analyzing various methods or ault prediction
and ault location in electrical distribution networks, uture research
directions are presented as ollows:
• Electric vehicles are connected to the grid in two modes. In the rst
mode (G2V), the battery is charging and acting as a load. In the
second mode (V2G), the battery is ully charged and can inject cur-
rent into the grid. The eects o these two modes on ault location
methods require urther research.
• The current signal increases the measurement error due to its infu-
ence on the transormer saturation conditions. It is necessary to
investigate a method or locating the ault that determines the ault
location in electrical distribution networks using only the voltage at
the beginning o the eeder.
• The key to the wide adoption o ault location algorithms is
simplicity, cost-eectiveness, and low sampling rate data re-
quirements. Using the least amount o data helps the simplicity and
usability o the algorithm. A comprehensive ault location method
using data only rom the existing inrastructures such as smart meters
needs urther investigation.
• The presence o FACTS devices in electrical distribution networks
compensates or the ault current and can cause an error in calcu-
lating the ault location. Thereore, it is necessary to provide a ault
location method that is independent o the eects o FACTS devices.
R. Dashti et al. Measurement 184 (2021) 109947

Table 5
Comparison o ault location methods in microgrids.
Reerence [171] [173] [175] [174] [177]

Network Type Loop Loop Loop Radial Loop

Fault type LL & monopole ground Three-phase ault to ground LL&LG All LL&LG
Line model Short Line Model Short Line Model Short Line Model π Line Model Short Line Model
Line Parameters constant constant constant constant constant
Load estimation – – – √ –
Non-homogeneity √ – – – –
Unbalanced system – – – √ –
Laterals – – – √ –
Load taps √ √ √ √ √
Section detection – √ – √ √
Time domain √ – √ – –
Phase domain – – – √ –
Machin Learning – SVM – – Neural Network
Island mode √ √ √ √ √
Grid connected mode – √ – √ √
Microgrid Type DC AC DC AC DC

• The operation o microgrids in islanded or grid-connected modes
may have an adverse eect on the ault location process. I a ault
occurs in a microgrid when it is linked to the grid, its location is
hardly detectable. This occurs because the microgrid is linked to a
large and reliable grid, making ault location a dicult task. To
address this issue, the impact o DGs controllers should be included
in ault location ormulation. In islanded mode, on the other hand,
the level o ault current may vary owing to the DGs injected current,
which alters the amount o ault current. Islanded grid ault location
techniques should deal with this issue in uture work to ensure
appropriate unctioning. Furthermore, or uture study, techniques
or locating aults should be resilient and adaptable, unctioning
correctly regardless o the network’s operating mode.
• To anticipate aults, ault prediction methods oten make use o a
undamental intelligent model, a limited collection o heuristic
network aults, and a limited quantity o data. In uture work, a mix
o heuristic network data, meteorological data, and geospatial data
can be used to provide a comprehensive platorm or network ailure
prediction.
• Faults in network equipment, such as power transormers that need
specialized chemicals to cool themselves, may also be the result o
chemical or electrical problems. Utilizing chemical analysis and
electrical data associated with equipment is another easible alter-
native that has the potential to signicantly improve the eective-
ness o ault prediction methods that should be investigated in uture
research.
• Arcs inside the cable contribute to a portion o the ault in under-
ground cables, which may be observed in the voltage or current
signal. Along with heuristic ault data, spark patterns in underground
cables coupled with historical records can be used to develop a more
comprehensive and accurate ault prediction model.
5. Conclusion
Considering the importance o reliability in power systems, espe-
cially DNs, and the direct impact o ault, researchers have proposed
various methods or ault prediction and ault location. In this paper,
various modern methods proposed or ault prediction and location in
DNs or increasing network reliability, ast recovery, optimal electric
energy consumption, and customer satisaction have been evaluated. In
this paper, various aults are investigated and ault prediction methods
have been studied. Then, the ault location in DN is divided into distance
determination and detecting the aulty section due to the existence o
various branches considering network devices and the used algorithm.
Then, impedance methods, dierential methods, and traveling waves
have been studied or ault distance determination. Each method has
advantages and disadvantages or implementation in the DN. In the
detection o the aulty section, implementation o a ault location al-
gorithm is dicult and complicated since an accurate and massive data
bank, high sampling rate and accurate inormation o the network are
required. In some methods, a small change in the network topology
changes all designs or ault location. Since the DNs have specic
characteristics, various operation conditions and devices such as a
capacitor, auto-booster, compensator, recloser, sectionalizer, cut-out
use, and VIT switches or optimal operation, ault location in these
networks would be complicated that requires a comprehensive approach
that can respond all requirements o the DNs. With all o these in-
terpretations, implementation problems or ault location and prediction
are unresolved and require urther research.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to infuence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by “Smart Fault Prediction and Location or
Distribution Grids” project, unded by the Danish Energy Agency under
the Energy Technology Development and Demonstration Program, ID
number: 64019-0592.
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