Institutional Management

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"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi
Ite~1IndiraGandhi . MES-044
~ National Open University .
School of Education Institutional
Management
Block
1
MANAGEMENT OF CURRICULUM
UNITl
Classroom Management (Instructional Management) 5

UNIT 2
Curriculum Transaction 29,

UNIT 3
Management of Evaluation 53
UNIT 4 .
Management of Academic Resources 69

UNIT 5
Management of Curricular & Co Curricular

Programmes & Activities 82
Expert Committee
Prof. Lokesh Koul Prof. S.L. Jena Prof. S.V.S. Choudhary
Prof. Emeritus (Education) Former Director Vice Chairman, NCTE
Himachal Pradesh University, State Council of Educational Delhi
Shimla, H.P. Research and Training (SCERT)
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Bhubaneshwar, Orissa
Prof. Snehaben Joshi Lecturer (Selection Grade)
Formerly with Deptt. of Dr. Nayan Tara Special Invitee
Educational Administration, Faculty, Public Systems SOE,IGNOU
Faculty of Education and Indian Institute of Management
Prof. Vibha Joshi
Psychology. M.S. University of Bangalore
SOE,IGNOU
Baroda, Vadodara,Gujarat
Prof. B.B. Khanna
Prof. K. Sudharao School of Management Studies
Senior Fellow IGNOU
Higher Education Unit
Prof. S.K. Panda
National University of
STRIDE, IGNOU
Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA) Prof.M.L. Koul
Aurobindo Marg Director, SOE, IGNOU
New Delhi
Course Preparation Team

-Course Contributors Unit Design and Editing
Dr. Vardhini Bhattacharya Ms. Vijeta Banwari Prof. Vibha Joshi

Regional Director, Guwahati Lecturer, Surajmal Institution SOE,IGNOU
Assam of Management and
Content Editing
Technology, Delhi
Prof. Debu Bhattacharya
Prof. M.B. Menon
M.B. Menon Mr. Trilokes De
Chief Education
Principal, NE RIE Consultant
Planning and Management
Shillong, Meghalaya SOE,IGNOU
Division
Dr. Bharati Dogra Proof Reading Deptt. of Edu UNRWA
Lecturer, Army College of HQ(A), Jordon
Mr. Trilokes De
Education
Consultant
New Delhi
SOE,IGNOU
Production
Prof. M.L. Koul Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam M. Sumathy Nair
Director Assistant Registrar (Pub.) S.O. (Pub.)
School of Education
October, 2009
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2009
ISBN: 978-81-266-4267-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
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/
MES..044 INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT
Course Introduction
A global emphasis on the quality, relevance and impact of education is focusing
attention on policy reform, innovation, equity, access, relevance along with regional
and global competitiveness. This course is designed to provide students with the
knowledge and understanding to manage and lead the change in educational
institutions both in national and international contexts. The education has been
undergoing tremendous changes which can impact upon teachers and others who
manage and lead educational institutions. In order to bring the best in professional
knowledge and practice to support schools and teachers in meeting these challenges,
need for professional skills to manage effectively any education endeavour is must.
This course focuses on management of an institution. Here contents are presented in
five blocks comprising twenty units. The course begun with the block management
of curriculum and fifth or the last block is on total qualitymanagement in an institutional
context. In brief, we discussed the five blocks given under below.
The first block discussed on management of curriculum. Here we elaborated on
various dimensions of classroom management and factors influencing classroom
management. These are also focused on curriculum transaction with an understanding
of the dynamics ofclassroom management which essentially involves the practical
techniques ofmanagement. On the other hand, we also discussed management of
evaluation, academic resources and curricular and eo-curricular programmes and
activities.
The second block examined management of financial resources, here we

discussed educational fmance, and its meaning and importance. Moreover, resource
.••..
mobilisation, accounting and budgeting has also been discussed. ,
The third block focussed on management of student support system. It is possible
to explore how student support can be changed with the help of administrative and
human resource management. Here also we have elaborated on administrative
resources and human resources management in the educational management<,context.
The fourth block involved with management of infrastructure, where we discussed
the need, importance and utilization ofinfrastructural resources. Along with that we
also focused on physical resources management in the view of educational context.
The last block, i.e. fifth block discussed on total quality management, where the
whole discussion focused on quality control, quality assurance, tools of management,
strategies for quality improvement and role of different agencies and issues for
research.
/
BLOCK 1 MANAGEMENT OF
CURRICULUM
Block Introduction
Management is about obtaining results through people by utilizing interpersonal,
administrative and technical skills to accomplish various tasks. Curriculum provides
a general background for students who want to operate their own educational arena
or want to enter the professional fields of management. This block on management
of curriculum consists of 5 units. Let us discuss all the units in brief.
Unit 1 dealt with classroom management. The primary function of a school is
increased student learning over time. This requires a school system to establish a
clear, varied, and measurable set of pupil standards for learning. Standards are then
used to formulate measurable objectives that are set into a workable framework for
teachers. A requirement of school system committed to continuous improvement of
the teaching and learning process is the development of a comprehensive class room
management plan Withinthe broad curriculum management plan. ,
Unit 2 presents details of curriculum transaction which essentially involves the
practical techniques of managing the operations of curriculum. Actually, this unit
starts with the formal and non-formal nature of curriculum with relevant illustration.
It also discusses two major theoretical perspectives in curriculum area, i.e.
behaviourist and constructivist approaches which are ot vital importance in transacting
curriculum. The unit ends with discussion on the need for evaluation of curriculum
transaction processes.
Unit 3 of this block is management of evaluation. In this unit, a detailed description
is provided on various aspects of evaluation. Although an in depth knowledge of
evaluation is an essential component for every teacher, it is not imparted as a full
fledged-subject of study anywhere in the country. Yet evaluation is practised by all
the teachers to determine the extent ofleaming of each learner leading to accreditation
and certification. Broadly, evaluation provides an assessment of each learner as well
as facilitates course improvement by indentifying the weakness of particular course/
programme.
Unit 4 encompasses with management of academic resources. The importance
of academic resources for any educational organisation is known to all associated
with education. In this unit we have discussed the meaning of academic resources, .
need for maaegernent and basics of academic resources. Attempt has been made to
discuss them "••1th examples.
1~e last unit Le, unit:} CJ••~. '''fmanagement of curricular and eo-curricular
.:~me and activities. The unit started with the concept of curricular and co-
curricular activities, their interrelationship and inter-linkages, types and need. An
attempt has also been made to touch upon the eo-curricular programmes and activities
-,in an educational institution. Further we have discussed the various steps involved in
management of curricular and eo-curricular activities. A few checklist and other
schedules have been included that could be of use to teachers and coordinators
associated with the organisation and overall management of eo-curricular activities
. inaschool or an educational institution.
/
UNIT 1 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
(Instructional Management)
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Concept of Classroom
1.4 Need for Classroom Management
1.5 Concept of Classroom Management
1.6 Schools of Thought on Classroom Management

1.6.1 Authoritarian School
1.6.2 Permissive School
1.6.3 Behavior Modification School
1.6.4 Interpersonal Relationships School
1.6.5 Scientific School
1.6.6 Folklore School
1.6.7 Limit Setting Approaches School
1.6.8 Cognitive Behaviorism School
1.6.9 Humanistic School
1.6.10 Discipline Oriented School
1.7 Components of Classroom Management

1.7.1 Proactive Phase
1.7.2 Interactive Phase
1.8 Other Determinants of Classroom Management

1.8.1 Punctuality in Starting the Lesson
1.8.2 Seating Arrangement
1.8.3 Outside Disturbances
1.8.4 Student Talk
1.8.5 Filling Time
1.8.6 Closing Time
1.8.7 Teacher Confidence
1.8.8 Class Size
1.8.9 Curriculum
1.8.10 Age of the Learner
1.8.11 Caste/ Community
1.8.12 Ability
1.9 Indices of Effective Classroom Management
1.10 Discipline and the Management ofMisbehavior in Classrooms
1.11 Let Us Sum up
1.12 Unit EndActivities
1.13 References
1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

s
Management of Curriculum
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Schools and colleges are the functional units of educational systems in the modem
world. These institutions have components which interact in specified ways to lead
to the progressive development of learners enrolled. An important component of
the system is the classroom because it is basically here that the main transactions
which are aimed at promoting development of the learners take place. The success
of school/college systems to a great extent depends on the quality ofthe learning
environment within and even outside the classroom. The learning environment within
the classrooms is largelydetermined by the manner in which the classroom is organized
and the techniques through which the classroom processes are conducted. In other
words, classroom management is a significant determinant of the success of an
educational system. In this unit, you will study about various dimensions of classroom
management, factors influencing classroom management and other related aspects
which will enable you to discern ways and means of managing classrooms to maximize
productivity oflearning time.
1.2· OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of classroom;

• justify the need for classroom management;
• list out various dimensions of a classroom which need to be managed;
• describe various schools of thought on classroom management;
• identify factors affecting classroom management and behavior;
• describe the role ofthe teacher in classroom management; and
• identify criteria of effective classroom management.
1.3 CONCEPT OF CLASSROOM

" fact that leaming can occur at home, in religious places, on
All of us are aware of tlte
the road, and almost anywhere. This kind oflearning is informal in nature. Quite a
considerable amount of learning which occurs in our life is through such kind of
learning. It occurs incidentallgjlt can take place anywhere, anytime, There is no
organized effort for this kind ofleaming, For instance, you happen to visit a country
and learn about the mode of greeting, orthe 'direction to a destination just by being
there for a short while. ". . ,
•• '!t".'"
Since the past few centuries, the most popular method of education is through the
formal system of education in schools and colleges. We all have had the experience
of sitting in classrooms where learning took place. If you were asked to describe
what is meant by a classroom, certainly you would be able to do so. You will say
that a group oflearners assemble in a room of an institution to learn. They are
guided by a qualified person called a teacher who arranges a learning environment
to lead the pupils to what they wish to learn. Technically, a structured learning
environment in which a group oflearners along with a teacher transact content matter,
activities and other experiences in order to bring about cognitive, affective and
psychomotor behaviors in learners is called a classroom. For example, a group of
learners assemble in a classroom over a period of one week and learn various
6 operations of fractions under the guidance of the mathematics teacher. This is a
/
structured learning environment where the teacherpIans the lesson, identifies activities Classroom Management
for learners to perform, provides feedback, drill, etc for the learners and enables (Instructional Manageinent)
learning to take place. However, this does not mean that every classroom has a
fixed defined structure in which the teacher stands before a group oflearners and
teaches them by explaining concepts, facts, etc., to them. For instance; consider a
classroom where learners are studying about nature depicted in poems. The teacher
divides the learners into four teams. Each team is given a poem to be discussed by
the team members to identify and describe about nature as contained in the poems.
This is also a classroom which is structured in a different way. With modem
technology and the changing concept of instruction, the concept of the classroom
too has become comprehensive, to include face to face teaching and learning, group
teaching with cooperative and competitive elements, online learning, etc. However,
in our country,the most popular kind oflearning is the simple classroom when learners
assemble at a particular place at a specified time in a room where the teacher facilitates
their learning. In this unit, it is this kind of a structure which will represent the concept
of classroom.
1.4 NEED FOR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

From what you studied so far, it seems quite easy to visualize the ~ommon kind of a
classroom where teachers and learners are present for a specific purpose, namely,
the growth and development of the learners. But you should understand that the
classroom is a complex situation in which a number of factors are operating and all
these contribute or even sometimes hinder the achievement of specified goals. To
name a few factors, the infrastructure available, the planning of the lesson, the entry
behavior ofthe learners, their motivation, external and internal disruptions, the
teacher's capacity to facilitate learning etc.
Study the following classroom situations:
1. Mary is a young teacher who has been teaching for a couple of years in the
school. She is very enthusiastic to see that her students learn concepts effectively.
To teach the concepts of profit and loss, she gets the class to simulate a shop
situation with the students acting as shopkeeper, customers transacting selling
and buying. Students fmd it interesting. The class begins, but as it progresses,
it becomes disorganized and Mary fmds she cannot control the students. She
later finds out that specific guidelines limiting the interaction was not given at the
outset of the class. As such, the students behaved as they wanted creating lot
of noise.
2. Reshma is taking the first lesson after the students have passed on to Class 7
from Class 6. She writes down the names of several chemical substances on
the board and asks the students to classify these into elements, compounds
and mixtures. There is a lot of student talk in the class. Reshma does not mind
it since she thinks that the students are engaged in discussing the exercise given
to them. After some time, when she checks the responses of the students, she
finds that none of the students have worked out the exercise and class time has
been wasted. She gets angry and walks out of the class. Later, she comes to 1
know that the students had not been taught these concepts in the previous class
although as per syllabus, they should have been exposed to this knowledge.
3. Mrs. Singh is an English teacher. She enters Class 8 and begins to teach the
poem 'Daffodils' by Wordsworth. Generally, every year she observes that all
children enjoy learning this poem. They would ask her to read the poem once
again and display many facial expressions of joy, appreciation, etc. On that
. .
day however, when she starts the lesson she observes that the students are 7
/
Management ofCurrieulum morose and dull. They appeared not to be motivated at all. Later she came to
know that the class picnic proposed on Sunday was called offby the class
teacher in the previous class.
In the above examples, you see how various factors influence the classroom
processes. In any particular classroom situation, all factors need to be synchronized
so that effective learning takes place. There is no readymade procedure of setting
these factors. Classrooms are dynamic by nature and hence we may have to respond
to emerging situations in a variety of ways. It is through prolonged experience that
teachers learn to orchestrate differentaspects of the classroom to create fruitful
learning in students. Many fresh teachers report problems in managing their rooms
effectively.
It is importantto note that every teacher needs to equip himselflherself with skills to
arrange classroom processes. A teacher who is extremely knowledgeable about
the subject matter but does not have the skills of managing the classroom, in all
probability will not be able to effect learning among students. It is due to this necessity,
educationists have conducted research on a number of variables constituting
classroom management.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) What is informal learning?
2) Define classroom .
..................................................... ; .
3) Why do we say that classroom situatiooo are complex?

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1.5 CONCEPt OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Systematic organisation and manipulation of various factors in a classroom context
.iu.such a manner that learners get the opportunity to learn and progress towards the
attainment ofleamisg objectives is referred to as classroom management. Sometimes,
8 the term cl~ management is.intel'P-~ to mean that the classroom is orderly
/
and misbehavior is of students is controlled. Although orderlybehavior is an impoqant Classroom Management
index of classroom management it cannot be synonymous with classroom (Instructional Management)
management. This is because classroom management implies the provision of

procedures and facilities in the classroom which will generate an environment in
which instruction and learning can take place. As stated by Doyle (1986) teaching
practices that lead to passive non engagement would not threaten an orderly
environment, but would reduce opportunities for learning. Student learning is a
primary goal of effective classroom management.
Researchers have identified an important aspect associated with the concept of
classroom management. 'Time on task' that is, the amount oftime within a lesson
that students spend engaging with classroom rather than on other activities such as
socializing moving around the classroom and being disciplined (Brophy & Good
1986, Reynolds &Muij s, 1999 b) Now, let us just think of a few classrooms.
Classroom A, has all students sitting tight at their desks with their books open. The
teacher reads out matter say, the First World War from the text book and all learners
are following the same in their textbooks. Here and there, the teacher explains
certain points perceived by her to be difficult for the learners. The class presents an
extremely orderly structure where learning is taking place. In classroom B, the
teacher is slightly late to arrive in the class. Students are moving out of their places,
socializing. The class is noisy. When the teacher enters, she shouts at the students
to return to their seat sand settle down. Thereafter, she spends quite a bit of classroom
time on explaining the importance of discipline. She reprimands a few learners
whom she observed to be shouting when she entered the classroom. A few minutes
after the lesson begins, the bell rings and brings the lesson to a close. Classroom C,
is in progress. The teacher clearly begins by explaining to the class what she intends
them to learn in the class session. She initiates the teaching concept, namely,
geometrical figures. The students are engaged in the activity of cutting squares,
triangles, circles, etc. They do move around the class while they do the activities,
they help each other, compare their products, etc. for most part of the lesson.
Towards the end, the teacher draws their attention to the various figures cut out by
them and asks them to describe the main features of each figure, the commonalities
and differences in the figures, etc. and makes out a summary chart ofthe conclusions
with the help of students' observations.
Let us compare the three classrooms. In classroom A, there is visibly a lot of order,
the teacher is active and the learners are conforming to the desire of the teacher that
they follow the content in the textbook. Leai .ing mayor may not be taking place.
The ti~e on task is usefully spent but perhaj > lacks quality, Classroom B, as you
can see, is in utter chaos. Modifying behavior of the learners by reprimanding them
is in focus. Time on task is practically nil since, valuable time has been lost in bringing
order into the class. Classroom C, you will agree, has given enough scope for
learning to occur. Time on task is maximised. Although students move around the
class, it is to contribute towards the task. The class is in fact orderly because the
teaching strategy is effective. The smooth flow of the lesson takes care ofbehavior
management automatically. As you can see, the activities in the classroom blend into
one another without much effort from the teacher. Student behavior is due to the
efficiency in classroom management and not due to disciplining techniques.
From the above discussion, it is clear that classroom management is to be viewed as
a process of creating conditions under which student misbehavior is less likely to
occur thereby leading to learner productivity.
9
1.6 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
As you have understood so far,the twin features of effective classroom management

are creating a learning environment and increasing the appropriate behavior in the
classroom. Advocates of schools of thought on classroom management, while
intrinsically accepting the above concept as a whole are inclined to emphasise or
highlight either the learning environment or order to a great extent. Below are
discussed some of the popular schools of thought on classroom management.
1.6.1 Authoritarian School

The advocates of this school believe that classroom management is largely a
responsibility of the teacher. They should maintain order in the institution and
classroom with the help of well constructed rules. Being more experienced than
learners and knowledgeable persons they have a right to determine how the classroom
and its activities will be organized and managed. However, it is likely to stifle the
originality, creativity, etc. of the learners.
Consider a classroom where Mr. Pal is conducting a lesson on the parts of a plant.
He draws the figure of a plant on the blackboard and labels the parts. He describes
the different parts. He asks the students to draw the figure in their books. He
corrects the figures. He tells the students to practice this at their homes since he
would test them in the next class. Here, Pal has conducted authoritarian classroom
management. He has decided how the learners will learn. In the process he has
curbed the learners' spontaneity to learn. He could have asked each one of them to
bring a plant sample to the class and through an interactive approach, he could have
elicited from the students the various parts of the plant.
1.6.2 Permissive School

This school of thought stands in direct opposition to the preceding one. Here,
individual freedom and choice are given importance. The classroom is managed in
such a way as to give the learners autonomy to make their own decisions and be
responsible for their behavior. If not managed well, there is every chance that students
take advantage ofthe freedom and a laissez faire type of situation prevails in the
classroom leading to practically no learning. '
To develop the reading, organizational and narrative abilities of the learners, the
teacher directs them to select any historical! political personality and research into
the life ofthe person and write a report which shall be presented before the class
and discussed. Here, the learner has the freedom of choice to take decision and
plan hislher work and be responsible for preparation of the report.
1.6.3 Behavior Modification School

Advocates of this school are behaviorists who believe in controlling behavior and
managing classrooms through a system of rewards and punishments. If a learner
displays desired behaviors he/she is given a positive feedback and ifthe learner
displays undesirable behavior, he is given negative feedback. For example, a teacher
'praises a learner who has improved hislher spellings. At the same time, a learner
who fails to complete hislher homework is made to sit during recess and complete
it. In classroom management, the teacher focuses on encouraging desirable behavior
and stamping out undesirable behavior using reinforcers, both positive and negative.
However, this type of classroom management may convert the entire classroom
10 transactions into a mechanistic exercise.
/
1.6.4 Interpersonal Relationships School Classroom Management
This school ofthought gives importance to positive relationships between teacher
and student and among students themselves. It is believed that healthy classroom
climate will be generated with negotiation and suggestions as mechanisms of
classroom management and learning will automatically take place. It is quite possible
that in some situations, good personal relationships become an end in themselves
and the real purpose of the classroom namely, the acquisition of knowledge and
skills becomes secondary.
1.6.5 Scientific School

This school of thought is of the view that teaching is an activity which can be studied
and analysed. Based on empirical studies, a body of data, theories, etc. have been
generated on the basis of which practice ofteaching can be conducted. Similarly,
based on research it is possible to identify particular teaching skills for effective
classroom management. A few examples of such skills can be, beginning a lesson,
questioning, handling transitions, being vigilant and so on. Of course, those who
believe that teaching is an art, perhaps, will not support the stand taken by this
school of thought. They would maintain the view that teaching is an art and therefore,
teaching.classroom management etc. are largely intuitive and depend upon the
personality of the teacher.
1.6.6 Folklore School

According to this school, ifthe new teacher can assimilate the received wisdom of
the profession, the' tips' for teachers and' tricks of the trade' , thenhe/she will be
suitably equipped to deal with most contingencies. However, quite a few would
opine that tips lacking in theoretical basis, are random and unrelated to each other
and may suit the person who professes them but not the recipient.
1.6.7 Limit Setting Approaches School

The advocates ofthis school ofthought believe that a teacher can work out a set of
rules indicatingclearlydefined limits of acceptable behavior. Classroom management
is done in accordance with these limits. Positive recognition, incentives, etc. are
given in appropriate situations and certain consequences for disruptive behavior are
also given. Both are graded in degrees. For example, in case of a student who
comes late to school, the following limits ma y be set.
Once-- discussion with the teacher
Twice-stay back in class during recess
Thrice=visit to the principal's office
More than thrice-parents would have to discuss the matter with the teacher
Similarly, students who do well in school, keep the classroom neat and tidy, follow
directions given by the teacher, cooperate and work together, the teacher may plan
to take them out for a picnic.
1.6.8 Cognitive Behaviorism School

Classroom Management under this school of thought is a problem solving situation.
Particular circumstances which arise in the classroom are treated as cognitive
problems. For instance, the students in a class have the problem of shouting out
answers out of turn, whenever the teacher raises a question. They try to check this 11
------------------------------------~~---------
Management of Curriculum behavior by discussing how they could set right this situation. They decide that
anyone who shouts the answer will have to write out the answer 50 times.
1.6.9 Humanistic School

Under this school ofthoughtthe teacher is viewed not as a director or authoritarian
person of the class. On the other hand, he/she is a facilitator who maintains a
democratic atmosphere in the class. Unacceptable behavior is discussed as a problem
which needs to be set right through deployment of effective counseling and
communication skills. Consider a learner who is aggressive and bullies others in the
class. The teacher makes special efforts to meet this student after class hours,
discuss the problem in understanding and affectionate way and gradually encourages
the learner to be helpful rather than aggressive towards class fellows.
1.6.10 Discipline Oriented School

The advocates of this school generally adhere to the view that discipline is a key
factor in classroom management. Glaser(1969), Kounin (1979), Dreikur (1968),
Charles (2002) Ginott (1982) and such other researchers have listed out aspects
of effective discipline and behavior which are conducive to classroom management.
The need for working rules ofbehavior, momentum in lessons, student accountability,
self discipline, cooperation, democratic classrooms, etc. are a few specific ideas
highlighted by these writers. You will learn more details in Section 1.10.
The above exposition of schools of thought on classroom management has clearly
indicated that it is a complex process. People have researched into this process and
emerged with varying perspectives on how they view classroom management to be.
As you will agree, each school ofthought has emphasized particular aspects ofthe
concept. Classroom management, being a comprehensive term, if we look at any
one of the schools of thought, we will find that no school of thought can completely
explain various intricacies of the process. There is nothing wrong with this state of
affairs. Classroom management is complex and therefore, whenever we discuss the
concept and particularly in the practical context, we need to take an eclectic view of
the process. A synthesis of views of different schools of thought is to be made in
practice. Thus, it is advisable to cull out the contributions of various schools of
thought and formulate a discrete strategy of classroom management, looking into
specific situations of individual classrooms.
Check Your Progress
b) Check your answers with those given at the end ofthis unit.
4) Define Classroom Manageme~t.
5) .Define 'time on task' .
12
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Classroom Management
6) Match the following: (pair the munber with the alphabet and write your answers
in the space given at the bottom ofthis question)
~ permissive A) rules ofbehavior are a must for classroom
management
ii) inter personal relationship B) classroom management through a system
of rewards and punishment
ill) authoritarian C) positive relation between teachers and
learners :...
iv) scientific D) classroom management through

democratic atmosphere
v) folklore E) classroom management through problem
solving
vi) behavior modification F) use of accumulated wisdom in the
profession
vii) discipline G) individual choice and freedom important
viii) cognitive behaviorism H) teacher works out limits of acceptable
behavior
ix) humanistic I) classroom management through empirical
research
x) limitsetting 1) teacher is responsible for classroom
management
1.7 COMPONENTS OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Having studied the above sections, you will agree classroom is a complex situation
in which a number of factors are at play. The practicing teacher generally performs
two apparently separate tasks, one, that of instruction in which he/she selects and
sequences appropriate content and activities for development of knowledge, skills
and attitudes and provides feedback of the learner's progress. The other task is-
that of classroom management involving the organization of pupils and materials,
establishment of classroom procedures to facilitate class work and dealing with any
kind of disruption to classroom order. In reality, both these tasks are interwoven.
In the process of carrying out instruction in the class, the teacher will have to control
and manipulate all these factors to ensure that the learners are given an opportunity
to learn and learning takes place. This however, is not an easy task particularly for
fresh teachers or those who are training. They are anxious on the one hand, about
organizing the work in the class and on the other hand, about controlling the class.
In case of experience teachers, managerial strategies are blended in their daily practice
ofteaching. For exarnple, while emphasizing a point of a lesson, the teacher observes
a boy just gazing out of the window. He may ask a question to the learner on the
point. In this situation, besides emphasizing the importance ofthis concept to the
whole class, the teacher has ~so managed to draw the attention of the learner to the 13
Management of Curriculum lesson. In the same way, a teacher who checks pupils' work in the mathematics
class, not only is engaging in instruction of the learners but also managing the class.
It is very important for every teacher to learn classroom management because in
fact, to a large extent, it determines the value or image of the teacher in the school
system. Poor classroom management affects both pupils and teachers alike. When
order in the classroom breaks down, the teaching becomes stressful and very little
learning actually takes place. Further, ifthere is a lot of noise coming from a classroom
and students are observed moving around the class, generally it is interpreted that
the teacher is incompetent to manage the class. At the same time, the methods of
ensuring effective management are not so clearly articulated in the folklore of teaching,
basically because it is rather difficult to specify a set of ready procedures to generate
effective classroom management. However, it is possible to enumerate a few
guidelines which can be followed in the classroom to ensure that the learners are
involved in certain teacher prescribed activities which are planned to lead to their
growth and development in approved ways. These guidelines can be categorized
into two; one, guidelines pertaining to pre-active phase,i.e. the designing of the lesson
and two, guidelines related to the interactive phase of implementing and maintaining
them.
1.7.1 Pre-active phase

<
This is the phase in which the teacher plans and designs learning activities before
entering the curriculum. It is an important phase because if the planning has been
done well, there will not be any disruptions in the class at all. The learners will be
involved with the tasks on hand. Classroom disruptions mainly emerge from boredom
and frustration as observed by Kounin (1970)." For instance, a teacher in the T"
standard, in a chemistry class goes on verbally explaining chemical reactions to the
learners. While a few understand, others do not. After sometime, these students
get bored, restless and start disturbing others. Or imagine a mathematics teacher
who begins the class with the explanation of a formula in algebra. Thereafter, she
gives quite a few problems which are not graded in difficulty and expects these to be
completed within a certain time. The learners are not able to complete the task.
This generates frustration and they begin disrupting the class. Thus, planning a lesson
is a serious task which involves decision making with respect to certain main
considerations.
First, decision will have to be taken with respect to the content to be taught. In this
regard, the suitabilityof the content to the particular class levels, the existing knowledge
level of the learners, are significant determinants of selecting content to be presented
to learners in any particular situation. A teacher should be capable of presenting
content in alternative ways.
Second, decisions on which learning materials/ activities are to be used. Are these
available in the local situation? Will the learners be able to engage in these activities
(compatibility to the age level)? How will the activities be sequenced etc.? Care
should be taken to sequence the activities in such a way that there is a smooth flow
in the lesson. There are certain ways in which a lesson can be slowed down by the
teacher himself. Research done by Kounin (1970) and others on the issue reveals
such methods. Consider that a lesson has just begun on change of state of matter.
The teacher explains the 3 states of matter. She proceeds to explain the conversion
of matter from solid to liquid and from liquid to gaseous, through the application of
heat. In this context, she branches off to the concept of kinetic energy. She goes
deep into the concept of kinetic energy and leaves the main topic namely, change of
14 state of matter, 'dangling in mid air'. Another variation of this is that a teacher for
/
instance, starts teaching students to add improper fractions 2 and 3, first by adding Classroom Management
the whole numbers and then to add the fraction part. Suddenly, she stops and goes (Instructional Management)
over to teaching the learners what are mixed numbers. Then she comes back to
fractions cited above, converts these into mixed numbers and shows them how to
add these mixed numbers. This is called flip-flop where a teacher starts an activity,
goes to another activity before finishing it and then once again returns to the original
activity. Dangles and flip-flops cause confusion to learners and therefore should be
avoided. Proper planning and sequencing of experiences will prevent these. Also,
teachers should avoid over dwelling which too slows down a lesson. If students
have grasped the meaning of what is explained, the teacher should not dwell on it
longer. She should move on.
Third, is the question of whether the content is within the framework of the syllabus,
time table etc.
Fourth, how is the class to be organized for these activities? Will there be groups?
If yes, how many/ or is it preferable to have individual activities? Should there be
alternative activities for learners with varying abilities? Will these activities create
unnecessary noise, disturbance in the class?
Fifth, if the lesson is not proceeding as per the plan due to eventualities, what are the
back-ups which will ultimately facilitate learning? After all, teacher- pupil time on
transactions in the curriculum need to be productive.
The kind of planning elaborated above, at the outset, gives the teacher confidence in
classroom management. Then follows the next stage called the interactive phase
wherein the planned activities must be implemented and maintained. There are
certain guidelines at this phase too.
1.7.2 Interactive Phase

In this phase, the teacher actually puts into action what he/she has planned at the
pre-active phase. He/She comes into contact with students in the classroom to
transact the planned activities. Some kind of a preparation is needed in the classroom
for this purpose. To ensure success of the interactive phase, the teacher has to work
out the classroom norms. The norms will greatly influence the interactive phase, in
that, these will give directions to both teachers and learners on the process of
implementing the learning. It is a kind of negotiation in which the teacher clearly
makes the learners understand the norms and procedures he/she desires them to
abide by in the classroom. This may be done by the teacher directly at the outset of
the lesson, particularly,in primary schools. ·Itmay automatically be known by students
from previous groups oflearners in case the teacher is a senior experienced teacher
in the same institution. Consider the following examples:
1. Teacher A is teaching science in Class 7. It is in Class 7 for the first time that
the learners would be individually handling laboratory equipment. In a couple
of classes at the beginning of the academic year, the teacher, in detail, explains
to learners procedures for obtaining laboratory equipment to conduct the
laboratory activities. She describes how the basic laboratory equipment which
they would handle ought to be used. She also demonstrates how the equipment
should be returned after use.
2. Teacher B is a primary school teacher. She spends a few classes at the beginning
of the term to explain to young people how she would like them to set their
tables, how to arrange their books on the table. She also demonstrates to
them how they should sharpen their pencils near the waste paper basket, how
they should carry their chairs, how they should line up at the door when asked
to do so. 15
Management of'Curricunnn Fonnulation of classroom norms is generally done at primary and secondary levels
since it is presumed that students at higher education are matured enough to conduct
their behavior in the class in such a manner as to maximize learning. However, in
certain specific situations it is quite possible that if the students want to rebel against
certain rules/regulations, it may precipitate a situation of power struggle between the
learners and the institutional authorities. This may lead to defiant non- cooperation
oflearners inside the classroom adversely affecting learning time.
Thus we may conclude by saying that the time spent on establishment of clear cut
norms for classrooms is worthwhile. It leads to well managed classrooms particularly
at primary and secondary stages. Learners are engaged in tasks which might even
require them to move freely about the room obtaining materials, consulting the teacher
or shifting from one activity to another. They may even stop and talk to others but
this is done with a purpose and they do not disturb others or waste their time in
useless chatter. As we mentioned earlier, in Section 1.7 ,classroom management is
not merely control of the class so as to lead to orderliness but the conduct ofthe
lesson in such a manner that the pupils are engaged in tasks leading to the attainment
oflearning objectives. Classroom nonns greatly facilitate classroom management in
the true sense of the term,
When the lessons are thoughtfully planned and norms and work procedures in
classrooms are established, generally the instructional process gets completed in a
well organized fashion. However, in spite of all this, there are possibilities that
sometimes managerial problems arise. Hence a teacher needs to closely monitor
the interactive phase in a continuous manner to follow up where ultimately all the
activities are leading to. He needs to exhibit a keen awareness of what is going on
in the class. If this quality/skill is developed, then the learners realize that the teacher
is alert to what they are doing and hence they are less likely to break classroom rules
since they would be afraid of being caught. Also, such a teacher can identify potential
'disruption and it can be dealt with before it becomes more intensified and causes
distraction in the class and loss of working time. Let us consider a few such examples.
Case 1 A language class is in progress. The students are being made to stand up
and read particular portions ofthe text in turns individually. At some corner oftlie
class, a group of four learners are passing around something and talking among
themselves. The teacher snaps his fmgers looking in their direction and gives them a
reproachful glance, while the student who is reading continues to read.
Case2 A mathematics class is in progresss. The teacher has taught the class
expansion of (a+b) , ( a-b), etc. A few examples are put up on the blackboard and
the students are asked to work these out in their books. The teacher takes rounds
in the classroom, observes that a couple of students are looking into their neighbor's
books, and simply copying out what they are working out. He walks towards the
students and questions them to work out the examples on the blackboard.
Let us examine the cases cited above. It is clear that the teacher in Case 1 is closely
aware of what is going on in the class while the lesson is in progress. He checks the
disruption by silencing the group without disturbing the continuity of the lesson. In
the second case, the teacher observes that the students are copying from others in
the class, perhaps, because they cannot adjust to the pace of work set and they are
having difficulties. Ifignored, this situation can generate disturbance in the class and
hence he uses supportive measures to facilitate their learning.
16
--------------------~-------.,'-,--------"-=-
/ \
Check Your Progress Classroom Management
Note: . a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
7) Explain in two sentences the major tasks performed by apracticing teacher in
the classroom .
....... '!~ .
........................•..........................................................................................
8) Why is classroom management important?
9) List the five main considerations to be kept in mind by a teacher when planning
a lesson.
10) Why is it necessary to spell out classroom norms?

........................................................................................ , .
1.8 OTHER DETERMINANTS OF CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
In the previous section, we have discussed three basic areas on which teachers
must work in order to ensure effective classroom management namely, making
clear cut decisions on planning a lesson according to the abilities and interests of the
students,establishing classroom norms and efficient working procedures and adopting
techniques and measures to check difficulties and distractions occurring in the actual
process of instruction. Although these are the primary requisites for classroom
management, it does not imply that this would suffice and lead to effective classroom
management.
1.8.1 Punctuality in starting the lesson

If the lesson falls after a break or after lunch, generally, there is found to be a chaotic 17
/ \
Management of Curriculum transition from break to the class. As you know, the pupils will be in a relaxed,
casual state of mind during such breaks. They will have to quickly change to
appropriate behavior inside the class. Teachers should understand this and evolve
mechanisms to facilitate this transition smoothly. For example, a teacher can have
some work for students to perform written on the blackboard. As soon as they
enter, students will see this and begin their work.
1.8.2 Seating arrangement

Comfortable seating arrangements is a must for effective classroom management.
There should be available space for student movement within the class. Also, space
should be available between tables for the teacher to move freely. Effective classroom
management would perforce require that the teacher be conscious ofwhat each
learner is doing while the instruction is in progress. Students with lower abilities may
even require individual help during the class for which the teacher shall have to go to
the tables of these learners. Further, it should be possible to transform seating
arrangements of the classroom for group work, etc.
1.8.3, Outside Disturbances

It is quite common to fmd that classroom situations get disturbed due to happenings
outside the classroom. For example, the school is preparing for the annual day and
a few committees have been constituted for various aspects of the celebrations.
Committee members may enter the classroom while the lesson is in progress to
make certain announcements, etc. Or else, there may be noise from the school
playground where other children are playing. In such situations, the teachers should
ensure that there is minimum disruption by getting the learners back to their work.
1.8.4 Student Talk

The most common type of disruption to classes is urmecessary student talk. It is
certainly harmful to effective learning because the students who are engaged in such
talk are not paying attention to the task on hand. Further, they are distracting others
too. If a teacher tries to correct this behavior by verbal instructions to the group, it
slows down the smooth conduct of the lesson. It also spoils the warm atmosphere
ofthe classroom. Therefore, there should be clear cut instructions on the issue of
talking in class. How and when will talking be allowed, the level of the talk, mode of
answering questions raised by the teacher in the class, etc. should be clarified so that
learners know how to conduct themselves. This will greatly aid effective classroom
management.
1.8.5 Filling Time

On some occasions, the class lesson finishes early. There is no point in starting a
new lesson. This is a situation vulnerable 'to disruptions and the noise in the class
may escalate. Hence it is necessary to have some exercises on the topic available,
which can be worked out by the students in the event of a lesson finishing before
time. With a little bit of anticipated planning this kind of classroom management
problems can be avoided.
1.8.6 . Closing Time

Classroom-management problems are generally faced towards the end ofthe lesson.
Sometimes, the teacher is rushing the lesson to finish on time, he leaves out certain
details in the process. At other times, the assignment/ homework exercises are
given or announced and these are not heard or registered properly by the learners
18
since learners are busy collecting their belongings to go for lunch or for break.
Teachers need to pace the lessons properly so that sufficient time is available for Classroom Management
such activities and there is no confusion among learners. Closing time constitutes an (Instructional Management)
important slot of classroom management.
1.8.7 Teacher Confidence

Teachers who are self confident and assertive are generally found to be effective
classroom managers. Research done by Cohen and Manion (1981) shows that
both primary and secondary school children expect their teachers to be authority
figures, they should be strict, fair and sympathetic. Teachers who can fulfill these
expectations oflearners would certainly get their cooperation for effective classroom
management.
1.8.8 Class Size

This is an importantdeterminant of classroom management. In our country particularly
in government schools, a class on an average, may have 50-60 learners. Added to
this, the learners are cramped into inadequate space. Sitting close to each other,
sharing books and other equipment, disturbance automatically sets in. Classroom
management is seriously affected.
1.8.9. Curriculum
The curriculum also has an impact on day to day classroom management. A traditional
curriculum which is highly academic and heavy may force teachers to adopt teaching
methods which are authoritarian. Since they have to complete the syllabus they rush
through the topics. Consequently, if the learners do not understand what is being
taught, they are likely to disturb the class. Also, teaching methods which keep the
learners passive, give room for boredom and this too can lead to disruptions of the
class. Thus, although the teacher is directlynot involved with curriculum construction,
the fact is that he has to deal with the managerial problems which can be generated
out of such a curriculum.
1.8.10 'Age of the Learner

At the primary stage, learners are very young. The primary classroom can be
managed by a teacher who is strict, fair and even affectionate towards the learners.
As students grow older and reach secondary and higher secondary levels, their
behavior changes. The relationships among their group too undergoes changes.
They expect to be treated differently by the ir teachers, their expectations from
teachers also changes. They generally become more critical of adult behavior and
also of their teachers. Hence classroom management at the secondary stage or
senior secondary stage will have to done keeping in mind all these changes which
the learners at this stage are undergoing.
1.8.11 Caste/ Community

India being a multicultural society, most schools are pluralistic, having learners from
different religions, caste, language and different economic levels. These differences
make the group basically heterogeneous although they are grouped in a classroom
as homogenous. Interactions within and outside the classroom may directly or
indirectly influence the dynamics of the classroom, which in turn, would have impact
in the transactions of the everyday classroom. Therefore, the teacher will have to be
alert to the intricacies of such a classroom set up and manage the proceedings
accordingly.
19
/
Management of Curriculum 1.8.12 Ability
Learners who have average or higher ability vis a vis the class level, when exposed
to educational activities suited to their ability, get involved in the task and progress
towards learning. Those who are poor in ability are unable to participate in these
activities, find learning difficult, and gradually lose attention and interest. Frustration
may develop ifthis continues for a long time. Such learners may disrupt the class. A
teacher has to evolve strategies of managing this category oflearners.
1.9 INDICES OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

MANAGEMENT
We may say that the teachers who are most admired as classroom managers are
those whose classes run smoothly without the teacher being continuously involved in
giving directions to them. In such a class, the students are actively engaged in
academic activities. Even ifthe teacher leaves the room or hands it over to a substitute,
the learners continue to engage with their tasks. It means effective teachers! classroom
managers have certain qualities. If we enquire as to what these qualities are, you will
be surprised to know that listing the qualities is an endless exercise and it is rather
impossible to say which combination of qualities would actually make an effective
teacher / manager. You can include sincerity, dedication, confidence, punctuality
and so many such attributes. So, a more useful approach is to consider what a
teacher actually does and to ensure that functions are carried out in an efficient,
effective and economical manner. This kind of a functional approach is more practical
than the qualities approach.
You may be interested to read about a significant research which adheres to the
functional approach, carried out by Kounin (1970) in order to identify who are the
effective managers. In his study,he compared the behaviors of effective and ineffective
classroom managers. Some of the main attributes of the effective managers were as
follows.
Withitness: This means that the teacher has to be aware of what is happening in all
parts ofthe classroom, at all times. For this he should scan the classroom even
when working with small groups or with individuals. lfhe has withitness, then he will
promptly and accurately intervene when there is some kind of inappropriate behavior.
He is cautious to notice and prevent the disruptive behavior from occurring. He is
extremely careful to locate which students exactly are responsible for any kind of
inappropriate behavior.
Overlapping: It means that the teacher does more than one thing at a time. While '
the lesson is going on for the whole class, he does not interrupt the class or stop the
flow of the lesson when he observes the need for setting right something in the class
which needs correction. For instance, the teacher moves towards a learner who is
inattentive and draws attention to the lesson. At the same time, the lesson flows on
smoothly.
Momentum: It means that the teacher plans the sequence of activities so that one
activity follows the other thus keeping the learners in constant attention. The activities
will preoccupy the learner in such a manner that he does not get distracted throughout
the duration of the lesson.
Challenging assignments: During the class work, the teacher assigns the learner
tasks which are pitched at the right level of difficulty and have variety. The task is
new and difficult enough as to provide a challenge. At the same time, it is such that
20 the learner can perform it and gain a feeling of success.
As you can see, effective classroom managers are successful not because they handle Classroom Management
disruption and misbehavior in the class. Rather, they arc effective because they (Instructional Management)
create such a learning environment which is challenging, brisk and carefully monitored
that disruption does not occur at all. The research done by Kounin has been replicated
by other researchers and all these studies have supported the findings of Kounin,
besides pointing out that is important to tell the learners what is expected of them in
the classroom. From time to time, they need to be reminded of the need to comply
with rules and demands. The approach is positive and prescriptive rather than
threatening and punitive. Thus, effective classroom managers are involved with
effective instruction and not in maintaining discipline through correction of misconduct.
Check your progress
11) In one sentence each, explain how you would manage the following problems
in the class.
i) Students have just played during recess and enter your class noisily.
ii) A mathematics class is in progress, unexpectedly, there is a mike blaring

songs in the locality which is causing disruption.
ill) The teacher has discussed about various festivals in the country. He finishes
the lesson before time. The students start talking and slowly, the noise
level begins to increase.
iv) Students have just had a theory class in the classroom. Now, they have
to move to the laboratory for further experimental work. They are coming
out of the classroom in groups and talking. This is disturbing the adjacent
class.
v) The chemistry teacher presents 5 chemical equations on the blackboard

to be balanced by the learners. She observes that there is a group of
learners at the back bench who started the work initially, but after a few
minutes they have started talking and playing with the pens/pencils. They
appear to be starting disturbance.
21
/
Management of Curriculum 12) Briefly state Kounin's view of effective classroom management. Why do you
think thatthis is a valuable description of the concept?
1.10 DISCIPLINE AND THE MANAGEMENT OF

MISBEHAVIOR IN CLASSROOMS
So far in this unit, we have given importance to viewing classroom management

more from the perspective that classrooms are managed in such a way as to maximize
the learning time or the time spent by learners on learning tasks. It is believed that if
the learning tasks are absorbing, challenging and learner centred, pupils will be
absorbed in their work and disruptions will not arise. However, quite a few writers
on the subject have extensively discussed methods of handling students' misbehavior
in the classroom. They have admitted that there can be reasons why pupils misbehave.
Student misbehavior may occur due to causes outside the classroom situation and
sometimes it may be caused by factors in the classroom situation. The views of
some researchers on the issue are presented here for your perusal.
Saunders (1979) is ofthe opinion that disruptive behavior arises from social causes.
For instance, one reason is antipathy to school. Some learners view the school as
having no purpose in their lives. They feel that their needs, values and goals are
different from those of the school represented by the teachers. Hence, they attend
the school/classes but they show non-conformity with the requirements of work,
discipline etc. desired by the schools. Secondly, physically and socially mature
learners in a class would like to get attention oftheir classmates by challenging the
authority ofteachers and defying their instructions. This leads to misbehavior. Thirdly,
there may be students who are unable to anticipate the consequences of their actions.
They do not have capability to reflect. Such students impulsively act and let go
misbehavior which results in disruptions of the class.
Gnagey (1981) points out that ignorance of the rules of classroom behavior is also
another important reason. Although it is customary for schools and teachers to
work out classroom norms at the beginning of a term, and perhaps, even the rules
may be written on a paper and circulated among pupils, many of them do not actually
know how the rules will become operational in concrete situations. They may break
the rules thinking nothing much will really happen.
Another main cause for pupil misbehavior pointed out by Gnagey (1981) is the
presence of conflicting rules. It is quite possible that the rules of home and school
differ. For example, in a particular home, parents and other members may not mind
if the family members spoke very loudly. But in the school, talking aloud may be
viewed very seriously. Sometimes, the clash of rules may be with respect to classroom
norms and the peer culture outside the school. For example, use of slangs may not
be permitted in the classroom but in the peer group, it may be allowed.
Thirdly, Gnagey (1981) has stated that 'displacement' can be a cause for inappropriate
behavior in the classroom. For example, in the family context, the boy may have
developed hatred for his father who has separated from the family. This boy may
develop hatred for the male teacher in the school on whom he actually displaces the
22
/
ill will nurtured by him against his father. The student may misbehave in the class due Classroom Management
to these feelings. (Instructional Management)
Anxiety regarding various aspects oflife like examinations,job, career may also
manifest as misbehavior in classrooms. Lastly,even the leadership style of the teacher
can incite disciplinary problems. Some teachers function with a custodial view.
They believe that as long as the learners are in their custody, they should be absolutely
obedient and orderly. The students view this as tyranny and display anger through
misbehavior, On the other hand, a rather laissez faire leadership style of the teacher
is absolutely ineffectual. He is permissive, does not care to intervene in moulding
learners, he is essentially indifferent to their growth and development. Students thus
become restless, are distracted and misbehavior is generated in the classroom.
Another interesting model of dealing with student misbehavior in the context of
classroom management has been suggested by Arends (1998) called the LEAST
model. The steps of this model are:
*Leave it alone: If the behavior is not going to become troublesome, leave it alone.
* End the action indirectly: This can be done by distracting the student from his
misbehavior by giving him something else to do.
*Attend more fully: Get to know the students, has he got problems at home, is he
being bullied, is he facing learning difficulties? This will help the teacher decide what
to do.
* Spell out directions: What should be done? What should not be done and what
would happen if directions are not followed.
* Track the behavior by maintaining records. If the behavior does not recur, he can
be rewarded, ifit recurs, he may have to be punished.
Canter and Canter (1992) have suggested the Assertive Discipline model for dealing
with classroom misbehavior. In this model, teachers design at the outset, a set of
rules for school and classroom behavior. Clear cut procedures for dealing with
infringements of the rules are also worked out. In some cases, even students are
involved in formulating the classroom norms. The rules are strictly followed and
consequences for violating rules are immediately implemented. In fact, teachers
react assertively to misbehavior according to the agreed procedures and do not
accept any excuses from the students. Of course, while implementing the
consequences of violation of rules, teachers do it automatically without disturbing
the lesson in progress in the class.
If we look at the research literature on classroom management, we will find that
enormous work has been done on the area. Yet, it is practically impossible to
enumerate a list of skills which are of a ready to use kind and which can be adopted
by teachers in a given classroom. However, it is possible to judge and evaluate a
well managed class. Study the case given here and follow the way in which the class
is conducted.
Case
This is a group of students in Class 7. They are in a mathematics class. They were
assigned some problems for homework the previous day. The teacher enters the
class as soon as the bell rings. She announces that they will begin the class by
correcting the homework. She instructs the students to exchange their note books
and have a pencil ready. Then she begins, 'are you all ready? The answers to the
23
Management of Curriculum homework problems are No.1 =240 cms., No.2 = 440 ft. etc. and so on. After
this, the students return each other's assignments.
Next, the teacher begins the day's lesson. She asks the students to draw the shapes
they had studied in the previous class. Within a few minutes, each student draws
square, rectangle, circle, triangle, in the books. Then she calls a student and asks
him to draw one of the shapes on the blackboard. She calls another and gets him to
draw another shape. In this way, all the shapes are displayed on the blackboard.
Students check their own drawings against those on the blackboard.
Further, the teacher asks the learners to write the formulas of area learned by them
earlier, against the shape. After a short while, she calls the students one by one to
write the correct formula against the figures on the blackboard. Students check out
their responses against the correct ones on the blackboard.
The teacher announces, 'now we shall see how we can use the formula to measure
areas of objects around us. Three rows of students sitting in the class will form three
groups. Each group will take a shape given by me. You will identify 2 objects in the
classroom which have the shape and measure the area. Rulers, tape measure, metre
scale are placed on my table. You can use these for working on the task.'
After about ten minutes, the teacher announces, 'you have only a couple of minutes
to finish. Two persons from each group will get ready to come before the class and
explain how the area was calculated.'
In the above case, you can easily notice that the lesson began smoothly and work
was activated as soon as the lesson started. The teacher had prepared for the class
and was clear about what would be done by learners at every stage ofthe lesson.
Students were completely involved with work all through. Correction of previous
homework, reviewing the shapes and formulas learned, using the formula, etc.
Students shifted from one activity to another smoothly. No time was wasted in
group instructions which would divert and waste lesson time. In fact, discipline was
not a problem at all. The learners were so to say, 'ritualised' to perform activities
under directions from the teacher and the lesson time was fruitfully utilized. The
classroom management was automatic and almost perfect. With effort, experience
and alertness, a teacher can master the skills which will lead to effective classroom
management. ',,-
Check Your Progress
'~~
13) What is meant by antipathy to school?
14) 'Gnagey talked of' displacement' as a cause for misbehavior of students. Explain
in a couple of sentences, this concept.
....................................................................................................................
24 ...................................................................................................................
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Classroom Management
15) Briefly write the key ideas of the LEAST model.
.........•...................•............•.••....•.•....• ! .....•..•..•..•••••••••••••.•..•.••...•••.•.•.•.•.•••.•••.
16) What is the essential approach of the Assertive Discipline model of dealing
vnthstudentmisbehavior?
1.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learned about the key process of the educational system,
namely, classroom management. A classroom constitutes the core component of
the formal system of education. It is generally understood to be a structured learning
environment in which teachers and learners transact activities, content matter and
other experiences which result in cognitive, affective and psychomotor developments
in learners.
A classroom has definite objectives formulated at the very outset towards which the
teachers and learners progress. This being so, it is important that there is a systematic
organization of the activities in the classroom. Arrangement ofleaming conditions in
such a manner that the learners can progress towards their goals in a focused and
effective way is termed classroom management. In a well managed classroom,
learners are found to be engaged with their learning tasks. Student misbehavior is
less likely to occur in such a classroom.
Researchers in the area of classroom management have emerged with different schools
of thought on the theme. The various points of view are necessitated due the fact
that classroom management is a complex process, No single school of thought can
completely explain the process. In practice, therefore, it is an eclectic view which is
followed.
Classroom management is to be learned by every teacher in the field situation. While
there are no readymade rules for handling a particular class, teachers need to follow \
certain guidelines which are found to be effective at various stages of a lesson in
progress. Guidelines for the pre-active phase and the interactive phase of a lesson
are available to support any practicing teacher. Classroom norms need to be worked
out at the outset of any term. Continuous monitoring of the class through the lesson
will keep students active and alert. Other determinants of classroom management
like seating arrangement, student talk, outside disturbances, etc. need to be checked
out from time to time. Research in the area proves that effective classroom managers
are successful because they create a learning environment which is so absorbing
that there is no scope for disruption in the class at all. 25
/
management or LUrrlCUlUm It IS quite possible that m spite ot all kmds ot ettorts made by teachers to ensure a
good learningenvironment,sometimes studentscan misbehave in the classand disturb
the productive time of the learners. Quite a few writers have studied this aspect and
have analysed reasons why misbehavior occurs in classrooms. Among the reasons
cited, are social causes, psychological causes, etc. They have also suggested ways
and means of handling student misbehavior.
1.12 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1) 0 bserve about 10 different classes in progress and prepare a report on various
strategies being used by teachers in classroom management.
2) Illustrate with examples from two different subjects how a teacher can organize
his class so that learning is maximized and there is no disruption.
3) Imagine you are working in a school and list out ten classroom norms which
you would like to explain to students at the beginning of the term and which
you would expect them to follow.
1.13 REFERENCES
1. Bull,L.S. and Solity, J.. E. Classroom Management: Principles and practice,
Croom, Helm, London. 1987 pp 14-32
2. Calderhead, J . Teacher's Classroom Decision Making, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston Inc. 1984, pp 20-45
3. Charles, C. M.. Building Classroom Discipline: From models to practice,
.Longman New York, 1992
4. Cohen,L. Manion,L. and Morrison, K A Guide to Teaching Practice ( Fifth
Ed) Routledge New York, 2004
5. Freiberg, H. J . and Driscoll, A. Universal teaching strategies., Allyn and
Bacon Inc. 1992 pp 148-155
6. Hofrneister,Aand Lubke, M. Research into Practice: Implementing effective •
teaching strategies, Allyn and Bacon Inc. 1990 pp 162-171
7.. Saunders, M. (1979) Class control and Behavior Problems Me Graw Hill
London
1.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Learning which takes place anywhere, at anytime, incidentally, without any
organized effort, is h. ""1allearning.
Z. .~luctured learning environment in which learners, under the guidance of a

teacher transact content and activities to bring about cognitive, affective and
psychomotor developments in the learners is termeda classroom.
3. Classroom situations are complex because a number of variables are at play in
any particular classroom situation. For example, age oflearners, their entry
behavior, their motivation, the nature of the subject matter, the infrastructure
available, teacher's capacity, ability, personality, etc.
26
/
4) Systematic organization and manipulation of various factors in a classroom Classroom Management
context in such a manner that learners get the opportunity to learn and progress (Instructional Management)
towards the attainment of learning objectives is referred to as classroom

management.
5) The amount of time within a lesson that students spend engaging with the
curriculum rather than on their activities such as socializing, moving around the
classroom and being disciplined is time on task.
6) (1,g)(2,c) (3,j)(4,i) (5,f) (6,b)(7,a),(8e)(9,d) (lO,h)
7) Practicing teachers perform the following tasks
i) instruction through selection and sequencing oflearning activities
ii) organization of pupils, materials, procedures for work
iii) dealing with disruption in the classroom
.8) Classroom management is important because it affects both pupils and teachers.
In a poorly managed classroom, very little learning takes place, teaching
becomes stressful and the image of the teacher is badly affected since he
considered incompetent.
9) a) identification of content appropriate to the learner.
b) identification of resources to present the learning activities
c) tailoring the content within the syllabus framework
d) structuring the classroom for the learning activities
e) back-up alternatives to ensure learning in case of eventualities
10) Classroom norms need to be spelt out at the outset because these will give
guidelines to teachers and learners on the process of implementing learning
activities.
Monitoring is needed to follow up where all activities ofthe classroom are
leading to learning.
11) 0 have some work ready for them, so Thatthey swing into action as soon as
they enter the class
ii) engage the class with drill work or practical work inside the class so that
they can practice a formula or such other learning
ill) give the class an instruction to draw a picture of a festival celebration
iv) direct the students to fall in line and go out of the class one by one
v) go to the group and help them to progress with the work since they found
it difficult to proceed.
12) According to Kounin, effective classroom managers are successful not because
they handle disruption and rnisbehavior in the class. They are effective because
they create a learning environment which is challenging, brisk, and carefully
monitored that disruption does not occur. It is a valuable description because
rather than stressing on an endless list' of qualities, his view focuses on the
functional activities of a teacher in the classroom and suggest ways of improving
the efficiency and effectiveness of classroom activities.
27
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/
Management Ofcurriiulum 13) Antipathy to school means that the school has no useful purpose to serve.
Students who feel antipathy to school ,hold that their values and goals are
different from the school represented by teachers.
14) The concept of 'displacement' as a cause for misbehavior is best explained by
considering the example of a boy who nurtures a hatred for his father who has
deserted the family. Such a boy may view the male teacher as a father figure
and in turn, the feeling of hatred gets displaced on to the teacher.
15) L -leave it alone
E - end the action indirectly

A - attend more fully on the student
S - spell out direotions
T - track the behavior through records
16) The essentialapproach ofthe model is to ensure the rules evolved are strictly
. followed and consequences for violating rules are immediately implemented.
28 1
UNIT 2 CURRICULUM TRANSACTION
•
Structure
I
i
2.1 i Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Curriculum in informal, formal & non-formal education
2.4 Curriculum - two major perspectives
I
2.5 Curriculum transaction - the concept

2.5.1 Planning for curriculum transaction
\
4.5.2 Executing the curriculum transaction
I
2.6 Methods of curriculum transaction (Teacher Centred)
2,6.1 Lecture
I
2.6.2 Demonstration
2.b Team teaching
2.7 Methods
I
of curriculum transaction (Learner Centred)
2.~.1 Self Learning methods
2j,2 Personalised system of instruction I
I
2.713 Computer assisted instruction

2.7.4 Project Work
2.8 Mdthods of curriculum transaction (Group Centred)

2.8.l Discussion
2.8.2 Buzz session
2.8.3 Tutorial sessions
2.8.4 Debates
2.85 . Seminar
2.8.6 Symposium
2.8.7 Panel discussion
2.8.8 Brainstorming
2.8.9 Role Playing
2.9 Media support in curriculum transaction

2.9.1 Visual media
2.9.2 Audio media
2.9.3 Audio Visual media
2.9.4 e-learning, internet, online facilities
2.9.5 Community resources
2.10 Formulating strategy for curriculum transaction

2.11 Evaluation of curriculum transaction process
2.12 Let Us Sum Up
2.13 UnitEndActivities
2.1 INTRODUCTION
,
The basic concern of an educational institution is effective delivery of an educational
package to its clients i.e the learners. This indeed is a complicated process involving
several factorsand considerations which are directlyrelated to planning, development,
29'
Management of Curriculum transaction and evaluation of curriculum process. In the context of institutional
management, therefore, handling curriculum issues is of fimdamental importance. In
the previous unit, the basics of classroom management have been discussed to give
you an idea of how teaching-learning process actually takes place in an institutional
setup. With an understanding of the dynamics of classroom management you will
now be led to the area of curriculum transaction, which essentially involves the
practical techniques of management.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After working on this unit, you will be able to:
• differentiate between formal, non-formal and informal nature of curriculum;
• distinguish between behaviorist and constructivist approaches to curriculum;
• conceptualize curriculum transaction as a process;
• describe various methods and media used in curriculum transaction;
• select appropriate media and methods while transacting curriculum;
• formulate curriculum transaction strategy; and
• evaluate curriculum transaction process.
2.3 CURRICULUM IN INFORMAL, FORMAL & NON-

FORMAL EDUCATION
In various sections of this learning material we have expressed the fact that education
in societies is a process of developing in learners, knowledge, skills and attitudes
which the society identifies as desirable. It is a fact that societies may differ in what
qualities they would like their citizen to develop. You may for instance consider a
society which focuses on promoting capitalistic values in its people. Yet another
society may concentrate on democratic values. In general, educational institutions
are tailored to reflect the specific philosophical thrust of a society.
Education of individuals in a society may take place through formal, non-formal and
informal approaches. In fact, initial education of an individual from the time of birth
is informal. Living within the family, he/she picks up knowledge/skills without much
conscious organized efforts. This kind of education takes place throughout the life of
an individual. He/She interacts with a number of agencies in society like home,
neighborhood, community and in religious institutions. Activities in all these agencies
impact upon himlher and shape himlher in certain ways e.g he/she learns manners,
customs, language, codes of conduct andahost ofbehavioms through such interaction.
It takes place anywhere, anytime. Well, it was the main approach to education
particularly in ancient times. Knowledge was limited and could be transmitted in
informal ways. There was no structured body of knowledge to be transmitted.
Knowledge expanded particularly during the industrial revolution in England and
became complex. For effective development of society it also became important
that such education be made available to a larger section of people in society.
Informal agencies could not handle this since these agencies did not have adequate
number of knowledgeable persons who could impart such knowledge. It was
considered more appropriate to contrive structured, organized mechanisms through
which the increasing fund of knowledge could be transmitted. It is against this
30 background we fmd the emergence of the organized sector of education viz. school!
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colleges, which came to be called formal education. Formal education came to be Curriculum Transaction
coordinated by the State. Even now it is the most popular approach to education in
almost all countries of the world.
As societies evolved, difficulties in maintaining formal education systems were
experienced. Demand for formal education continuously began to soar. States began
facing financial burden in providing formal education. Findingjobs/employment for
the formal educated persons became a critical issue since this education did not
directly equip persons to generate their ownjobs. Non- formal education emerged
as a response to this situation. Most countries of the world have used non formal
education to meet the needs of specific target groups like, for instance, giving a
training program comprised of a few weeks to help people gain certain competencies.
Non-formal education is also organized education but it takes place outside the
established formal system. Unlike formal education which is broad based aimed at a
total development of the human being, non-formal education is specific and is aimed
at a specific target group.
As mentioned above, both formal and non-formal education are organized. In order
to attain the broad goals aimed at by the formal system as well as specific goals
aimed at by the non formal system, course content is decided by the State concerned.
The delivery of the course content in such a manner as to attain the goals is worked
out. At this stage a variety oflearning experiences which will suit the age level, ability
of the learners and which can be drawn out from the resources of the community are
delineated. At the same time indices which will help to evaluate the attainment of
goals/objectives are evolved. The totality of experiences planned in relation to a
course to which the learners are exposed is called the curriculum.
2.4 CURRICULUM - TWO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES
While all educationists would agree to the fact that curriculum is the totality of
experience of an individual through the process of education they do maintain different
views on how curriculum is evolved. One is the objectivist perspective. Here,
knowledge comprises of truths which have accumulated over time. Such knowledge
is relativelyfixed. It is treated and organized in ways generally through the formulation
of experiences which will enable learning to take place. Learners are exposed to a
pre chalked out list of activities which lead to a definite set of outcomes. In fact, the
view is that there is knowledge' out there' that needs to be transmitted to the learner.
The learning experiences are so planned that this knowledge is mastered by the
learner. Hislher extent of mastery is measured through standardized tests.
The second view is the constructivist perspective. It does not view knowledge as
something fully known, fixed and transmittable. On the other hand, knowledge is
personal. Its meaning is constructed by the learner through his/her experience. Under
the constructivist curriculum, the approach to learning will be to provide relevant
experiences and opportunities and through dialogue and interaction with hislher
teacher, peers and perhaps, members of the community he/she constructs what
he/she understands and thereby learns. Therefore, curriculum is not given as a ready
made package of experiences to transmit fixed knowledge.
Let us take a simple example to understand these two perspectives. Imagine that a
class is in progress where the teacher is interested to make the pupils learn that
solids have a defmite shape but liquids do not. Aliquid takes the shape of the container
in which it is placed. In an objectivist curriculum, the classroom would involve the
teacher explaining the idea to the learners by taking examples of solids of various
shapes. She may ask a few questions in the class and also through examples she 31
Management of'Currleulum would lead the learners to the idea that liquids do not have a definite shape. The aim
is to impart the knowledge of a fixed truth, mainly through a set of formatted
experiences. In the constructivist classroom, the students study the shape of various
objects around them. The teacher interacts with them and encourages them to list
out the shapes both regular and irregular they have observed. Then she draws their
attention to liquids. The learners discuss among themselves the issue of the shape of
liquids. As the lesson progresses, the teacher guides them to the water contained in
their water bottles which are of different shapes and designs. They also pour out the
water into glasses of different shapes. They conclude that liquids do not have a
definite shape. They have constructed the knowledge through their own experiences
and through a negotiation of ideas between the teacher and their peers. As you can
see, in an objectivist curriculum the classroom is teacher directed whereas in the
constructivist curriculum the classroom is learner oriented.
Check Your Progress

I) In one sentence each, describe informal, formal and non- formal education .
..................................................................................... ; .
•
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2) Briefly explain the difference between Objectivist and Constructivist curriculum.

,
...................................................................................................................
2.5 CURRICULUM TRANSACTION - THE CONCEPT
At any point of time, a society may adopt an objectivist perspective or a constructivist

perspective of curriculum and institutions may function with such a perspective. In
practice, the institution will have to implement the curriculum. For convenience in
implementing curriculum, it is formulated tbK'diHerent age groups which are found at
different stages of schooling. Further, cu.ro~.IJlumis divided into subjects categorized
on the basis·ofthe aspect dealt with. For instance mathematics largely deals with
numerical data, physics deals with physical phenomena etc. For each stage of
education, for convenience, a syllabus is framed for each subject which indicates
what aspects of the subject will be dealt with and to what depth of understanding. In
general, a textbook is written for each level of schooling which defmes the boundaries
of the subject for that stage. It is this syllabus, presented in the form of textbook
which actually functions as the working tool which needs to be transacted by the
teachers and learners. Based on competencies acquired, a teacher formulates activities
and other experiences for learners which will ensure their mastery ofthe syllabus.
When we talk of implementation we mean that the activities and learning experiences
proposed will have to be put into action. That is, transaction is a process of putting
32 into practice the set of activities listed, or of covering the topics in the curriculum.
/
Curl'icul'-;;-u;;;;;m~===----
Curriculum transaction is a serious task. A teacher who is to transact the curriculum
will have to engage in thinking reflection, visualization and planning. After delineating
what exactly the teacher and learners would transact, the teacher will have to plan
how the transaction will take place. He will need to make a clear assessment ofthe
kind ofleamers, the availability of resources, time constraints. Also, he will have to
sequence the concepts against consideration oflogicality. You will study more details
of this aspect in further sections of this unit.
There are no fixed procedures for curriculum transaction. As you would agree,
there are many complex variables operating in an educational situation. Also,
classroom processes are dynamic and hence curriculum transactions will have to
be planned keeping these characteristics in view. In order to ensure the effectiveness
and efficiency of curriculum transactions, teachers need to be fully equipped with
certain competencies. What are these competencies? Well, when we talk of
curriculum transaction we are basically focusing on the process of implementation of
the curriculum. But in order that implementation is successful, it is important to plan
what will be implemented. Equally important is to decide how it will be implemented.
And since, the entire process is dynamic, it is important to evaluate the process of
implementation from time to time so that the transaction can be made more effective.
Essentially, curriculum transaction is a managerial activity and hence it needs to be
guided by management procedures. Planning at the outset, executing the plan, and
evaluating the implementation need to be built into the process of curriculum
transaction. Therefore, teachers shall have to develop the competencies related to
planning,execution and evaluation.
2.5.1 Planning for curriculnm transaction

As mentioned earlier, Departments of Education of a State are involved in chalking
out the curriculum for various levels of education. The curriculum is evolved in order
to attain the goals of education identified by the State. This may be termed as long
term planning. It is described so because the curriculum is not expected to produce
knowledge skills, and other attributes in the individual immediately. On the other
hand, it is expected that the learners exposed to the curriculum over a period of 10-
12 years will emerge as citizens with the qualities and attributes envisaged at the
stage oflong term planning. A teacher involved with curriculum transaction is not
directly involved at this stage but nevertheless, he is to be aware of what long term
planning goals are. This will enable him to work out the curriculum transacti09 process
against the background of the long term planning. While he works out ~pecific
experiences for the curriculum transaction .rocess he will be able to ensure that the
~ I
long term curriculum planning goals are reflected in these. For example, in ~country
which aims to inculcate democratic values in people, the long term plan will be able
to present content and experiences which will prepare young people to internalize
democratic values. A teacher planning for curriculum transaction at the classroom
level will bear this in mind and plan his/her classroom climate in a manner to facilitate
the development of democratic values. Obviously an authoritarian approach to
curriculum transaction will not be practiced. Therefore, the long term curriculum
planning goals implicitly guide the teacher while planning curriculum transaction.
When the teacher plans for curriculum transaction in the classroom, he has to develop
competency in engaging in three levels of planning. Such kind of planning will give
directionto the transactions and ensures that the curriculum is implemented effectively.
Let us examine the levels of planning.
(a) Course planning: Bothinobjectivist curriculum and in construetivistcurriculum,
courseplanning is the first step for curriculum transaction. ~ already mentioned,
/
which is generated after much deliberation by authorities on education. These
courses generally compacted into textbooks are made available to individual
institutions. The concerned subject teacher is given the course. Now, the teacher
is expected to analyze the whole composition of the course content. She will
have to decide how the course will be dealt with and how it will be spread out
for transaction throughout the year. At this stage the course gets divided into
parts of content and the teacher will also take a decision on how much time is
to be allotted for each part. She will draw out targets for completion of particular
sections of the course at particular points of the academic year. While working
out these details, she would take into consideration the nature of the content
and complexity.
(b) Unit planning: From the given course content, the teacher will identify chunks
of content that have logical consistency and can be tied together. These will be
separated out as a unit. In this way the course is divided into units. A unit will
contain instruction which can be carried over for several days. The teacher
then goes for a detailed analysis of the unit to identify ideas and concepts which
can be connected. Such ideas will be placed together to constitute a sub unit. A
unit therefore, contains sub units. Thereafter, the structure of each subunit is
worked out putting in place all the ideas which will be covered in that subunit.
The process of developing the structure ofthe unit by identifying the relation
between concepts/ideas and drawing them out as subunits called content
analysis.
Let us take an example to understand the concept of unit plan.
Suppose we are teaching a set oflearners in Class VIII about Heat. The unit may
be divided into three separate subunits like heat as energy, flow of heat and change
of state. Under each subunit, the concepts to be taught are arranged in a logical
manner. This step may be illustrated as follows;
Sub Unit 2 . Sub Unit 3

Transference of heat' Change of state
Application of Melting
conduction, Latent heat
convection and Freezing
.radiation Vaporization
Liquefaction
Figure z.I: Concept of Unit Plan
As you can see above, each subunit deals with a particular theme and the ideas
discussed in the sub unit are logically connected with each other and also under the
main theme.
34
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It is also important to note that the subunits or the ideas discussed in them are not Curriculum Transaction
absolutely exclusive of each other. The inter-relatedness of concepts wherever found
relevant will be identified and highlighted to learners during the course of their
instruction. However, unit planning does not end with the content analysis as indicated
above.
Next, the teacher will have to engage in what is called task analysis. For each subunit,
the teacher will have to work out the teaching points and specify what objective is
specifically intended to be attained through that teaching point. For instance, in the
example cited above, for the teaching point' heat and temperature' we may specify
an objective as follows:
the learner differentiates between heat and temperature.
Again, the concept of change of state in subunit 3 may have an objective,
the learner cites examples of change of state from solid to liquid and from liquid
to gas.
Further against each objective, the teacher will have to specifythe method of curriculum
transaction, the media to be used. Finally, the unit plan will also indicate the techniques
which will be used to evaluate the achievement of objectives. Thus at the unit planning
stage the teacher first of all, through content analysis, draws out the structure of the
unit and the sequence of presentation and secondly, through task analysis delineates
the specific objective to be attained through the unit of study, and also the methods
through which these will be realized and then comes the evaluation. You will learn
more details of these aspects later in this unit.
(c) Lesson Planning: The unit planningjust discussed above in fact, is rather
briefindicating the structure of a unit, the concepts under the unit, the objectives,
methods and media and has a mention of possible evaluation techniques to be
used at the close of the instruction. However, in actual practice, the teacher
needs to have what is called a Lesson Plan in order to give proper direction to
his day to day responsibility of teaching. It indicates the kind of activities that
would be undertaken in a class period of35-40 mins. Thus, from the Unit plan,
a teacher prepares the lesson plan which would generally deal with a couple of
concepts drawn from the sub units arranged in a sequence. Here, a teacher
may make a decision regarding the concepts to be discussed, the mode of
organizing the learning experience. Del iils are worked out regarding which of
the available media can be used and tl : methods of conducting the learning
activities. The expected behaviours of the teacher and the learners are also
indicated. Assignments to be given, black board work, recapitulation questions,
evaluation questions, etc are also mentioned in the lesson plan. It is therefore, a
detailed description of the proceedings of a 35-40 minutes class. However, it
is not to be inferred that lesson plan is a cook book which gives various steps
of preparing a recipe. It is not a rigid document dictating the procedural activities
of a lesson. It is to be prepared incorporating the element offlexibility so that
depending upon the practical developments in the instructional process, the
plan can be adapted to meet the needs oftht learners and enable them to attain
the expected learning objectives. You will learn more details regarding choice
of medial methods etc in the Section 2.9. '
35
,/ "
Management ofCurricutum Check Your Progress

3) Explain briefly what you mean by curriculum transaction.
4) Differentiate between curriculum and syllabus.
5) How does course planning help a teacher in the classroom?
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,'r •••••••••
6) Briefly explain content analysis.
...................................................................................................................
7) .Mention four specific tasks that are focused in task analysis .
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
8) A new teacher enters the classroom with cl set lesson plan. What advice would
you give him before he begins the class? '
...................................................................................................................
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
,'.,'
...................................................................................................................
36 ....................................................................................................................
2.5.2 Executing the curriculum Curriculum Transaction
As mentioned in the previous section, the two main tasks involved in curriculum
transaction are Content Analysis and Task Analysis. In the former activity, outcome
is a sequenced set of concepts which will be progressively dealt with in the instructional
set up. The latter activity details out how the concepts will be presented, in other
words, how the transaction will be effected. This stage is very important because,
the success of the transaction depends on how precisely and effectively we have
been able to select and present the learning experiences. In the educational arena
today, we have available to us a wide variety of methods and media from which we
may select the ones which are most suitable to the instructional situation we have to
deal with.
The methods ofcurriculum transaction are many and most of us are familiar with the
popular ones. These are lectures, demonstrations, team teaching, group discussion,
role playing, problem solving, discovery, etc. More recently technology mediated
instructional methods are being used looking into certain advantages which these
methods have. Researchers like Joyce and Weil (1986) have also tried to present a
comprehensive picture of methods which are known as the models ofteaching. For
convenience, they have grouped the models into four categories.viz, 1. Information
processing 2. personal 3. social and 4. behavioral.
Media to be used for curriculum transaction need to be discretely selected. Selection

of media will depend on the kind of activity that we are envisaging for the achievement
of certain objectives. Moreover, it has to be ascertained if the media are available in
that particular instructional context. If not, then alternative inputs need to be selected.
Herein are discussed details in respect of some of the media inputs available to an
instructional planner.
2.6 METHODS USED FOR ~URRICULUM

TRANSACTION (TEACHER CENTRED)
In order to facilitate learning, teachers and learners in the formal! non formal education
set up meet and engage in the transaction of knowledge which is defined through the
curriculum. The transaction takes different forms depending upon the roles that
teachers and learners play. In some transactions, we may observe that teachers
dominate the teaching learning context; they are doing most of the talking, they are
leading etc. Here the learners have to be followers. Perhaps they are listening quietly
and accepting everything said by the teacher. These are teacher centered transactions.
We will soon present some details ofthese transactions. Then, there may be other
situations where, in the process of transaction, the learner is active, engages in a
variety of activities which leads to his learning, the teacher is more of a guide. These
can be described as learner centered transactions. Finally, there are also learning
situations in which learners function as groups, they can carry out activities as members
in the group and through such cooperation they learn under the guidance of the
teacher. They are group centered transactions. For curriculum transaction to be
effective there are certain aspects which need to be worked out right at the beginning,
irrespective of what methods or media are being used. You may say that these are
over arching guidelines relevant to any sort of curriculum transaction. Let us discuss
these.
1. The curriculum which is to be transacted, generally available as learning content

is to be organized. The main criterion for such organization is the logical
presentation ofthe subject matter. This can be worked out by what is called
37
Management of Curriculum content mapping which will comprehensively indicate what are all the aspects
which will be covered at a particular grade oflearning in a particular topic.
Along with content mapping we need to work out the linkage between content
points within a content. For this, we prepare a flowchart. The flowchart is like
a chartered plan indicating how the curriculum transaction will progress. The
following example is presented to help you understand the concept of content
mapping and flowcharting.
Transmission of Heat
Concept of Transmission
I I
Molecular Molecular
arrangement motion
Transaction of Heat
in solids, liquids, gases
I I
Conduction
I Convection
I Radiation
Figure 2.2: Flow Chart
As you can see ideas are linked together in sequence and the content should
have a logical flow. This imparts meaningfulness to the content and it facilitates
smooth learning and retention. No definite and fixed procedure can be
prescribed in this regard. A teacher's command over the subj ect matter and
his depth of understanding of the concepts will enable him to see the linkage
between ideas.
3. After the logical sequencing of content is worked out the teacher has to arrange
the presentation keeping the psychological requirements oflearners. In this
regard, content needs to be presented by moving from what the leamer already
knows to what he does not know. For instance, before going into measurement
of areas/volumes, the teacher will start with the measurement oflength, breadth
of objects with which the learner is already familiar. Second aspect is that of
moving from simple to complex. To teach about geographical map of the State,
the teacher will begin the class with the map of the school. Third, the process or'
learning itself should be rewarding. While he learns, the learner should be
motivated to go further ahead with his learning. For this, the learning experience
has to be sequenced in such a way that every step oflearning gives a feeling of
success. In a class on adding fractions, the teacher may present very simple
examples which the students are able to solve correctly which gives a success
experience and then gradually increase the complexity.
Besides these major guidelines, each method of curriculum transaction will have
.•.~~ certain steps which need to be adhered to for maximizing effectiveness. We
38 ,.~ •....
shall now discuss a few methods commonly used in Indian classrooms.
:1
"
2.6.1 Lecture Curriculum Transaction
This method of curriculum transaction is most popular in the class room context of
the secondary and higher education levels. In fact, in our country, due to the large
classrooms where a good number of learners have to be taught at a time, it is
convenient to use the lecture method. There is a general assumption that lecture is
easy and one can just talk to a group oflearners on a theme anytime. This however,
is not true. Delivering a lecture is a serious task. For an effective lecture the following
aspects need to be taken care of:
Preparatory Stage:
Before the delivery of the lecture it is important to plan and prepare the lecture. At
the planning stage, you will have to arrange the teaching points to be dealt with in the
lecture. You will also have to clearly work out how each teaching point is going to be
explained, which examples or illustrations will be used, if any diagrams, figures etc
will be drawn on the blackboard, which charts, models etc will be used, any equations
etc to be written on the blackboard. All such minute details are to be worked out in
advance. As mentioned earlier, flowcharting will guide the teacher in effective
presentation of the lecture. It is preferable to have the main transition points of the
lecture written separately on cards which can be used in the classroom. Indications
can be made on the cards to show what specific aids/ activities will be put in at
particular junctures of the lecture.
Presentation Stage
The actual curriculum transaction takes place at this stage. The plan prepared at
stage 1 is put into action. However, this does not mean that cookbook approach can
be used for translating every step of the plan into concrete action in the classroom.
The lecture will have to begin in a smooth manner firstly by ascertaining the entry
behavior of the learners which is presumed at the preparatory stage. Do they actually
have those specific behaviors which enable them to benefit from the present
experiences? If not, certain additional inputs will have to be given to prepare them to
receive the new experiences. /
Second, the learners should be informed of what they will learn through t(.forth
coming lecture. This is done by presenting what Ausubel (1968) calls' advance
organizer' . It is a fact that learning is strengthened when the learner is able to link up
what he is learningwith what is already known to him (his existing cognitive structure).
The new learning unfolds in the course of the lecture, it gets anchored to previous
learning and a comprehensive understanding is obtained. Thereafter, the lecture can
be presented. Depending upon the ingenuity of the teacher, examples, teaching aids,
like charts, diagrams, models etc. and a variety of stimuli can be used in developing
the lecture. All through the lecture the teacher may raise questions to which the
students may respond. Besides ensuring whether learning is taking place it helps the
learner to progress through the lesson.
Conclusion Stage
Towards the close of the experience, the teacher helps learners to summarize what
has been learned. Such surnmarization is done through a review of the learning
generally by raising relevant questions to which, answers are gi en by the students.
A blackboard summary is developed which reinforces the learning. Assignment
questions are given which further strengthens the learning.
2.6.2 Demonstration
At all levels of education, this method is employed by teachers handling curriculum
transaction in various subject areas. As you can understand by the term itself, it 39
Management of Curriculum means how some particular task/activity is to be done, or not to be done. Learners
are expected to observe the skills being displayed. A teacher may carry out the
demonstration himself or he may use certain other aids like films, diagrams or charts
to demonstrate the concepts. Let us consider the following areas where a group of
learners are being taught .
• To measure height and weight of objects.
• To take out a liquid using pipette in a chemistry class.
• To draw the outline map ofacountry.
• To recite poems.
• To play a particular musical note on an instrument.
• To learn a serve in tennis or ball in cricket.
Can all the above be taught through lecture? Obviously, you would agree that any
amount oflecturing cannot lead to effective learning of the above skills. Almost
every teaching learning situation contains skills to be learned and mastered by the
learners which cannot be taught through verbal lectures. Demonstration by the teacher
followed by practice by students will be the correct approach to curriculum transaction
in these situations.
It is important that demonstrations are systematically conducted so that procedure
and skills of executing the activityare clearly understood by the target group. Therefore
it is necessary to prepare for the demonstration.
Preparatory Stage:
Planning is the first step before a demonstration is executed. The task to be

demonstrated is to be broken down into a series of steps. The materials required at
each step are to be listed out and assembled after procuring these. Procedural steps
in the order of being executed should be listed out in the blackboard. The seating
arrangement oflearners should be worked out so that everyone can see and hear
what is being explained. A hand out indicating the steps ofthe demonstration arid
also other relevant content should be prepared for distribution to learners at the end
of the demonstration. If supplementary aids like video are being used along with the
demonstration, we have to work out exactly at what stages/ points of the
demonstration, these will be introduced.
Conducting the demonstration:
When everything is ready for the demonstration the teacher may introduce the theme
in such a manner as to motivate the learners and arouse their interest in the
demonstration. The verbal explanation during the demonstration and the practical
steps being demonstrated are to be clearly communicated and synthesized. Questions
may be raised by learners while the demonstration is going on. These should be
encouraged and clarifications should be provided immediately. Sometimes a certain
step of the demonstration may have to be repeated to clarify the query and provision
for such interruptions should be made at the planning stage itself. The demonstration
should be well placed and not hurried through or dragging. Although largely the role
of the learners will be to observe and record, their active participation wherever
possible should be encouraged. After a few logical steps ofthe demonstration the
, procedures conducted until then need to be summarized. Hand outs are to be given
. at the close of the demonstration so that a record of the procedures is available to
the learners.
As you can see use of demonstration in curriculum transaction gives scope for teacher
40 pupil interaction and also enables learners to learn how some skill or activity is
/
executed. It is learning by modeling and also by doing. While watching the Curriculum Transaction
demonstration, they develop the skill of observation too.
2.6.3 Team Teaching

Instead of a single teacher either giving a lecture/demonstrate, a group of teachers
may impart instruction through a process called team teaching. A definition by
Warwick(l971) gives a clear explanation ofthis approach. He states that it is a form
of organization in which individual teachers decide to pool resources, interests and
expertise in order to devise and implement a scheme of work suitable to the needs
of the students and facilities of the institution. The concept of team teaching was
actually put into classroom practice in 1950s in American education. It is based on
the conclusion that 2/3 persons who are specialists on their field can plan, execute
and evaluate learning of groups of students effectively. Therefore, it gives an
opportunity for each teacher to contribute his best towards learning in that particular
course.
Preparatory stage: Like every other teaching approach team teacher requires
planning. The members constituting the team need to meet and work out how the
instructional activities are to be executed. Since team teaching can be organized in
quite a few ways, it needs to be decided which approach to team teaching will suit
the topic on hand and the learners. The topic for example,' Women's participation in
politics' can be taught by a team of persons using different approaches. The topic
may be taught through a series of presentations by say a woman politician, an
undergraduate student, a male politician, a representative from Women's organization
each giving hislher own viewpoint on the issue. It may also be taught through a
group of teachers who decide to use a narrative style presenting different dimensions
of the issue. One teacher speaks on Effectiveness of Women politicians, another, on
Women politicians and Family life, another on Women politician and Political
hierarchy.Thirdly,itcan be taught by debating on the issuethrough a liveargumentation
on the issue. Depending on the topic, resource persons available, facilities and the
learners, the approach to team teaching can be selected.
Executing Team Teaching: After planning systematically, the team of teachers
shall go about the task of executing teaching. Each approach is fruitful from the
learners' point of view. When teachers are present in the same class period and
explain different aspects of the theme, learners develop a comprehensive
understanding and a holistic picture of'the theme under consideration. When a
variety of methods are used by the theme It -cture, demonstration, panel discussion
etc explain the issue, then also the underst.nding of the concept is enhanced. If an
argumentativeapproach is used, then too the studentsexercisehigher cognitiveabilities
in understanding the argument and thereby begin to get analytical perspective of the
topic. There is no chance for any prejudiced knowledge being imposed upon learners. /
During the team teaching it is very important that learners could be encouraged to
take notes and summarize the presentation ofthe team members. They should be
encouraged to put in their view points at appropriate stages of their team teaching.
After team teaching is completed the learning accrued needs to be evaluated,
Evaluation is done by the team members by formulating a testing situation which
measures knowledge / skills learned through the team teaching.
With increasing importance given to learners role in the team teaching process, a set
of methods which focus on learner active instruction have been identified. Let us
consider a few important such approaches
41
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Management of Curriculum Check Your Progress
9) What is content mapping? How is it related to flowcharting?
10) Mention three major stages in organizing a lecture .
............................................................... , .
11) Write two main advantages to learners when team teaching is used .
....................................................................................................................
2.7 METHODS OF CURRICULUM TRANSACTION

(LEARNER CENTRED)
2.7.1 Self Learning methods

In selflearning methods the onus oflearning is on the individualleamer. He will take
responsibility for his learning and the teacher's role is that of a facilitator oflearning.
Besides keeping the learner active the main advantage is that the learning is paced
out according to the needs of the learner and his readiness to learn. At various
stages of the learning, in fact, at every step the learner is given feedback about his
progress in learning. Based on the feed back the next step in learning is defined.
Thus, through continuous monitoring the learner achieves the instructional objective
outlined at the planning stage of curriculum transaction. Selflearning methods may
be presented through the various approaches. There may be self study materials,
personalized system of instruction, computer assisted instruction etc. In self study
materials subject matter organized and presented as selflearning material where the
learner takes responsibility to study and work in the materials. Such material may be
presented as programmed learning material or as systematized content with provision
of feedback as you are reading now. A learner studies the materials and is guided to
work in different ways as he progresses through the materials. SLM is prepared
taking into consideration the psychological aspects of the learning process. There is
a built in mechanism which enables a learner to check ifhe is learning. Unlike a
classroom learning experience in the face to face mode which is a one time experience,
in SLM the learner can return to the SLM and read it several times to learn the
'-
content. He can also learn whenever he wishes to enrich any learning. This built in
42 flexibility enable~ the learner to pace his own learning.
QC
2.7.2 Personalised System of Instruction (PSI) Curriculum Transaction
PSI is another seIflearning method. As the term itself indicates the curriculum
transaction under the method is highly personalized. The needs and ability of the
learner are the prime considerations. At the outset, well planned assignments are
given to individual learners which comprises study materials relevant to the theme to
be transacted. Written content, laboratory work, projects in the field situation etc
are also included in the assignment. Students take their own time to work on these
activities. When they have completed, they report to the teacher (generally under
PSI, the teacher is called as proctor). The proctor is more of a faciIitator. He evaluates
the learner to check ifhe has mastered the learning. Ifhe is not satisfied with the
attained level, he directs the learner to re-learn. Remedial packages may also be
given to learner, if available. If satisfied, he directs the learner to proceed with further
learning. As you can see, even if a class has a large number oflearners, the transaction
of the curriculum are done in a personalized way where every learner gets individual
attention.
2.7.3 Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

Self Learning method has been modernized using technology of computers. This
input is used to record, and react to student responses. It can be used to store and
manipulate content, manage the learning of a huge number oflearners. Curriculum is
transacted by the learner while using the computer .He can go through the contents
of a topic, react to the queries built into the computer on the topic, get feedback to
his responses .i ust as if a teacher were interacting with him. Instruction can be
programmed depending upon the entry level of the learners. It is quite possible that
different learners give varied responses to queries. However, curriculum transaction
using computers is designed in such a manner that each response given is dealt with
separately and the learner is directed through a particular path to achieve his learning.
Drill and practice, tutorials, games ,etc. are scrutinized and presented to learners for
transacting the curriculum.
2.7.4 Project Work

Another Self Learning method which is used for curriculum transaction is project
work. Here the student works on a specific aspect/theme/problem in focused and
systematic manner. Projects may require that the learners work in the real context of
a society or it may require laboratory work orlibrary work. To study the quantum of
fat content in the food taken by people requires laboratory work. To develop a
write up on various musical instruments prevailing during a certain period of history,
one may have to engage in library work. For instance, he may study the customs
and rituals of followed by a community during a festival. For this, he has to observe
the members ofthe community during that festival followed by participation .. One
may study the sanitation facilities of a locality. This requires movement in the locality.
Such studies are planned meticulously under the guidance of a teacher and executed
by the learner in the real life situation. Most of the project work is done independently
by the learner. He develops knowledge, skills and quite a few personality attributes
through this realistic experiment. The project revolves round a theme, gaining
knowledge ofthe aspect being studied. Skills of various kinds are also developed.
Besides planning how he will go about the project, he picks up skills of arranging
and manipulating resources available to him, skills of experimenting, observation,
etc. Also, he develops attributes like cooperation, patience, social sensitivity,
cooperation. A project may not even go according to the strategy planned by the
learner at the outset. In the process of working on the projee; he develops critical
thinking and the ability to evolve alterr=ive ways of coping with situations. On the 43
I, •.....•.---.....,...--------.~~---~
Management of Curriculum completion of field work/library work, and the collection of data a report of the
project will have to be prepared by the learner. It is quite possible, and it often
happens that a lot of data gets collected while the project is in progress. Judicious
pruning of data is needed to sort out only that data which is relevant to the theme of
the project. Discrimination of such data shall have to be done and thereafter, the
data needs to be analyzed and conclusions are to be discussed.
2.8 METHODS OF CURRICULUM TRANSACTION

(GROUP CENTRED)
Curriculum transaction can also be executed in group situations. Such situations

besides developing higher cognitive abilities in the learners also contribute to the
development of certain affect attributes. Working in groups, they learn from each
other, exchange of views and discussion which takes place in the group clarifies
concepts and enables learners reach a clear cut understanding of the topics through
analyses of the ideas and it synthesis. It keeps the learner active. It facilitates learning
through cooperation. Group situations may be varied. For instance, all the learners
ofthe group may be assembled at one place and engage in discussion of the topic.
Or else, a single group may be divided into three or four small groups which work as
teams and later present their small group work to the entire group. You may be
interested to know how group learning situations can be varied.
2.8.1 Discussion: The simplest mode of transaction through group centred situation
is discussion. Consider a theme has been identified as follows 'Coeducation in
secondary schools' . This is a topic upon which each and every learner at the
secondary level/ higher secondary level can give opinion. The teacher may initiate
discussion giving introductory remarks. Thereafter, learners contribute their views
by building up on each others opinions. It is very important that while the discussion
is in progress, the teacher should guide the direction of the discussion so that it does
not spill over to an altogether different area. Care should be taken to see that no
remarks which will stifle the thinking of the learners or make them afraid or diffident
to express their thinking. Generally, inputs in a discussion begin slowly as ideas
come in, then, the tempo builds up wherein views which are supportive of each
other as well as contradictory pour in and towards the end the discussion tapers off.
At this stage, a teacher may be able to collate views and emerge with conclusive
remarks. Discussions have the potential to develop higher cognitive abilities besides
enhancing knowledge in any specific area.
2.8.2 Buzz session: At suitable stages in the course of curriculum transaction buzz
sessions can be organized. These sessions essentially means focused discussions in
. small groups for working out specific problems. For instance, students have to be
taught about elements, compounds and mixtures. After this the teacher may place
before the learners samples of substances and divide the class into small groups
which will be given the samples of mixtures. The students will be asked to discuss
among themselves for a short while and come out with suggestions as to how to
separate the mixtures. These small groups discussing specific focused themes for a
short while are described as buzz sessions. Innovative solutions to problems are
sometimes reached through buzz sessions. In buzz sessions participation by almost
all learners is assured. It gives opportunity for divergent views to be expressed
thereby promoting the creativity ofthe learners. After the buzz the leader makes a
presentation of the points discussed in the group. The teacher summarises the points
of each group and gives his judgement. While the buzz is in progress, the teacher
takes rounds tojust monitor what discussions are going on. At no point, he interferes
44 with the discussions going on within the buzz groups.
2.8.3 Tutorial sessions: A form of curriculum transaction which particularly Curriculum Transaction
facilitates guidance oflearners is the tutorial. Generally it is an informal interaction
between teacher and the learner in which the learners share the specific problems
with the teacher and the teacher examines these deeply and solutions are provided
on individual basis. Depending on the extent of rapport, the range of problems
shared and discussed may vary. It is flexible and can be adjusted to suit the needs of
the learner.
2.8.4 Debates: An important aim of curriculum transaction is to encourage learners
to sharpen their analytical thinking skills. In course curriculum we do find specific
issues which are controversial and which lend themselves to being viewed from
different angles. For instance, consider an issue 'should women engage in politics'.
Some may think 'Yes' and some may say 'No'. The class maybe divided into two
groups in which learners will speak for the theme and others against the theme. The
most important basic requirement for using debates in curriculum transaction is that
the learners should have capacity to gather relevant information and process this
information to support and justify their stand in the controversial issue. Besides
gaining information, learners learn the skill of argumentation as they react to their
opponents. The teacher guides the learners in gathering information. Chairing the
proceedings he helps the group reach conclusions through a post debate discussion.
2.8.5 Seminar: Another method of curriculum transaction where learners need to
engage in extensive reading and concentrated study is seminar. A theme may be
selected as for instance, 'Contribution of Christian missionaries to the development
of the Indian Nation'. This theme could be distributed to students to present
contributions made by the missionaries to education, health, social development etc.
The students pursue a detailed study of these aspects through library work. They
develop a paper reflecting their study and analysis of the aspects studied. Preparation
of the seminar paper is a serious task requiring rigorous information processing.
Information gathered is studied, analyzed, and a standpoint with justification is
presented before the group. The group members listen to the presentation and benefit
by gaininginformation.Also they may raise questions seeking clarificationor questions
related to aspects not adequately covered in the presentation. The teacher moderates
the discussions of the seminar and finally puts the motion for vote in the house.
2.8.6 Symposium: When a topic of study is varied, has multiple dimensions, or is
controversial, the teacher may arrange for a symposium. In a symposium, speakers
make detailed presentations of various dimensions of the topic, for instance, a
symposium may be conducted on 'Threat to National Security'. In this case, speakers
would examine a series of issues which pose a threat to National Integration-
neighbouringcountries,internalpolitical instability,communalism, casteism, economic
slow down, competition, global political scenario, etc. Such individual presentations
will enable the participants to get a wholistic perspective of how a number of factors
can threaten national security. It presumes that the speakers have substantial
knowledge of the theme.
2.8.7 Panel discussion: A panel discussion is a form of transaction in which a topic
which is complex or controversial is examined. Questions related to the theme may
be collected in advance and handed over to the members of a panel. The panelists
come prepared with answers. For instance, consider a controversial theme- 'Should
private universities be set up in India?' A number of questions may be raised as
follows: Where in India should such universities be set up? Which kind of private
organizations should set up these universities? Should there be any age limit for
teachers in these universities? etc. The questions are arranged in a predetermined
4S
Management of'Curriculum order by the moderator and these are raised sequentially. The panelists give their
reactions. Later, they may react to the views presented by the eo-speakers. They
may also answer any new queries which are posed to them. Higher cognitive skills
particularly critical thinking is developed through this kind of transaction.
2.8.8 Brain storming: A mode of curriculum transaction which keeps learners very
active is brain storming. For instance, an issue like 'how exams can be made less
stressful' may be taken up for brain storming. Students express themsel ves freely on
the topic. They are encouraged to express their views. These are accepted without
any kind of criticism or doubt. All the views expressed by the learners are noted
down. In a brain storming there is arnple opportunity for the learners to express their
creativity. After all the views are collected, the teacher along with group evaluates
the ideas and takes in those which are feasible to address the problem being
confronted. In many practical problematic situations in higher education, brain
storming can be used to encourage a participatory approach in the solution of the
problems and in making students responsible for the decisions taken.
2.8.9 Role playing: Curriculum transaction is effective if real life situations can be
simulated in the class room. For instance, a rural situation may be simulated in the
class in order to understand the role of community health worker in a rural area. The
teacher may set the background of the situation and students may enact the roles
without any inhibition.
Check Your Progress
12) List four main features of selflearning methods .
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
13) Fill in the blanks:
a. In programmed learning material, the subject matter is presented as

............ (frames/units)
b. Well planned assignments are given to learners under ..... (PSVproject)
c. In method, the learner works on a specific theme /problem in

an in depth manner
14) Write a sentence on what is the role of a teacher in a discussion session .
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
15) How is buzz session similar or different from a brain storming session?
1 '
.0
..................................................................................................
Curriculum Transaction
16) Which kinds oftopics lend themselves to debates?
17) Mention any two advantages for learners participating in a seminar.
2.9 MEDIA SUPPORT IN CURRICULUM

TRANSACTION
In the above section, we have elaborated on various methods which may be employed
in curriculum transaction, viz. teacher centred, learner centred and group centred
methods. Whatever the method, teachers and learners can draw upon a number of
devices which will enhance the effectiveness of learning. Today, with modem
technology, a whole range of such devices are available which are commonly referred
to as instructional aids or communication aids. Since these aids are presented through
certain medium, these are also termed communication media These aids supplement
the methods used in curriculum transactions. In this section, we shall examine some
of the communication aids which are used by teachers in ordinary classrooms while
they transact the curriculum.
2.9.1 Visual media

A wide variety of visual media are available. These are indicated hereunder:-
Three-dimensional material: There are a number of curriculum transaction
situations in which you will have to explain to learners about specific objects. For
instance, what is a prism? You will definitely bring a prism into the class, explain
about it and have students to examine the prism. Here, by using the objects we have
made learners understand about it. Sometimes we use specimens to facilitate
understanding, e.g. in explaining what is a compound leaf. In case of both objects
and specimens we are dealing with real things and these provide direct first hand
experience. Sometimes it may not be possible to make available the real object. The
real object may be too small or too big to handle. It may be dangerous to handle or
manipulate the object. In such situations we use models. It is a rough representation
of the object e.g. we may show students the model of the human heart, or the atomic
reactor. By handling the model, the learner gets an understanding ofthe concept.
0\,,'\
Printed materials: A great deal of human learning takes place largelythrough printed
materials particularly in those contexts where technology hits not made much
47
/
Management of Curriculum headway. The basic printed material used is generally prescribed as a text book for
each grade of education in each subject of study. Much of the curriculum transaction
is given by the text book since it delimits the scope of content to be handled with the
grade level. Itprovides direction to the content organization for curriculum transaction.
It is extremely useful to learners since they can have a permanent reference point for
their learning. Care should be taken to make the contents of the text book come
alive through proper presentation rather than a rigid adherence to the text book.
Sometimes textbooks are presented in a programmed style called PLM. In this
content matter is given as a sequence of frames linked logically.The learner responds
to each frame and is reinforced at each step. Work books are materials in print
which enable learners to write and practice the skills learned. The exercises are
usually graded and help reinforce learning. Reference books are another source of
printed material which offer supplementary learning and facilitate enrichment of
knowledge.
Boards: Earlier called as black board, today chalk board is readily available medium
in any classroom. With certain skills in place, a teacher can effectively use the
chalkboard as an aid. Firm and bold strokes should be used on the board. Board
work should be organized and give a summary of contents discussed in the class.
Underlining, encircling, framing and use of coloured chalks help to focus attention
and make the material interesting. In order to save learning time black board work
consisting of diagrams/maps can be done prior to the class. Also templates can be
used, e.g., if we need to draw outline maps of India while discussing physical features,
political divisions etc. the outline map may be cut out on wood and placed in the
board to get the outlines traced. A flannel board is prepared by taking plywood of
reasonable size and pinning on a flannel all across the board to its back. Pictures,
numbers etc. to be displayed should be prepared before hand with glue at the back
of each piece. The board can be placed at a suitable location in the class room so
that it is visible to all students. It should be kept in a slightly inclined position away
from strong winds. The pictures to be displayed may be kept nearby and put up on
the board as and when the lesson is in progress .. This medium is found to be very
useful for teaching younger children almost any subject - geography, mathematics,
science etc. Bulletin boards sometimes called notice boards can also be used as a
medium of instruction. For instance, a teacher may have conducted a lesson on
occurrence of eclipses. Soon after this, the newspaper cuttings showing such
occurrences may be put up onthe bulletin board for enriching learning. It can also
be used to display work done by students. It should be refreshed from time to time
to display new materials of interest to the learners. Students may also be encouraged
to use these boards.
Still pictures: Pictures which do not move and are stationary are called still pictures.
These may be of two kinds - those which are not projected and those which are
projected. Non-projected pictures are those found in drawings, magazines, books,
calendars, etc. Such pictures are very useful since they help clarify meanings, e.g., a
photograph of a minute creature can be taken and enlarged which helps in better
understanding. As the saying goes, a 'picture is worth a thousand words'. Non-
projected pictures can be used anywhere and at any time. Projected pictures require
electricity and also room specifically allotted for the purpose. Filmstrips present a
series of pictures located as frames. Slides present a picture on a transparent film by
using a slide projector. Opaque projectors can project materials directly from books,
photographs etc. Overhead projector can project materials which are prepared on
a transparent sheet. In the course of curriculum transaction, still pictures act as aids
and can supplement learning activities of students.
48
- I
Graphic materials: Ideas can be cormmmicated using drawings, words, pictures Curriculum Transaction
etc. With some background knowledge of the subject being presented, these graphics
can be understood. A variety of graphs can be used to represent data involving
numbers e.g., we may depict the rainfall across years, rates of commodities across
months, percentage of ethnic groups in a population, etc. using graphs. Diagrams
can be used to give ideas too. For instance, we may draw a diagram to show the
parts of a plant or to depict almost any object. Posters may be prepared to focus
attention on important facts. Posters usually are prepared in bold letters using a
splash of colours. They can be used to promote campaigns against pollution, for
vaccination, in school fairs, debates etc. Maps are examples of graphics used to
teach geography, history, etc. They give a visual representation of geographical
locations and geographical features.
2.9.2 Audio media

Much of human learning takes place through listening particularly to teachers in the
classroom. Audio media can provide support to this kind oflearning. Audio media
are advantageous since these can be operated through dry cell batteries. They can
be used anywhere, anytime even in villages which do not have electricity. Radio
broadcasts which are relevant to the curriculum can be used as supplements to the
regular curriculum transactions. Use of radio in the class room provides for stimulus
variation and attracts the attention of the students. The important fact in using radio
broadcast is in making adjustments of the class schedule to keep in tune with the
broad cast. Also valuable lectures, interactions and even radio broad casts can be
recorded on tapes and ~Ds. Learners can be assembled together at a place to listen
to these or even copies of tapes and CDs can be given to them for listening at home.
Audio media are also used to help anyone to improve himself.
2.9.3 Audio visual media

Providing audio and visual stimulus in a learning situation are audio visual aids. Films
can be developed portraying motion, re-creating the past as well as bringing distant
places to the class room. Films can be projected in the class. At the outset students
should be apprised of the purpose of viewing the film, Specific questions to be
answered after viewing the film may be written in the board. This will help learners
to focus on aspects which are beneficial to them. After the film is over, a discussion
session may be held where the questions earlier specified may be answered. Another
popular audio visual medium is television. Television may be closed circuit or open
circuit. The open circuit TV is aimed at public viewing and is of commercial interest.
CCTV is used to telecast specifically designed programs particularly for instructional
purposes and is used in the class room.
2.9.4 e-Iearning, internet, online facilities

With the advancement of science and technology the use of media in classroom
transaction has increased. These inputs have greatly contributed to enhancing learning
in a number of ways. It is now possible to reach updated knowledge. It is possible
to make available to the learning population the expertise of the best scholars cutting
across the barriers of time and space. It is possible to 'talk' to learners and teach
them wherever they are even though the teacher may be located at a different place.
Face to face interaction across distances is done through audio-video
teleconferencing. Even mobile phones are being used to communicate with learners
spread over wide areas. Thus facilities like internet, e-mail, etc. are new media
which are soon to be employed in curriculum transaction all over the world. In this
regard, it is quite obvious that while e-learning is popular in advanced countries, the
use of this approach is gradually gainin ("<' -oundin Indian conditions too.
----~- ~~ -.
Management of Curriculum 2.9.5 Community resources
Over and above the media discussed above, for curriculum transaction it is useful to
use community resources - both material and human. In the former category we
may think of museums, industries, sanctuaries etc. available in and around locations.
Trips to such places will be highly educative. It is also possible to invite resource
persons from the community around like doctors, social activists, NGOs, lawyers,
craftsman etc to
.
interact with learners ~on aspects of the curriculum.
2.10 FORMULATING STRATEGY FOR CURRICULUM

TRANSACTION ,L
In the preceding sections we have extensively discussed the methods and media
which can be used in curriculum transaction. In the actual process of executing the
transaction, the teacher needs to make a judicious combination of methods and
media looking into the objectives to be attained through the transaction. This process
of identifying the combination of methods and media and arranging them in a
synchronized manner is termed as formulation of the transactional strategy.Needless
to say, a number of crucial factors are to be given due consideration in formulating
the transactional strategy. For instance, the entry behavior oflearners, their maturity
level, their exposure to media, language, age, intelligence and the whole lot of other
learner related factors are to be taken into consideration. Also, availability of media,
training and skill of the teacher as well as objectives to be attained are other important
determinants of strategy formulation. In this way, keeping several considerations in
mind the teacher may formulate the most appropriate strategy to be used for curriculum
transaction for a particular learner group on a specific topic. The strategy is then put
in operation. We may say that the strategy is being implemented. This is the stage
where we find that the planned curriculum is being implemented or in other words
the curriculum is under transaction. .
2.11 EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM TRANSACTION

PROCESS
As mentioned at the outset in section 2.5, curriculum transaction being a managerial

activity, the execution of the process needs to be evaluated. The purpose in fact, is
to review different aspects of the curriculum transaction and emerge with new
propositions of how the process can be improved. Evaluation can be done at various
stages of the curriculum transaction process. If you recall, in section 2.5.1 we studied
about Unit planning and Lesson planning. You have seen that the daily lesson is the
smallest unit of the curriculum transaction process. While the teacher implements the
daily lesson plan, towards the end of the lesson, he raises few questions on the
subject discussed to which learners are expected to respond. This gives an immediate
feedback and helps check the extent oflearning achieved. If students are unable to
give correct answers or if they are confused at the end of the lesson, it means that
there was some deficiency in the quality of curriculum transaction. The teachers
need to make a note of it and introspect to locate this deficiency. Again, at the end of
the unit (which may occur after 6 - 8 lessons) another evaluation is done. This is
usually in the form of a written test where students respond to relevant questions
identified as important in respect of the unit. Correction of the answer scripts and
analysis of the performance will indicate the lacuna in transacting the unit ofthe
curriculum. Besides the learner achievement as an index of curriculum transaction, it
is possible to review the outcome of using the methods and media. Evidence which
will tell us that a certain method/media had a shortcoming, it was not suitable to
50
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learners, it was not implemented properly, etc. will emerge at the end of the session Curriculum Transaetioa
if the entire curriculum transaction process is reviewed. Thus-evaluation of curriculum
transaction is a macro level process. The data obtained through this process need to
be effectively utilized in redefining the strategy in future. There are institutions where
the teaching staff along with the head of the institution engages in such kind of review
to support individual teachers in improving curriculum transaction in their respective
subjects. In review meetings of this kind even external experts from media, curriculum
specialists, psychologists, administrators' etc. may be invited to gain valuable insights
from their expertise.
2.12 LET US SUM UP

The Unit you have just completed gives you a fairly broad idea about curriculum
transaction process with all its related concepts and issues. To begin with, the unit
discussed informal, formal and non-formal nature of curriculum with relevant
illustrations. It then took up two major perspectives in curriculum area which are of
vital importance in transacting curriculum. These are - behaviorist and constructivist
approaches. Without taking ~ very rigid stand on either ofthe two, the unit then
attempted conceptualization of curriculum transaction as a process. This was followed
by a detailed discussion on various methods which are usually adopted for transacting
curriculum. The methods elaborated upon were lecture, demonstration, team teaching,
different selflearning methods etc. highlighting their advantages and utility aspects.
The next sub section discussed the issue of media support in curriculum transaction
focusing on visual, audio and audio-visual media It also pointed out importance of
modem electronic communication like e-mail, internet and on line facilities in
curriculum transaction as well as the role of community resources in curriculum
transaction. Having emphasized the role of methods and media, discussion on
formulation of transaction strategy for implementation of curriculum was presented.
At the end, the need for evaluation of curriculum transaction process along with its
stages was highlighted.
2.13 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Select any topic from a subject of your specialization. Plan a curriculum
transaction strategy indicating the methods/media you will use and how you
will sequence the presentation. Justify the selection of the methods/media.

1. Informal education is that which takes place anywhere at anytime. There is no
organized structure for this. Formal and non formal education are organized
with a specific purpose to attain definite goals. Non formal education is usually
targeted for a specific group to enable them to develop certain competencies.
Both these are structured.
2. The objectivist approach to curriculum believes that there is a constant reality
about the world which needs to be conveyed to the learner. The constructivist
approach believes that every learner constructs knowledge and engages in a
thought process which should be allowed to express itself
3. Curriculum transaction is the process of putting into action all the activities and
experiences planned for learners in a classroom. Some of the activities may
take place even out of the classroom context.
51
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Management of Curriculum 4. Curriculum refers to the totality of experiences which a learner undergoes for
the purpose oflearning. Syllabus refers to the specific course content in a
subject of study which has been identified for a particular grade of education.
5. Course planning gives direction to a teacher to carry out the process of
instruction in a systematic way keeping in view the time target.
6. The analysis of the content in a subject matter indicating the logical connection
between ideas and concepts and placing these in a sequential manner as subunits,
is termed content analysis.
7. The four important aspects of task analysis are identification of the teaching
points, specification of the course objectives, selection of the media and methods
to be used and to develop the evaluation indices.
-
8. He should be advised that the lesson plan is not a rigid procedure to implement
the lesson. He should be able to deviate from the plan looking into the manner
in which the lesson actually develops in the classroom.
9. . The identification of the content which will be given at a particular grade is
called content mapping. Working out and indicating the logical link between
the concepts contained in the mapped content is called flowcharting
10. Three major stages of a lecture are preparation, presentation and conclusion.
11. The learners get information from specialists and they also learn the skills of
argumentation.
12. The learner is active, learning is self paced, feedback is provided, and he can
re learn whenever necessary.
13. a) frames b) PSI c) project
..;:. .
14. The teacher initiates the discussion and moderates the interactions. At the end
he/she summarises the proceedings.
15. In both methods the participants are given a free atmosphere to express their
thoughts and opinions providing opportunity for their creativity. Buzz groups
are small but in brainstorming the group may be large.
16. Controversial topics lend themselves to debate.

17. Seminar provides training in information processing and analytical thinking.
52
UNIT 3 MANAGEMENT OF EVALUATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Concept of Evaluation
3.4 Need of Evaluation
3.5 Approaches of Evaluation
3.5.1 Formative Evaluation
3.5.2 Summative Evaluation
3.6 Structure of Examination Body

3.6.1 Superintendent
3.62 Role ofInvigilator .
3.7 Evaluation Strategies of Institution

3.7.1 Evaluation strategy adopted by Schools
3.72 Evaluation strategy adopted by Colleges
3.7.3 Evaluation strategy adopted by Autonomous organizations
3.8 Management of Evaluation

3.8.1 Meaning of Management of Evaluation
3.82 Process of Management of Evaluation
3.8.3 Steps of Management of Evaluation
3.9 Need of Management of Evaluation

3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.11 Unit End Activities
3.12 References
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this run for educational marathon a child first goes to school, then moves later to
a college & finally lands in a university or Institute for higher learning at every stage,
he/she is expected to gain some understanding of various concepts and develop
some skills and competencies. At each stage institutions apply different strategies to
judge the level of achievement by the learners. Evaluation is a process that helps
these institutions identify the level of attainment of instructional objectives in each
learner besides aiming at improving the instructional process. The evaluation process
may be formativeor summative i.e. itcan continue along withthe instructionthroughout
the academic calendar or conducted at the end of the semester or academic year. It
also provides direction to instructional activity by identifying the weaknesses in the
process.
Considering the importance of evaluation, it is very essential that the process is
managed effectively .. Management of evaluation is a process that ensures that
evaluation is efficient and effective. It is very crucial for teachers to understand the
53
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Management of Curriculum importance of effective management of evaluation as they directly participate in
conducting the process of evaluation. In this unit, we have made an attempt to discuss
various aspects of evaluation and management of evaluation.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to do the following:
• Describe and discuss the concept, need and importance of management of
evaluation in educational management;
• Explain the different processes involved in management of evaluation;
• Identify, select, plan and organise the different types of evaluation I.e., theory,
practical, entrance, etc.;
• Describe the various evaluation strategies adopted by schools, colleges and
autonomous organizations; and
• .Describe the organizational structure of the examining bodies in formal and
open learning systems.
3.3 CONCEPT OF EVALUATION

Evaluation is a systematic process of identifying to what extent the predetermined
objectives of any activity are achieved. It aims at modifying the strategy or approach
to meet the goals.
Evaluation is an important part of planning cycle in school management. Hargreaves
et al. (1989) in their work on school administration identify four stages in planning
cycle:
• AUDIT: Identifying strengths and weaknesses
• PLAN CONSTRUCTION: Determining the course of action on the basis of

predetermined objectives.
• IMPLEMENTATION: Planned course of action is implemented
• EVALUATION: checking the effectiveness of implementation
Evaluation is an important step in planning and show right direction to achieve
objectives. The main aim of evaluation is:
• to understand the level to which each learner has achieved the learning
(instructional) objectives
• to diagnose the weaknesses in a teaching-learning process and thus take

remedial actions on time.
• provide guidelines to teachers and education planners regarding the setting up

of instructional objectives and designing instructional strategies.
• identify special needs of different children and thus developing specialized

instructional strategy for them.
It is thus evident that Evaluation is of of great advantage when it is integrated into
the teaching-Ieaming process and not just added on in the end.
In the next section, we are going to discuss in details about the need of evaluation?
54
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Management of Evaluation
',3.4 NEED OF EVALUATION
'Evaluation of pupil progress is a major aspect ofthe teacher's job. A good
picture of where' the pupil is and how he is progressing is fundamental to
effective teaching by the teacher and to effective learning by the pupil.'
This statement by Thorndike and Hagen (1977) highlights the importance of
evaluation in the teaching-learning process. A <; we have discussed above, it is believed
to be an integralpart of instructional planning that helps in finding out the effectiveness
of'instruction and level of achievement of instructional objectives.
Evaluation can help in motivating all the students to learn and continue learning. In
simple words, it led to increased achievement. The need of evaluation can be discussed
under following heads:
• Screening the entry behavior: It is very essential to coordinate the new learning
task/materialwith the existing schema for effectiveunderstanding by the students.
Evaluation will help teacher in finding about the initial level of the students so
that new task/material can be presented accordingly. For instance, before
teachingmultiplication at primary level,teacher must check their entryknowledge
of addition.
• Identifying children with special educational needs: Evaluation will help the
teacher in identifying children with special educational needs in right time. A
different kind of instructional strategy is required to meet special educational
needs. Timely identification of any problem will result in timely remedial action
and modification in teaching strategy to suit the needs of children. For instance
Dyslexic children need special attention and special methodology. Evaluation
can help identifying such students in the class.
• Determining strengths and weaknesses: Continuous and comprehensive

evaluation of students will help in identifying the relative strengths and
weaknesses of each individual student or groups of students. Instructional
strategy or pedagogic design/processes can be modified accordingly. Or, the
teacher would come to know in which subject certain students are weak and
re-organise the teaching accordingly .. For example, a student might be very
good in languages but weak in mathematics. With the help of evaluation, teacher
can identify her weakness and pay extra attention in mathematics.
• Diagnosing the problem: Evaluation will help in finding out problems and
issues which come in the way oflearners achieving the instructional objectives.
• Monitoring progress: It is very essential to find out to what extent goals of

teaching are satisfied. Evaluation will help to find out whether we are going in
.right direction or not i.e. how far the instructional objectives are achieved.
Teacher can make use of the evaluation information in modifying her teaching
strategy.
• Developing good study habits among students: Continuous evaluation will

motivate students and develop regular study habits. When student~ know that
they are being continuously evaluated, they develop regular study habits.
Check Your Progress
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'55
Management of Curriculum 1) According to Hargreaves et. al, what are the four stages in planning cycle?
2) Why does one need to evaluate the teaching-learning process?
3.5 APPROACHES TO EVALUATION
Evaluation can be classified into two basic approaches.:
1. Formative
2. Swnmative
3.5.1 Formative Evaluation

T'Crooks has defined formative assessment as a self-reflective process that intends
to promote student attainment.
N.E Gronlund has remarked that "Formative evaluation is used to monitor learning
process during instruction and to provide continuous feedback to both pupil and
teacher concerning learning successes and failures. Feedback to pupil reinforces
successful learning and identifies the learning errors that need correction. Feedback
to the teachers provides information in modifying information and prescribing group
and individual remedial work."
Formative evaluation is basically process evaluation whcih would mean that. formative
evaluation is conducted during the development, implementation or improvement of
a program.
Formative evaluation is done during the teaching -Ieaming process. Its main aim is
to evaluate the performance of the students during instruction to get the continuous
feedback. It involves modifying the program before it is completed to suit children
needs. Formative evaluation is done more than once in a session usually by the
teachers or an internal evaluator and the reports are meant for improvement in the
system and also feedback to learners ..
Characteristics
1. The main aim offormative evaluation is to ensure that the goals of the instructional
process are being achieved and timely remedial action is taken if necessary.
2. It focuses on providing continuous feedback to the teacher as well as to the
56
3.
students and their parents.
It helps teacher in modifying the instructional method according to the feedback.

I
4. It helps students to monitor their performance and develop good study habits Management of Evaluation
in them.
5. It involves assessment of class work, homework, class tests etc.
6. The results of this evaluation are not added to the course grade or given very
lowweighting
7. Formative evaluation is explanatory and flexible.
3.5.2 Summative Evaluation

N.E Gronlund remarks that "summative evaluation typically comes at the end of a
course (or unit) of instruction. It is designed to ,determine the extent to which the
instructional objectives have been achieved and is used primarily for assigning course
grades or certifying pupil mastery of the intended learning outcomes."
Summative evaluation basically evaluates the outcome or impact of a particular
learning intervention. It seeks to fmd out the demonstrable effects of teaching on the
learners. It is done at the end of the particular instructional program.
This type of evaluation is done with the help of external examination, teacher made
tests etc. It seeks to find out the result in the end. Final examinations conducted by
schools or semester examinations in colleges are examples of this kind of evaluation.
Robert Stakes has remarked that "When the cook tastes the soup, that's formative;
when the guests taste the soup, that's summative."
3.5.2.1 Characteristics
1. It is done at the end or completion of a program with the aim to find out the fmal
learning outcomes.
2. It seeks to present the result in relation to the predetermined objectives.

3. Provides feedback to the teacher so that she can modify the instructional method
in next academic year.
4. Final course grades are assigned on the basis of summative evaluation.
5. Evaluation is done by external examiners or teachers or both.
6. Surnmative evaluation is typically quantitative, using numeric scores or letter
grades to assess learner achievement.
Check Your Progress
3) What are the basic types of evaluation?
57
Management of Curriculum 4) Mention any three characteristics ofF ormative Evaluation.
5) Mention three characteristics ofSummative Evaluation.
3.6 STRUCTURE OF THE EXAMINATION BODY

Examination is an important tool of evaluation. It is a type of summative evaluation
where examinees are given grades or marks based on which he/she is promoted to
next level or class.
All the universities and school examination boards that conduct examinations have
adopted some methods, techniques or modalities for undertaking examinations. To
make evaluation reliable and effective, it is very essential to manage examination
effectively. For conducting examinations, a body is set up which is responsible for its
effective management.
The head of the institution or the other senior staff is designated as Centre
Superintendent.
Examination
" Boal'd~'
Invigilator
Figure 3.1: Structure of an examination body
3.6.1 Role of Center Superintendent

Board of examination lays down the rules on qualification, designation, experience
required for the post and remuneration to be given.
1. Appoint invigilators and helpers to facilitate smooth conduct of examination.
2. Lay down the administrative procedures that are necessary for effective
management of examination.
58
3. Provide adeqdate infrastructure facilities for the examinees .
•
4. Arrange orientation session for the invigilators. Management of Evaluation
5. Interprets board guidelines and rules for invigilators.

6. Receives all the information necessary to conduct the examination in a
prescribed format from the board
7. Receives the question paper packets to be kept in bank for the safe custody.
8. Holds the responsibility to withdraw these papers from banks on every day
basis based on the examination schedule.
9. Has the authority of taking decision in case of any malpractice like cheating.
10. Is alert to identify any malpractices and takes action.
11. Arrange for police in case of any problem.
12. Prepares report for the examination board about any malpractices along with
action.
3.6.2 Role of Invigilators

They are appointed by the superintendents for to support him/her in smooth
managementofexaminationbymainly supervisingthestudentswritingtheexamination.
Thus they hold the responsibility for the actual smooth and fair conduct of
examinations.
Required qualifications and remuneration of invigilators are provided in the rules by

the board to centre superintendent.
Orientation sessionsare conducted for them so that they are aware of:
1. Duration of examination
2. Time at which bell is to be rung
3. Time after which students shall not be allowed to enter the examination hall.
4. Action to be taken in case of malpractices.
5. Handling absentee issue case
6. Seating plan ofthe students
7. Statistical information to be collected
3.7 EVALUATION STRATEGIES OF INSTITUTIONS

Schools, colleges and various autonomous institutions adopt different strategies to
.evaluate students and teaching-learning process.
3.7.1 Evaluation strategy adopted by Schools

Schools usually follow combination of formative and summative evaluation
techniques.
The following are some of the evaluation methods adopted by schools:
• TermEnd Examinations
• Quizzes
59
• Informal evaluations like home works, absent percentage etc.
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Management of Curriculum Term end examinations are conducted in fixed interval of time, followed by the year
end exam in the end Also mid-term quizzes and various informal evaluation strategies
are adopted. Usually informal evaluation is done by teacher only and the year end
evaluation is done either by the external evaluator, class teacher or both.
Let us try to understand the system with the help of an abstract case.
Case ofXYZ Public School:
New academic year ofXYZ public School begins in April. As soon as the course is
started, one quiz is taken on every Monday. This quiz is prepared by the subject
teacher and aims to develop good study habits among children. This test is taken in
various forms like: oral quiz, written objective test, written subjective test,
questionnaire, discussion etc. Teacher has complete :freedomto choose the strategy.
Now after one and half months,just before summer holidays, term-end exam is
conducted in the form of written examination:
The question paper is prepared by the panel of subject teachers.
The same process is followed in whole academic year and final examination is
conducted in March. The question paper is prepared by the group of experts from
the school or outside the school.
3.7.2 Evaluation Strategy adopted by Colleges

All institutions develop and use their own evaluation procedures in course of their
instruction. Historically, at undergraduate level, internal and external examinations
are conduced to evaluate the student's learning.
Internal examination: In this type of examination, the competition is created amongst
the students in same college or department. Teacher and tester know each other
and setting is internal. Examination sheets are evaluated internally.
External examination: Organization and supervision of examination is controlled
externally.The main purpose of external examination is final appraisal of the students.
There is no relationship between tester and student. Inter-college comparison can
be made on the basis of results.
However, external examinations have been criticized over some time because of its
lack of coverage of curriculum and summative character. This has lead to increasing
the weightage of internal evaluation in final grades.
3.7.3 Evaluation Strategy adopted by Autonomo.us

Organizations
In autonomous organizations, students are evaluated in a continuous and
comprehensive way. Formative and summative approaches to evaluation are used
to evaluate the students. Students are evaluated continuously on the basis of their
class participation, assignments, presentations, quizzes, etc. At the end of the year/
semester summative exam is conducted by the institution. Internal and external
assessment are assigned fixed weightage. This weightage is decided by the examination
board. Let us take up a CASE.
At IIM Calcutta, both Formative and Summative approaches are followed for
evaluation. The Professor has to choose three or more than three evaluation
components for each subject. The Professors normally choose the following strategies
of evaluation:
60
1. Individual presentations Management of Evaluation
2. Group presentations
3. Class quizzes
4. Mid-term exams
5. Tenn-endexams
6. Class participation
7. Individual research projects
8. Group research projects
9. Viva voce
Every component has a predefined percentage contribution assigned to the total
maximum grade possible for each subject. This is normally decided by the Professor
in consultation with the students. The student performance is graded on each ofthe
components. Every grade has a particular credit point multiplied by its weightage. A
weighted sum of all the credits is totaled up to get a final grade.
Check Your Progress

5) What is the evaluation strategy followed by:
Schools
Colleges
Autonomous institution:
6) Write any four roles of center Superintendent?
3.8 MANAGEMENT OF EVALUATION

We have already discussed the importance of evaluation in the teaching-learning
process; Evaluation is necessary for ensuring effective instruction. Evaluation helps
the teacher in diagnosing the problem in teaching-learning process and take timely
remedial action. 61
Management of Curriculum In the light of its importance, it is very essential to manage the process of evaluation
effectivel y. 111 case of mismanagement of this activity, the outcomes will not be accurate
and may mislead instead of giving direction.
3.8.1 Meaning of Management and Evaluation

To understand the meaning of management of evaluation, we must understand the
meaning of two words: Management and Evaluation.
Trad itionally, Management is defined as 'art of getting things done'. There are two
basic Basically, Management is the art of getting things done in an effective and
efficient way.
Evaluation as we have already discussed is a systematic process offinding out the

worth of something. It aims at improving the process by identifying its weaknesses
and strengths.
Evaluation in education aims to provide timely feedback about teaching-learning

process so that it can be improved over a period oftime.
Now the question arises what is management of evaluation, how do we manage

evaluation? Why do we need to manage evaluation?
Management of Evaluation means how Evaluation can be conducted in an efficient

and effective manner using optimum resources. It is a process that ensures effective
implementation of evaluation strategies for effective achievement of purpose of
evaluation.
3.8.2 Process of Management of Evaluation

HS Srivastava in his book "Examination Manual" has identified following steps in
management of evaluation:
The curriculum and sample question papers
Registration of candidates for examination
Setting up of examination centres
Getting question papers set
Ensuring secrecy
Conduct of examination at center
Evaluation of examination scripts
Processing of examination scores
Preparation of result/issue of degree
Post examination scrutiny of scripts/result
3.8.3 Steps of Management of Evaluation

Deciding The Curriculum and Sample Question Papers:
First step in managing evaluation is deciding upon the curriculum. Firstly, the course
content has to be finalized. Then, this course content has to be divided into sub-
topics. Each sub-topic has to be assigned some time budget and weightage in
evaluation.
62
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Another important activity is providing some sample question papers which can be Management of Evaluation
used as guidelines by the evaluator. These sample papers will help the evaluator in
setting question papers.
Registration of Candidates For Examination:
This is a preliminary step and involves screening for eligibility to ~ppear for an
examination. For instance marks of previous class act as eligibility criteria in some
cases. Sometimes minimum age required act as a deciding factor for appearing in
examination. In this step, candidates are registered to appear in an exam.
Setting Up of Examination Centers:
After deciding upon the curriculum and registering students for examination, the
examination board decides upon the examination centres. Availability of infrastructure
is an important point that is kept in mind while setting up examination centers. Head
ofthe institution or senior faculty is appointed as Center Superintendent. We have
already discussed about the roles and responsibilities of Cent er Superintendent. He
is given the responsibility of appointing invigilators and helpers. He receives all the
information on prescribed format. Basically, hee is the person who is responsible for
efficient conduct of examination.
Getting Question Papers Set:
This is a very important activity in management of evaluation. Setting question paper

.
is a demandingjob requiring theoretical and practical expertise in the subject. The
paper setter has to be aware of course content, learning objectives and the tool of
evaluation to be used (multiple choice questions, essay type, matching etc.) Thus,
Examining board must provide an orientation session for the paper setters. The
paper setter must have good understanding of the techniques of evaluation and
expertise in setting good question paper according to specifications. The task of
paper setting should not be given to a single person. It should be a team effort. Team
of one subject expert, a pedagogue and a practicing teacher should be formed by
the board. In the process of setting up a paper the moderator is as necessary as a
paper setter. Orientation to paper setting team is provided in the following aspects::
o Instructional objectives and specifications
o Rules for framing objective questions of different forms
Ensuring Secrecy;
Secrecy is to be ensured in all pre-exmination activities .. Following aspects are to

be taken care of before conducting the examamination:
1. Keeping identity of students confidentiality: examinees are given fictitious roll

numbers to keep their identity secret.
2. Keeping identity of paper setting team a secret: This is very important to ensure
process of evaluation clean and corruption free.
3. Secrecy in printing: This is the trickiest part and the most susceptible step in the
whole process. The maximum chances of leakage are here because of the
involvement of a third party. Hence, the guidelines for the examination committee
in selecting the press are very stringent. Secrecy is maintained in all the following
steps
Selection of paper setters, moderators, etc.
63
\
Management of Curriculum Identity of printing press selected
Proper physical security arrangements
Only one question paper is printed at a time.
Correct collation of question paper pages - both in order and number is
ensured.
Proper seal and pilferage proof pack
Conduct of Examination at the Centre:
Examining body lay down the rules and regulations for conducting the examinations.
Roles of various functionaries are defined by the board. Center Superintendent has
to abide by the rules and arrange for effective conduct of examination. Policies are
modified in the light of changes in local environment.
Evaluation of Examination Scripts:
Examining board appoints the evaluators to check examination scripts.All examiners
evaluate around 15-20 scripts.
Now, instead of the traditional system of sending scripts to examiners, spot
evaluation or conference marking is followed by boards of school education
and some universities. This reduces the chances ofloss of some answer sheets
in the transition process.
In this system answer sheets are evaluated by a panel of evaluators in a
conference. This result in fast evaluation of answer sheets as there is fast
interaction between supervisor and head examiner.
There is one extra examiner for every 10 examiners who is given the responsibility
to check the corrected paper for any error. This reduces the number of complaints
and request for rechecking.
It is ensured that there is no examiner variability in checking papers. For this purpose
mean and standard deviation of marks given by each examiner should be calculated
for each day. Based on the individual mean and standard deviation, combined mean
and standard deviation should be calculated which should be compared with common
overall mean and standard deviation of all the students taking examination in that
particular paper.
Processing of Examination Scores:
Processing of examination scores can be done by the examining body itself or by
external agencies. There are advantages and disadvantages of both methods.
Interaction and supervision is more efficient in case of in house processing than
external agencies.
Preparation of Result! Issue of Degree:
Result is a sensitive issue and it is of utmost importance to keep this sensitive
information under wraps to prevent misuse and undermining of the examination
authority.
The result declaration approval process is initiated after the result preparation is
complete and the evaluation committee is satisfied that all guidelines and procedures
have been adhered to.
The examination committee takes decision on the following:
64
\
Need for grace marks Management of Evaluation
Basis of grading
Acceptable deviation in marks amongst students from different regionslcenters
Post Examination Scrutiny of Scripts/Results:
It is quite natural that after declaration of results, there will be lot of students for
whom marks obtained are not according to their expectations. It becomes the
responsibility of the Examination committee to resolve student queries satisfactorily
and take remedial steps to ensure justice.
For this the Board allows students to opt for re-evaluation, if a discrepancy is found
the board can alter its previously declared result.
The revaluation process provides a chance to student for:
checking if a question's evaluation has been accidentally left out.
The examination committee ensures the following in the process of re-evaluation:
Students handwriting matches student copy
Check ifroll numbers, supplementary sheets, transfer of marks, totaling is correct.
Dramatic fall in marks of one subject may indicate towards a mistake. The re-
evaluation process ensures this too.
3.9 NEED OF MANAGEMENT OF EVALUATION

Management of evaluation is as essential as the process of evaluation. If this activity
is not managed effectively, the purpose of conducting evaluation will be defeated.
For instance if examinations are not managed effectively, students will pass the exam
using wrong methods like cheating etc.
Also the purpose of evaluation will be satisfied when it would be able to identify
students based on their ability, hard work, intelligence, presence of mind etc. The
examination should be able to segregate students into above average, average and
below average effort. It should be able to stretch them to the maximum of their
abilities and help them be better and better.
The role of evaluation has changed over the years. Whereas previously evaluation
was perceived as a tool for segregating good and bad students, the development in
education research has recognized the need to identify students based on their effort
level. Management of evaluation takes care of this.
Evaluation alone, although very important, is not enough. When designing evaluation
tools it is always important to focus on the desired audience response rather than on
simply numbers need of management of evaluation is to identify ifthe evaluation
process is able to influence behavior to achieve objectives through the effective
management of evaluation mechanisms
Management of evaluation helps to take care of the following aspects of evaluation:
1. IS the method just and fair?
2. What is it measuring?
3. Is it providing the right feedback about the teaching-learning process?

65
Management of Curriculum 4. Is it learner centered or not?
5. Does it provide scope for remedial action?
Check Your Progress
7) What is the need of managing evaluation?
8) What are the various steps involved in management of evaluation?
3.10 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed about evaluation and how to manage the process of
evaluation. Evaluation is a systematic process of identifying to what extent the
predetermined objectives of any activity are achieved. Evaluation gives. the course
of action by identifying the weaknesses of particular programme. Evaluation is needed
to screen the entry behavior of students, so that teaching strategy can be modified
accordingly. It also helps identifying children with special needs, determining strengths
and weaknesses of students, monitoring progress of students and developing good
study habits among students. Management of evaluation is as essential as the process
of evaluation. Management of Evaluation is concerned with Why? What? and How?
of evaluation. It is concerned with ensuring efficiency and effectiveness of evaluation
procedure. Various steps involved in management of evaluation involves deciding
the curriculum and sample question papers, registration of candidates for examination,
setting up of examination centers, Getting question papers set, ensuring secrecy,
conduct of examination at center, evaluation of examination scripts, processing of
examination scores, preparation of result/issue of degree and post examination
scrutiny of scripts/result.
Various functionaries involved in the management of evaluation are Center

Superintendent, invigilators and helpers who ensure he effective management of
evaluation.
Take a case of a B.Ed college and identify the evaluation strategies adopted by
them. Also find out how they manage evaluation process. Who are the functionaries
involved in the process and what their roles are.
66
Management of Evaluation
3.12 REFERENCES
Aspinwal Kath, 'Managing Evaluation in education, a developmental approach
Gronlund, N.E. (1981): Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, Holt, Rinehart

and Winston, Inc., New York.
Patel, R.N. (1978): Educational Evaluation - THeory and Practice, Himalaya

Publishing House, Bombay.
Rossi Peter Henry; 'Lipsey Mark W, Evaluation, a systematic approach' (2004)

\
\
, Srivastava, H.S. (1989): Comprehensive Evaluation in School, NCERT, New Delhi.
,
Throndixe, R.L. & Hagan, E. (1977): Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology

and Education, 4th Edition, lohan Wiley & Sons, New Delhi.
1. Audit: Identifying strength and weakness
Plan Construction: Determining the course of Action on the basis of pre-

determined activities.
Implementation: Planned course of action is implemented
Evaluation: Checking the effectiveness ofimplementation
2. The need of the evaluation in teaching-learning process can be discussed under

following heads: -.,
a. Screening the entry behaviour
b. Identifying children with special needs
c. Determine strengths and weakness
3. Evaluation can be classified into various types depending upon the purpose
and method of evaluation, there are basic approaches to evaluation
a. Formative approach
b. Summative approach
4. a. It involves assessment of class work, homework, class test, etc.
b. The results of this evaluation are not added to the course grade.
c. Formative evaluation is explanatory and flexible.
5. School:
a) Term End Examination
b) Quizzes
c) Informal evaluations like homeworks, absent percentage
College:
a) External examination
b) Internal examination
67
Management of Curriculum 6. Reference Subsection 3.6.1
7. Evaluation helps the teacher in diagnosing the problem in teaching -learning
process and take timely remedial action.
8. The curriculum and sample question papers
Registration of candidates for examination
Setting up of examination centers
Getting question papers set
Ensuring secrecy
Conduct of examination at center
Evaluation of examination scripts
Processing of examination scores
Preparation of result/issue of degree
Post examination scrutiny of scripts/result.
68
UNIT 4 MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC
RESOURCES
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Meaning of Academic Resources
4.3.1 Types of Academic Resources
4.3.2 Features of most commonly used Academic Resources
4.4 Need for management of Academic Resources

4.5 Basics of Academic Resources Management
4.5.1 Planning
4.5.2 Procuring
4.5.3 Maintaining
4.5.4 Reviewing
4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.7 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Educational institutions are meant for imparting education to those who enroll in
these. In a traditional sense, all formal academic institutions like schools, colleges,
universities, and institutions running professional courses are engaged in this activity.
Society looks up to these institutions for carrying out teaching-learning process in a
systematic way and make young learners gain knowledge in various fields so that in
future they can perform the role as useful members of society. Now, educational
institutions cannot perform these tasks in vacuum without required resources. The
institutions need to be equipped with different types of resources to deliver the
goods. Teachers are definitely one of the main resources the institutions bank upon.
But teachers without appropriate academic resources are unable to bring out their
best. Hence, academic resources are an essential part of educational institutions. An
educational institution worth the name must have a good faculty as well as adequate
academic resources. A combination of both will determine the quality of service and
institution provides. In earlier times, academic resources of an institution were quite
simplistic and limited in nature - may be a reasonably good library, a moderately
equipped laboratory, and few teaching aids like globe, chart, maps, models etc. But
with recent developments in electronic communication and educational technology,
the possibility of procuring these resources of diverse nature and from variety of
sources has increased enormously. In this unit, you will get a brief idea about the
range of academic resources that an educational institution need to possess and
issues that are related to management of these resources.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• Describe what constitutes academic resources in an institution; 69
Management of Curriculum • Classify different types of academic resources;
• Recognize instructional potential of various types of academic resources;
• Identify factors that influence management of academic resources; and
• State basic processes involved in management of academic resources.
4.3 MEANING OF ACADEMIC RESOURCES
Briefly speaking, academic resources in an institution comprises all those which are
used in carrying out academic activities of an institution. One may say that these are
the raw materials with which institutions built up their academic programs. Viewed
narrowly, academic activities of educational institution are mainly confined to regular
academ ic courses offered by the institution which are syllabus based. As curriculum
is transacted by the teacher, he/she is very much a part of academic resource ofthe
insti clition. In addition, whatever materials - textual as well as supplementary - used
by teacher ill the classroom whIle teachmg are consIdered as academic resources.
In this sense, academic resources may be interpreted to mean a collection of
equipments, teaching aids and instructional materials possessed by an institution.
But this is perhaps too narrow a concept of academic resource. In a broad sense,
academic resources of an educational institution imply much more than that.
Educational institutions are organically related to larger society in which it functions
and hence could be considered as a leaming centre for the community. All its resources
are for the benefit of society. An institution reaches to community through various
kinds of extension activities such as seminars, conferences, workshops, publications
etc. which are outside regular academic courses. Therefore, academic resources of
an institution should be viewed in wider perspective to include every possible material
relevant to education and connected with the basic goals ofthe institution. Such a
vision is necessary even for regular students of the institution who need to enrich and
strengthen their knowledge base through a variety of inputs in addition to what they
acquire in the classroom. Academic resources of an institution thus incorporate all
kinds of materials having educational value. These include library, laboratory, rare
collection of relevant materials, antiques, museums, art gallery, audio-video tapes,
CD-RaMs, radio, television, computers, picture, photographs, models, charts, maps,
and host of other items which are functionally interrelated and help the institution
achieve its basic educational goals.
An educational institution is an evolving entity. As the institution grows, its academic

resources also continue to enhance. No limit can be set for procuring academic
resources of an institution. Also academic resources are institution specific. Depending
on fund position, availability ofleadership, dynamism of the organization etc. academic
resources of an institution go on developing. Further, in today's world academic
resources of an institution are not limited to its own possessions only. There are
numerous other sources from which educational materials cab be tapped. In this
sense, even accessibility to other institutions and agencies and networking can also
be considered as academic resources. In a nutshell, therefore, academic resources
when suitably integrated constitute the learning environment provided by an institution
in its totality.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of this unit.
70
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1) What is a broader concept of Academic Resources? Management of Academic
Resources
4.3.1 Types of academic resources

It is almost impossible to classify academic resources into well defined types as
these constitute an unlimited variety. In a very broad sense, the whole world around
us is learning resource. Anything used to meet an educational need may be treated
as a resource. However, from management point of view, certain broad classification
in institutional context is made here. These are as follows:
(a) Teacher centric vs student .centric
(b) Textual vs Supplementary
(c) Electronic vs Manual
(d) Printed vs Digital
(e) Virtual vs Real
(t) Visual Vs audio
(h) Institutional vs Community based
ITypes of Academic Resourcesl
~ Teach~r
Centnc
I --l Textual I HElectronic1 J Printed I I Virtual I I Visual I Ilnstitutionall
-isuPPlementary! ~ Maunal ! -l Digital! -l Real ! -1 Audio I

Figure 4.1 : Types of Academic Resources
4.3.2 Features of most commonly used academic resources

In earlier times, the only academic resource that was available to pupils was through
verbal communication from teacher. Because of the development of modem
technology, teachers no longer have to rely solely on words to communicate their
ideas. There is a great variety of materials around that can be used to make our
concepts more vivid and interesting. These are often referred to as instructional
71
/
Management ofCurriculum materials or devices which are used to supplement or complement the teacher's
tasks. These materials vary from very simple and inexpensive ones such as the chalk
board, pictures, diagrams, illustrations and maps, to more complicated ones like the
television, filrnstrips, tape recorder, video, CD.:.ROM, and the whole lot of digital
resources. Here it is necessary to point out that there is a distinction materials
['software'] and equipment ['hardware'] which may be needed to project or transmit
them. Since the later is as much important as the former in the instructional process,
academic resources in the true sense include both. In the section below, main features
of some of the most commonly used academic resources are highlighted.
VISUAL MATERIALS
Three Dimentional materials
Three dimensional materials and include - objects, specimens and models .
. Objects are real things such as a table, pencil.jars, cooking utensils etc. Specimens
are objects which are representative ofa group or a class of similar objects. Examples
of specimens are flowers, leaves, frogs, insects etc. An objects could also be part
pfSpecimens such as the wing of butterfly, the head of grasshopper, the bark of a
tree etc. Since objects and specimens are real things, they provide direct first-hand
experiences which are necessary for concept formation. Students can see, touch,
smell or even taste them. hence giving them a richer and more meaningful understanding
ofthe things being leamt. However, if the real thing is not available, too large to take
to the class, or too small for the naked eye to see, or too dangerous for the students
to manipulate, it is advantageous to use models of these. A model is a recognizable
representation ofa real thing. It may be reduced or enlarged reproduction but is
made into a size convenient for detailed study. Some models are made to show the
interior views of things which are normally covered or invisible. The more useful
models arc those which can be taken apart and put together again; for example, the
skeletal system otman, the parts olthe human eye, parts of machines etc.
Printed materials
A large proportion ofthe instructional materials found in most schools are printed.
The reason is not that they are considered to be the most effective, but that they are
the most accessible and easy to use. Generally speaking, there are two broad
categories ofprinted materials that are used in classroom teaching - textbooks and
supplementary materials. The textbook is the one required book that is used by the
entire class in studying a particular subject. This does not imply that aUlearning
acti vi ties should be geared towards teaching the content of the textbook, or that it
should form the sole basis for organizing day to day teaching. Instead it should be
regarded only as one of the several useful materials that will assist in children learning.
Besides textbooks, the institutional libraries contain huge resources in the form of
reference books.journals, magazines, newspapers, periodicals, encyclopedias,
yearbooks, atlas, maps, charts etc which provide a strong base of academic resources
of the institution.
Chalkboards
The commonest and most readily available form of writing board is the chalkboard.
72 The term chalkboard is now used instead of the conventional term blackboard since
chalkboards now come in different colors. The chalkboard is a versatile device; its Management of Academic
Resources
use can be adapted to any kind of subject and to various types of situations. No'A>
even electronic chalk boards are available.
Flannel boards
The flannel board works on the idea that rough surfaces when pressed against each
other will stick together. To construct cf'flannel board. a plywood or hardboard of
appropriate size has to be covered by a flannel on one side. Materials can be stuck
to the flannel board with or without pins. Flannel board should be of such size that
it can be carried from one place to another.'
Bulletin boards
A bulletin board is a display or exhibit m-edium more commonly known to most

people, including teachers, as the notice board. There is a growing interest in the use
of bulletin board as an instructional aid that can help enrich and facilitate instruction
and student learning,
Still pictures
Still pictures, as the name implies, refers to pictures that are motionless as opposed
to the moving pictures and movies or cinema. These are often regarded as a 1'01111 0 f
'universal language ' in that they are understood by everyone. One need not be able
to read or speak a certain language in order to interpret the message a picture
conveys. Still pictures may be grouped into two general types - the non-projected
and the projected.
, The non-projected pictures are the most widely used and most readily available.
These are easy to prepare and less expensive. Projected still pictures have the same
advantage as the non-projected ones. However, these have the added advantage of
compelling attention because of the light caused by the projected pictures in a
darkened room. Furthermore, they make it possible for large groups to study
individual pictures for as long as necessary. Although in some ways projected still
pictures are more advantageous than non-projected ones, these are more expensive
and more difficult to use. They also require electricity which is not always available
in all institutions. Even in places where electricity is available, the power supply is
often unpredictable or irregular. Also very few schools have the facilities for darkening
classrooms for projections.
Filmstrips
A film strip is a strip of35mm film which carries a series of transparent positive still
pictures called frames. Typically it contains from twenty to fifty frames of either
black and white or colored pictures.
Slides
A slide is a single picture on transparent film mounted for use in a slide projector.
The most common commercially prepared slides for use in the classrooms are 5 cm
x 5 cm in size, in black and white or color.
Opaque projector
An opaque projector does not need pictures in transparencies for projection. It can
project non-transparent materials such as illustrations from books. photographs,
and other printed materials to a screen without the processing necessary for the
transparencies of the filmstrip or slide projectors.
73
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Management of Curriculum Overhead projector
The overhead projector works in a similar manner to the opaque projector. However,
instead of using materials directly from books and magazines, it requires the material
to be transferred to transparent sheet of cellophane or acetate. In addition, the
overhead projector throws the image over the shoulder or over the head of the
person manipulating it so that the picture is projected on the screen behind. The
advantage of overhead projection over the opaque projection is that it can be used
in a lighted room.
Graphic materials
Graphics have been defined as materials which communicate facts and ideas clearly
and succinctly through the combination of drawings, words and pictures. These are
generally used to present facts and information in a condensed form. The most
commonly used graphic materials in schools and colleges are graphs, charts, diagrams
and posters.
Maps and Globes
It is universally accepted that maps and globes are significant materials in the teaching
of Social studies, History, Geography, Mathematics, Science and even languages.
Their value lies in their ability to give an almost accurate visual representation of
earth's surface which makes the description more concrete and meaningful.
Audio materials
A largepart oflearning experience involves listening;listeningto lecturers,discussions,
explanations and comments. It is for this purpose that audio materials such as radio,
tape recorder, record player are considered as academic resources.
Audio-visual materials
Impressions received through both sight and sounds are much more intense as
compared to either coming singly. Hence audio-visual materials are of greater value
in instruction. Films and televisions are increasingly regarded as resources having
immense academic value.
Digital resources
Recent developments in Information and Communication technology have completely
revolutionized the concept of academic resources. In these days of computer
supported teaching-learning process, using digital resources has become inevitable.
For example audio-visual projections can easily be done today using computers
and LCD projectors. Virtual learning environment not only supplements conventional
institutional resources but opens unlimited scope for academic enrichment. Internet,
World Wide Web, e-Iearning, on-line Information Services and Data base
etc. offeralmost infiniteopportunitiesfor accessinginformationand gainingknowledge.
Community resources
Community by itselfis a rich reservoir of academic resources. The locality around
the institution possesses resources of great educational potential- both in terms of
human resource and learning materials. There are at least two ways in which
community resources can be utilized by institutions. First, by inviting Guest Speakers
from amongst community members who are experts in specified fields. Second, by
organizing Field trips to places and spots of academic value.
74
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In the above, a brief description of most commonly used academic resources is Management of Academic
presented. This by no means is exhaustive, but only illustrative. As it has been pointed Resources
out earlier that academic reSOlITCeS
are institution- specific and there are innumerable
variety of such resources which are impossible to capture in a single shot.
Check Your Progress
2) Name some of the visual, audio and audio-visual resources used by institutions.
3) Mention the types of academic resources in the form of management point of

. '
, VIew.
4.4 NEED FOR MANAGEMENT OF ACADEMIC

RESOURCES
As it has already been pointed out, academic resources are of diverse nature and
includes a wide range of materials. Also these resources are of growing nature.
Hence, it is essential these resources are managed properly so that optimal use of
these is ensured. Unless these are properly managed, it may lead to a chaotic state
of affairs and defeat the purpose for which these are procured.
Example: In institute 'X', one orientation program for key functionaries of public
sector undertakings as well as one seminar in which college and university faculty
were invited- were being organized on the same date and same time in two different
halls. The institute possessed two LCD projectors. The Coordinators of both the
programs were pretty sure that the LCD will be available to them when required.
But to the utter disappointment of both it was reported by the office just after the
inaugural function that one of the LCDs was out of order! This piece of information
created havoc in the minds of coordinators as participants of both the programs
have arrived and sessions are about to begin. The Resource Persons have come
prepared for power- point presentations for which they have given advance intimation.
Repairing LCD at this juncture was out of question. Also program budget does not
have any provision for hiring LCD.
The case cited above is typical one of mismanagement of academic resource of

an institution and could have been avoided with effective planning and management.
The need for management of academic resources in is quite obvious. The following
are some of the advantages which accrue from effective management of academic
resources.
75
Management of Curriculum To make available right material at right time for right use
To avoid wastage
To inform prospective and potential users
To facilitate planning of academic resource procurement
4.5 BASICS OF ACADEMIC RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT
Academic resources are an integral part of institution-building. As the institution

grows, academic resources also continue to grow. The process is some what similar
to the growth of a living organism. A living organism grows along with passage of
time with all kinds of nourishment that it receives from the environment. Academic
resources are the sources of nourishment for an institution. These are progressive
and developmental in nature. However, one must recognize that academic resource
development is not a natural and spontaneous process. There is a subtle managerial
component involved in it. As we use more resources, we need good management
techniques in handling, storing and retrieving them. Effective management of academic
resources is offundamental importance in realizing institutional goals. Let us now
discuss the basic steps of management of academic resources in an institution.
4.5.1 Planning
Planning is the first step in academic resource management. Academic resources
are not mere collection of books and materials. These are meant to be used for
academic purposes. Hence these need to be planned. Planning is foreseeing the
needs and making a blue-print for the ways in which needs can he fulfilled. It
presupposes some form of visioning. It is an exercise to be jointly undertaken by the
head ofthe institution, faculty and management. It is development of a common
perspective by a team about future needs and the manner in which these will be met.
Planning is different from dreaming. It should not be over ambitious. On the other
hand, it should be realistic and achievable. An institution can derive maximum utility
out of its academic resources when these are planned properly.
Planning can be either short-term or long-term depending upon the perspective of

the institution and other related factors. A short term plan is usually done for meeting
immediate exigencies. For instance, when an institution decides to launch a new
course, it immediately plans out procurement of academic resources that are required
for the new course as per norms of the regulatory body. In such cases, the purpose
as well as time frame is very clear and specifically targeted. Whereas in case oflong
term planning, these are viewed in much broader way. The goals to be achieved by
long term planning are also of visionary nature and implementation actions are seen
as a continuous process. Long term plans can also be fragmented into phases. In
fact, phase wise implementation oflong tenn plans is much easier.
Planning of academic resources should take the following factors into consideration:
First consideration is the users for whom these are meant. Normally in an institutional
set up academic resources are used by faculty, students and community. At planning
stage, needs of each category should be spelt out priority wise.
Second factor to be considered is availability of infra structure. The physical space,

furniture, manpower etc. need to be considered in planning academic resources.
76
Third important consideration is the cost factor. Academic resource planning should Management of Academic
Resources
be preceded by assessment of fund position.
Lastly, planning of academic resources should take the over all institutional goals
into consideration. In fact, it is the institutional goals that set the fundamental guide! ines
for academic resource planning.
4.5.2 Procuring
Once planning is done, actual process of procurement is to be initiated. The first
task in this regard is to locate the source from which procurement has tn he done. It
is not always necessary that academic resources are to be procured from market
only. There are different sources such as donors, philanthropic bodies. voluntary
organizations etc. as well as market agencies. Procurement from market involves
funds for which adequate planning is required. It is the second category of
procurement process which is discussed here. In brief, procurement process ofthis
kind comprises the following steps:
i) Purchase Committee - It is always better to have a committee for purchasing

academic resources from market. In case ofgovernment institutions. there arc
set procedures and rules according to \\ hich purchases arc to be made, In
case of private and autonomous institutions. purchase committee should be
formed with adequate representation from faculty and accounts personnel as
well as expert.
ii) Market survey - The appointed committee should make market survey to
compare the price and quality of materials. This can be done in di Iferent ways.
In case oflocal purchase, on the spot survey is preferred. Other than this
catalogues and published literature of companies may be consulted. Quotation
may be invited from at least three parties indicating clearly the required quality
and specificationsbf the materials for comparing prices.
~ ,
iii) Purchase order - After making comparative study of prices, quality and
required specifications purchase order is to be issued. Purchase order should
indicate the quantity required and time frame etc. Also mention may be made
about institutional discount, where ever applicable.
iv) Receiving delivery- The materials delivered by the supplier are to be received
after checking against the delivery challan. It is important at this stage to ensure
that materials supplied are of specified quality and other specifications.
v) Stock entry - After receiving delivery, necessary entries may be made in stock
register item wise and page wise, showing quanity, specification etc.
4.5.3 Maintaining
Maintenance is the most important aspect of academic resource management in
institutions. No purpose will be served, unless these resources are maintained properly.
Academic resources may be of diverse categories catering to the needs of different
kinds of clients. Institution has to take extra initiative to ensure that resources are
available to users in best possible form or operating condition on demand. It is only
through efficient maintenance that this service could be extended by an institution.
The following are some of the important steps for efficient maintenance of academic
resources:-
77
Management of Curriculum a) Accountibility - The responsibility of maintaining academic resources should
be fixed on individuals/ groups. In big institutions accountability could be fixed
on various committees for various kinds of resources.
b) Storage - The items procured by the institution need to be stored properly so
that these remain in proper condition and are available when required.
c) Periodical inspection - Academic resource management is not an one shot
affair. These need to be inspected periodically to ensure that these are available
in 'proper condition. Such inspection gives an opportunity for mending, repairing
etc. which is essential to ensure their usage.
d) Stock verification - It is necessary to ascertain stock position at least once in
a year for ensuring smooth supply and fresh purchase of materials.
e) Inventory preparation - Item wise Inventory needs to be prepared for
maintaining supply chain of selected categories of items.
t) Disposal of damaged items - Damaged items, if any, need to be disposed so
that room is made for fresh entry of items in the store.
4.5.4 Reviewing
Academic resource management is not a static affair. These resources continue to
grow along with institutional growth. Therefore, periodical review of status of
academic resources is necessary to ascertain to what extent these are being used
and what needs to be done for better utilization of these. Review Committee may be
appointed after every five years to evaluate different aspects of academic resources
and make appropriate recommendations for improvement. Needless to say,presence
of one or two external experts in the committee will enhance objectivity of assessment.
Reviewing
Maintaining Procuring
Figure 4.1: Cyclic steps of management of academic resources
The basic steps of academic resource management as discussed above are not
exclusive of each other, but these are cyclic in nature., Tins cycle has to be continuously
followed for effective management.
78
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Check Your Progress Management of Academic
Resources
4) What are the factors that should be taken into consideration for Planning of
academic resources?
5) What are the steps in Procuring Academic resources (marketable)?
6) What are the steps in Maintaining Academic Resources?
7) What are the basic steps of management of academic resources in an institution?
4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have got a fairly good idea of what constitutes academic resources
in educational institution. In the modem sense, these include a wide variety of
resources from different sources which are fimctionally related and used in teaching
learning process. You have also noticed how with development of information and
communication technology, meaning and connotation of academic resource have
changed. A broad classification of different types of academic resources and their
uses have been discussed. Also the basics of academic resource management-
various steps involved and the cyclic nature have been highlighted.
4.7 REFERENCES
Brown P.D, Oke, Brown R.N - Curriculum and Instruction; An introduction into
methods of teaching, McMillan Inc. 1982
79
Management of Curriculum Donoqhu,OJ. Technology Supported learning and teaching: Astaff'perspective,
Sc. Publishing,2006 US
Hanson J, The use of Resources, Unum. 1975. Inc
Maurer, M.M & Davidson GS - Leadership in Instructional Technology Prentice
Hall Inc. 1998
Me Cuddy K.M. and others - The challenges of Educating people to lead in a
challenging World - Springer - 2007
Noble, Pat- Resource based learning in Post Compulsory Edn- Kogan Page London,
1980
Watkins, Chris - Classrooms as Learning Communities - Routledge - 2005
1. ' Academic resources in an institution comprise all those which are used in carrying
out academic activities of an institution. Whatever materials -textual as well as
supplementary used by the teacher in the classroom while teaching are considered
as academic resources. So, in a broader sense, academic resources may be a
mean collection of equipments, teaching aids and instructional materials implies
by an academic resources of an educational institution. On the other hand,
educational institution is a learning centre for the community and also organically
related to larger society.
2. Visual resources are : Printed materials like magazine, newspaper,joumal,
chalkboard, flannel boards, b letin boards, etc.
Audio resources are : Radio, Tap recorder, etc.
Audio-visual are : Filmstrip, video, T. etc.
3. In a broad sense, the whole world around ~s learning resources. Anything
use to meet an educational need may be treated ~ a resource. However, from
management point of view, certain broad classification in institutional context is
given below:
a. Teacher centric vs student centric

b. Textual vs Supplementary
c. Electronic vs Manual
d. Printed vs Digital
e. Virtual vs Real
f Visual vs audio
h. Institutional vs Conununity based.
4. a. To make available right material at right time for right use
b. To avoid wastage
c. To inform prospective and potential users
d. To facilitate planning of academic resource procurement.
80
5. i) Purchase Committee Management of Academic
Resources
ii) Market Survey
ill) Purchase Order
iv) Receiving Delivery
v) Stock Entry
6. The following are some of the important steps for efficient maintenance of
academic resources.
i Accountability
11. Storage
Ill. Periodical inspection
IV. Stock verification
v. Inventory preparation
VI. Disposal of damage items.
7. (a) planning
(b) Procuring
(c) Maintaining
(d) Reviewing
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UNIT 5 MANAGEMENT OF CURRICULAR
& CO-CURRICULAR
PROGRAMMES & ACTIVITIES
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Curricular & Co-curricular Activities
5.4 Curricular Activities in an Educational Institution
5.4.1 Teacher Controlled
5.4.2 Student Controlled
5.4.3 Group Controlled
5.5 Steps involved in Management of Curricular Activities

5.5.1 Planning
5.5.2 Organization
5.5.3 Evaluation
5.6 Co curricular Activities in an Educational Institution

5.6.1 Types
5.6.2 Advantages
5.7 Steps involved in Management of Co-curricular Activities

5.7.1 Planning
5.7.2 Organising
5.7.3 Executing
5.7.4 Monitoring
5.7.5 Evaluating
5.8 LetUsSumUp
5.9 Unit-endActivities
5.1 0 References
5.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us have been a student at school and college/universities at some point of time.
Let's revisit your school days again? Can you recall the names of the activities
conducted by your teachers inside the classrooms? Were there some activities
conducted outside the classrooms also? Which activities you enjoyed the most and
why? Please write the names of the activities you liked and the reasons for your
liking in the space given below:
Activities Reasons for Liking
•
•
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At any level of education various activities have been organized through out the Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
academic session. Some of them have direct link with the classroom teaching while
Programmes &
others have edutainrnent and social values. There are many activities in any educational Activities
institution, such as morning assembly, debates, seminars, dramas, bal sabha Istudents'
parliament, viewing films, conducting experiments, undertaking fieldtrips and/or
educational tours, taking notes, working on assignments, participating in discussions,
etc. In addition organization of sports activities, celebration of national festivals,
school annual day, aesthetic and cultural activities etc. are also organized with a lot
of enthusiasm and rigour.
Some of these activities are common to all schools orcolleges/universities. Some of
you have been organizing these activities on a regular basis and must be aware of the
educational value of each. Thus, for conducting all these activities, one needs to be
aware of different educational goals, realistically possible activities, their relevance,
students' needs, and their maturity levels and interest, expertise of teachers and so
on.
Schools usually have an elaborate system of activities and learning experiences.
Curriculum comprises a multitude of curricular and eo-curricular activities. These
activities give students the exposure which in turn provides them with the experiences
from which they gain the required knowledge, information, skills and attitudes.
Schools, therefore, have to plan and organize various activities in such a manner that
proper development of the students takes place.
In this unit, an attempt has been made to highlight the management of these activities
under curricular and eo-curricular types in an educational context.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe and differentiate between curricular and eo curricular activities.
• Explain different types of curricular activities. •
• Select appropriate curricular activities keeping in mind the purpose, students,
resources available, relevance and other criteria.
• Discuss the various steps involved in organization of curricular and co-cunicular
activities in an educational institution.
• Develop criteria/guidelines for assessment of different curricular activities.
• Use available tools for assessment of different activities as per their requirements.
• Explain the benefits of eo curricular activities.
• Enumerate the role of the teacher in the organization of eo-curricular activities.
.• State the instructions that need to be undertaken while organizing these activities.
5.3 CURRICULAR & CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

We all are aware that the term curriculum means the totality oflearning experiences
that the school or any educational institution provides for the students through all the
different activities in the school or outside, that are carried on under its supervision.
From this point of view, the distinction between curricular and eo-curricular work
ceases to exist. Let us see how curricular activities are different from eo-curricular
activities. 83
Management of Curriculum Previously with the traditional concept of curriculum, it was easy to distinguish
between curricular and eo-curricular activities. Any activity for which a grade was
issued not considered as a curricular activity. All the eo-curricular activities were
organized and promoted by the students themselves, with relatively little assistance
from teachers and administrators: Equipments were meager, little official recognition
was given and no credit was allowed tor participation. These activities were really
extra curricular. Today, we try to link eo-curricular activities with the curriculum
and credit for participation are also given.
Curricular activities are instructional activities that are integral to the classroom as
part ofthe stated curriculum. Keeping in mind the instructional objectives of each
course in the curriculum, selection of various curricular activities is done. These
curricular 31.li v; lies iucl ude classroom teaching, subject based practical,
demonstrations, field work, self study, library work, tutorials, seminars, group
discussions and so on. The selection of curricular activities depends on the
achievement of different objectives. For example some objectives can be achieved
through field work only. Some other objectives may mean that the teacher uses a
combination of other curricular acti vities depending on the demands of time and
resources available.
Co-curricular activities are activities that are in addition to classroom instruction. In

other words, eo-curricular activities are activities and services provided by an
educational institution for students' active participation that are outside oftheir main
core studies. It is in these vital programs -sports, music, speech, drama, debate-
where yOW1gpeople leam lifelong lessons as important as those taught in the classroom.
They can also add to the personal, social, and moral development of students.
5.4 CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES IN AN EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTION
/
There are many different types of curricular activities which can be placed under:
Curricular Activities
I I I
-
:~ ,;* Te~cheJ;Co~froI1ed -Learner Controlled Group Controlied Curricular
Curricular Activities Curricular Activities Activities
Figure: 5.1: Different Types of Curricular Activities
5.4.1 Teacher Controlled curricular activities refer to teacher directed instructional

activities and procedures to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes. Teacher plays a
pivotal role in this type of instructional activities. Teacher determines the activities
that students have to be. engaged in during the process of instruction. There are
many teacher controlled activities like lecture, demonstration, and Team Teaching.
Activities like case study, simulations, games and role play are not only in
teacher controlled activities. These could also be included in Learner-controlled
or even Group controlled ones. It depend on how the activity is conducted.
Direct Instruction
Teacher's role is to pass facts, rules, or action sequences on to students in the most
84 direct way possible. This usually takes a presentation with explanations format
(modified lecture), examples, and opportunities for practice and feedback. The direct Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
teaching format calls for teacher-student interactions involving questions and answers,
Programmes &
review and practice, and the correction of student errors. The direct teaching works Activities
best with teaching skill subjects such as reading, writing, mathematics, grammar,
computer literacy, and factual parts of science and history.
Teacher Exposition
It is the best way to communicate large amounts of information in a short period of
time. In exposition technique, an authority-teacher, textbook, film or
microcomputer-presents information without overt interaction between the authority
and the students.
Demonstration
A demonstration is a process of teaching by means of using materials and displays to
make information accessible to students. Even though the only person usually directly
involved with the materials is the teacher or individual conducting the demonstration,
students like demonstrations because they are actively involved in a learning activity
rather than merely talking about it. The demonstrations can be effective in many
subject fields ..Fot example, a teacher could demonstrate the steps in doing a science
activity, the steps in writing a business letter, the steps in solving a mathematics
problem, or how to adjust a microscope. Essentially, the technique deals mostly, but
not totally, with showing how something works or with skill development.
Team Teaching
Team teaching is a type of instructional organization involving teaching personnel
(includes other academic also, such as laboratory in-charge, librarian, sports teacher,
media person, etc) and the students in which two or more teachers share the
responsibility or providing instruction to students. Thus team teaching combines three
elements: (a) a distinct student group, (b) a small faculty group responsible for
teaching the student group, and (c) certain person who assist the teachers and the
students. A team is not just a collection of individuals, but, a unit in itself making
effort to improve instruction through the reorgnisation of personnel in teaching. In
other words, two or more teachers are given responsibilities, to work together for
the instruction of a particular group of students studying a particular course.
5.4.2 Student Controlled activities, studentllearnertakes the responsibility for
his/her learning. It, however, does not mean that a teacher does not play any role in
learner-controlled instruction. It is a matter of shifting more of the responsibility of
learning to the students. The emphasis here is on learning rather than teaching.
Teacher's role becomes more of a manager, a facilitator or a guide. Learner controlled
activities include a number of techniques which range from the simple assignment to
the most sophisticated computer-assisted instruction e.g. self-learning, CA!, Project
Work.
Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI)
Introduction of computers in the teaching-learning process is the most important

contribution of modern technology in the field of individualized instruction. The
computer can be valuable to a classroom teacher in several ways. For example, the
computer can help a teacher to manage the instruction by obtaining information,
storing and preparing test materials, maintaining attendance and grade records, and
preparing programmes to aid in the academic development of individual students.
85
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Management of Curriculum Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is, in a sense, an extension of programmed
learning material and the personalized system of instruction. In CAI, there is flow of
information and interaction between the computer and the student. The computer
provides instruction directly to the student and allows him/her to interact with it
through the lessons programmed in the system. The student puts questions to the
computer and feeds answers into it with the help of the keyboard. The computer
provides feedback to the student on the.basis ofhislher performance. On the whole
it may be said that the computer acts as a teacher to the student. The computer
utilises various instructional modes like:
• Drill and practice
• Tutorial mode
• Simulation mode
• Discovery mode
• Gaming mode.
• Interaction mode
Self-learning
Self-learning or individualized instruction developed when teaching methods meant
for all members of a group failed to meet the varying needs of individual students. All
underlying assumption is that human-beings leam many things through their own
efforts. Another assumption is that every individual is unique; he/she learns according
to hislher abilities. The most common description of self-learning methods is that
teaching is directed towards individual students rather than the group of students.
The main characteristics of self-learning are:
• emphasis on leaming rather than teaching
..
• recognition of individual differences
• active student participation
• working at one's own pace/self pacing, and
• provision of feedback and evaluation.

Self-learning can be of different forms. There are two main categories of self-instruction
method: more structured and less structured. Under more structured methods,
programmed learning, personalized system of instruction (pSI), and computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) can be included. Project work is presented under less structured
methods.
An example of self-learning is SelfInstructional Material (SIM). SIM is a learning
package (written, on audio- or videotape, or on computer) specifically designed for
an individual student. It uses small sequential steps, with frequent practice and
immediate learning feedback to the student. It is designed to teach a relatively small
amount of material, at the mastery level, requiring a relatively small amount oflearning
time. It can be designed to teach any topic, at any grade level, in any subject, for any
domain or any combination of domains oflearning.
There are several devices available to individualized instruction, but the SIM has the
flexibility to be adaptable for use at all grade levels, from literacy, pre-schoollevels
to tertiary education. The effectiveness of any SIM depends on the personalized
86
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style of presentation of the content and the articulation of the interactivity with the Management of Curricular
learners as per their maturity, abilities and expectation. Therefore, SIM with varying & Co Curricular
Programmes &
difficulty and sequencing have been found popular among all types oflearners. The Activities .
following reasons are found to be contributing in the effectiveness of any SIM:
• Allows the teacher to create an experience that ensures learning. The
experience can be created by a creative teacher according to level of the learners
and the inbuilt feedback mechanism ensures learning by every learner.
• Ensures individualized nature, because it is a package written for an individual
student, with that student in mind.
• Although it takes time to prepare an SIM and also requires initial financial
expenditure and in the long run it is cost-effective and decreased unit cost.
• Helpful in remediation as well as content up-gradation in teaching-learning.
Project Work
Project work as a learning method is less structured as compared to other methods.

The dictionary meaning of the project is a scheme or design. Through project work
students get experiential learning. This provides the students an opportunity to learn
at their own pace and time, while they do certain activities more or less independent
of the teacher. A project is an enquiry, conducted personally by a student who is
expected to use a variety of methods (e.g. analysis, interpretation, planning etc.) to
undertake a task or study a subject (in terms of knowledge, skill or attitude) and to
write a report, or design and make a product, or organize an activity, or solve a
problem, etc., in line with the objectives of the project. Thus, project work helps
students plan, observe, analyze and synthesize,
Assignments and Homework
An assignment is a task/activity/question/statement of what the student is to

accomplish or do and is linked to specific instructional objective(s). Assignments
may be completed at home or at school, can facilitate student learning in many
ways, but when poorly planned they can be discouraging. Purposes for giving
homework assignments can be any of the following:
• extend the time that students are engaged in learning;

• help students develop individual or selflearning;
• help students develop their research skills;
• help students develop their study skills;
• help students organize their learning;
• involve parents and guardians in their children's learning;
• provide a mechanism by which students receive constructive feedback;

• provide students with an opportunity to review and practice what has been
learned;
• reinforce classroom experiences; and
• teach new content.
There are certain guidelines given below which can help teachers to prepare
assignments that challenge and teach students without intimidating or frustrating them. 87
Management of Curriculum • Assign several short assignments. They perform diagnostic role in identification
of writing skills.They also provide feedback to all students for future assignments.
• Occasionally complete few assignments by one-self to have model

assignment answer/response for students. In this way you can develop criteria
for guidance as well as for assessment of assignment responses.
• Keep copies of good assignments in a department or library file. Students
may like to see the good assignment responses but precautions must be taken
so that students should be abstains from copying the responses/answers.
• Keep notes on the success and pitfalls of each assignment. This would help
you to modify future versions of an assignment.
TheAssignment. Planning and preparation of assignment require following steps:
o State the topic.
o Define the task. Simply stating a topic does not give students a clear sense of
how to proceed.
5.4.3 Group Controlled curricular activities: In group controlled activities learning
takes place in many forms and by numerous ways. For example a student learns
something on hislher own by imitation, observation, simulation or due to interaction
with your colleagues or being member of a team/group and learning by doing work
in the group with the support of each other. Thus, learning in this mode is controlled
by the interactive climate generated by the group working as a team with mutual
support. In these activities, the group takes up the responsibility of organizing learning
tasks.
Making Students Learn in Pairs
Sometimes it is advantageous to pair students (dyads) for studying and learning.
Four types of pair are described as follows:
Cross-Age Mentoring.. In it one student is guided by another student either from a
higher standard (grade) in a school. This could be similar to peer tutoring except that
the mentor is usually higher in age, studying in a senior class and scholastically at a
higher level than the student being guided.
Peer Tutoring. In peer tutoring one learner tutors hislher classmate. It is useful, for
example, when one student helps another who has a limited proficiency in English or
when a student skilled in math helps another who is less skilled.
Team Learning. With team learning students study and learn in teams of two or
more. Students identified as academically sharp help other members also to learn.
This method works especiallywell when paired. Team Learning is expected to facilitate
intensive discussion and collaborative reflection. Specific uses for paired team learning
include drill partners, reading buddies, book report pairs, summary pairs, project.
assignment pairs, and elaborating and relating pairs.
Think-Pair-Share. With think-pair-share students, in pairs, examine a new concept
or topic about to be studied. After the students of each dyad discuss what they
already know or think they know about the concept, they present their perceptions
to the whole group. This is an excellent technique for discovering student's
misconceptions (also called naive theories) about a topic. Introducing a writing step,
the modification called think-write-pair-share involves having the pair think and
write their ideas or points before sharing with the larger group.
88
Small group work Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
Small group work consists of academic tasks and activities undertaken by a group Programmes &
of students, which involve some degree of discussion, reflection and collaboration. Activities
The optimum size for small group work for most of the tasks is probably about four,
although such work can be undertaken by groups consisting of three to eight students.
The importance of the collaboration involved in such work has received particular
attention, and this is often referred to as 'collaborative learning'.
Whitaker (1995) has described the value of small group work thus:
• It creates a climate in which learners can work with a sense of security and
self-confidence.
• It facilitates the growth of understanding by offering the optimum opportunity
for learners to communicate reflectively with each other.
• It promotes a spirit of co-operation and mutual respect.
A few examples have been suggested here. You can develop activities as per your
context.
1. 'Prepare a leaflet about the working conditions a teacher could expect to find
on a gurukul or madarsa in the nineteenth century'
2. Explore an issue through information gathering and discussion like' How to
curb illiteracy in our society?'
3. 'Buzz session on emerging career options in computers' (where students are
asked to brainstorm ideas connected with some problem).
Large-Group or Whole-Class Learning
Large groups involve more than eight students, usually the entire class. Most often,
they are teacher directed. Student presentations and whole-class discussions are
two techniques that involve the use oflarge groups.
1. Student Presentations. Here students should be encouraged to be presenters
for discussion of the ideas, opinions, and knowledge obtained from their own
independent and small-group study. Several techniques, encourage the
development of certain skills, suchas studyingand organizingmaterial, discovery,
discussion,rebuttal,listening,analysis,suspendingjudgment, and criticalthinking.
Possible forms of discussion involving student presentations are described in
the following paragraphs.
• Debate. The debate is an arrangement in which formal speeches are made

by members of two opposing teams, on topics pre-assigned and
researched.
• Jury Trial.Thejury trial is a discussion approach in which the class simulates
a courtroom, with class members playing various roles ofjudge, attorneys,
jury members, bailiff, and court recorder.
• Panel. The panel is a setting in which four to six students, with one
designated as the chairperson or moderator; discuss a topic they have
studied, followed by a question-and-answer period involving the entire
class ...The panel usually begins with each panel member giving a brief
opening statement. '
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Management of Curriculum • Research Report. One or two students or a small group of students gives
a report on a topic that they investigated, followed by questions and
discussions by the entire 'class.
• Roundtable. The roundtable is a small group of three to five students,
who sit around a table and discuss among themselves (and perhaps with
the rest of the class listening and perhaps later asking questions) a problem
or issue that they have studied. One member of the panel may swerve as
the moderator.
• Symposium. Similar to a roundtable discussion but more formal, the
symposium is an arrangement in which each student presents an explanation
of her position on a pre-assigned topic she researched. Again, one student
should serve as moderator.
Check Your Progress

i) What are curricular activities?
ii) Write three types of curricular activities .
...................................................................................................................
iii) What is peer tutoring?
5.5 STEPS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF

CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Can you imagine a games teacher teaching students the skills and knowledge needed
to play football without ever letting them experience playing the game? Can you
imagine a science teacher instructing students on how to read a thermometer without
ever letting them actually read an authentic thermometer? Can you imagine a
geography teacher teaching students how to read a map without ever letting them
put their eyes and hands on a real map? Can you imagine trying to teach a child to
play the piano without ever letting the child put her hands on a keyboard?
90
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Unfortunately, too many teachers do almost those things-they try to teach students Management of Curricular
to do something without letting the students practice doing it. & Co Curricular
Programmes &
In planning and selecting learning activities, an important rule to remember is to Activities
select activities that are as direct as possible. When students are involved in direct
experiences, they are using more of their sensory organs and their learning modalities
(i.e. auditory,visual, tactic, kinesthetic). And when all the senses are involved, learning
is most effective,meaningful and long lasting. This "learning by doing" is real learning
or, as it is sometimes referred to, hands-on! minds-on learning.
The different steps involved in the Management of Curricular Activities are:
1. . Planning of Curricular Activities
2. Organization of Curricular Activities
3. Evaluation!Assessment of Curricular Activities
5.5.1 Planning
This stage is very important as it-isat the Planning stage that we consider all criteria
for deciding what curricular activities are to be identified and how they are to be
sequenced and implemented for effective transaction of the curriculum. The following
criteria are very critical to planning of curricular activities:
Aims, Goals and Objectives
The primary criteria for judging the merit of proposed curricular activities is how
well they contribute to the attainment of curricular aims, goals, and objectives. For
example, iflearners are intended to develop skill in problem solving, their learning
activities should probably provide them with the.opportunity to solve problems.
Likewise, iflearners are expected to develop behaviour patterns that are effectively
democratic, their learning activities ought reasonably to place them in genuinely
democratic situations, which provide numerous opportunities for democratic decision
making. Finally, the development of appreciation for literature (an affective
disposition) probably ought to involve activities requiring responses on the feeling
level. The point-namely, that if we w~! students to learn something, we ought to
engage them in a~ti~ities likely to lead to it-is so obvious that it seems hardly worth
making,
Foundational Commitments
Because they are so fundamentally a part of our lives, foundational commitments

very easilyfall intothe background of our thoughts and become invisible. Philosophical
assumptions about society, man, learning and knowledge demand a continual
reexamination to prevent this from happening and to ensure that decisions about
learning activities are congruent with the best thinking on these big questions. Potential
learning activities should be assessed in terms of questions such as the following:
• Will the activity move the student closer to an undistorted view ofhislher society
and culture?
• Will the activity move the student toward a rational-critical posture toward
society without alienating hirn/her from it?
• ,Willthe activityhelp the student to clarifythe conditions ofhislher own existence?
• Will the activity have a tendency to broaden or constrict students' perceptions?

91
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Management of Curriculum • Will the activity help the students to develop openness to experience?
• Will the activity enable students to tolerate ambiguities?
• Will the activity help students to deal with change?
Many other questions could be added here; it seems clear, however, that an
examination oflearning activities in terms ofthese questions can help to illuminate
basic assumptions and maintain congruency between foundations.
In planning and selecting curricular activities, another important thumb rule to
remember is to select activities that are as direct as possible.
5.5.2 Organization
The amount of time spent in organizing a particular activity depends on the subject,
grade level, students, time and material available, as well as the philosophy of the
teacher and the school.
The Learning Experiences Ladder
Figure 5.2 depicts a range of experiences known as the Learning Experiences Ladder.
Learning by doing is at the bottom of the ladder. At the top are abstract experiences,
where the student is exposed to only symbolization (words and numbers) and uses
only one or two senses (auditory or visual). The teacher lectures while the students
are passive audience.
Verbal Experiences
Engaging only one sense; using the most abstract symbolization; students
physical inactive
t
Visual Experiences
Still picture, diagrams, charts, engaging only one sense; typically symbolic;
students physically inactive.
i
Vicarious Experiences
(Computer and video programmes, engaging more than one sense, learner
is partially active)
Ex- playing video games
i
Simulated Experiences
(Role playing, experimentation, mock-up, working model, generally
engage all or most of the senses)
i
Direct Experience
(Activity based learning: learning by doing)
Figure: 5.2: The Learning Experiences Ladder
(Source: Earlier versions of this concept are found in Charles F. Hoban, Sr., et al., Visualizing
the Curriculum [New York: Dryden, 1937], p. 39; Jerome S. Bruner, Toward a theory of
Instruction [ Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966], p. 49; Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual
Methods in Teaching [New York; Holt, Rinehart & inston, 1969], p. 108; and Eugene C. Kim
and Richard D. Kellough, A Resource Guide for Secondary School Teaching, 2nd ed. [ Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1978], p. 136)
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Visual and verbal symbolic experiences, although impossible to avoid when teaching, Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
are less effective in ensuring that planned and meaningful learning occurs. This is
Programmes &
especially so with learners with special needs and abilities, learners with ethnic and Activities
cultural differences and students who have only limited language proficiency. Thus,
when planning curricular learning experiences and selecting instructional materials,
teachers must select activities that engage the students in the most direct experiences
possible and that are developmentally and intellectually appropriate for the target
students.
With all the possible strategies, decision to go for the best is crucial as well as
challenging task for every teacher? Experience helps however, other factors often
must be considered in selection of curricular activities:
• students' needs and aspirations
• their age-group
• students' intellectual abilities
• students' profile
• students' attention spans
• Overall objective of the lesson
• content is to be taught
5.5.3 Evaluation-
This section describes the assessment of curricular activities. There are eight principles
that guide the assessment of any curricular activity in a school situation. They are as
listed below:
• Teachers need to be aware of their student's progress level.
• Students need to know about their learning progress.
• Assessment is a two-way process that includes assessment of teacher
performance as well as student achievement.
• The process of assessment should facilitate teaching effectiveness and betterment
of the intellectual and psychological growth of students.
• Provide evidence and input data for teacher performance and students
attainment.
• Assessment is a continuous process. The selection and implementation of plans

and activities require continuous monitoring and assessment to check on progress
and to change or adopt strategies to promote desired behaviour.
• Reflection and assessment are important components of any successful
assessment process. Reflection and self-assessment are important if students
are to develop the skills necessary for them to assume increasingly greater
ownership of their own learning.
• A teacher's responsibility is to facilitate student learning and to assess student
progress in that learning, and for that, the teacher is, or should be, held
accountable.
The three avenues for assessing a student's learning in curricular activities are:
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Management of Curriculum 1 assess what the student says-for example, the quantity and quality of a
student's contributions to class discussions;
11 assess what the student does- for example, a student's performance (e.g.
the amount and quality of a student's participation in the learning curricular
activities); and,
111 assess what the student writes- for example, as shown by items in the
student's portfolio (e.g. homework assignments, checklists, project work, and
written tests).
Assessing What a Student Says and Does
When evaluating what a student says, a teacher must listen to the student's oral
reports, questions, responses, and interactions with others and observe the student's
attentiveness, involvement in class activities, creativeness and responses to challenges.
When listening to a student, observing non-verbal behaviour is important. Use of
checklists, rating scales, behaviour-growth record forms, observations with scoring
rubrics of the student's performance in learning activities.
The figure 5.3 Illustrates a sample generic form for recording and evaluating teacher
observations of a student's verbal and nonverbal behaviour.
Student--------------------Course---------------School-------------------------------------
observ er-------------------------------------- Date--------------------- Period --------------
Objective Desired Behaviour What Student Did, Said, or Wrote
Teacher's (observer's) comments:
Figure: 5.3 Sample form for evaluating and recording student verbal and
nonverbal behaviour
Checklist items can be used easily by a student to compare with previous self-
assessment after a student has demonstrated each of the skills satisfactorily a check
is made next to the student's name, either by the teacher alone or in consultation
with the student.
DID THE STUDENT YES NO COMMENTS
1. Speak so that everyone could hear?
2. Finish sentences?
3. Seem comfortable in front

of the group?
94
Management of Curriculum 1 assess what the student says-for example, the quantity and quality of a
student's contributions to class discussions; .
11 assess what the student does- for example, a student's performance (e.g.
the amount and quality of a student's participation in the learning curricular
activities); and,
111 assess what the student writes- for example, as shown by items in the
student's portfolio (e.g. homework assignments, checklists, project work, and
written tests).
Assessing What a Student Says and Does
When evaluating what a student says, a teacher must listen to the student's oral
reports, questions, responses, and interactions with others and observe the student's
attentiveness, involvement in class activities, creativeness and responses to challenges.
When listening to a student, observing non-verbal behaviour is important. Use of
checklists, rating scales, behaviour-growth record forms, observations with scoring
rubrics of the student's performance in learning activities.
The figure 5.3 Illustrates a sample generic form for recording and evaluating teacher
observations of a student's verbal and nonverbal behaviour.
Stud en t---·-----------------Course---------------School-------------------------------------
observ er-------------------------------------- D ate--------------------- Period --------------
Objective Desired Behaviour What Student Did, Said, or Wrote
Teacher's (observer's) comments:
Figure: 5.3 Sample form for evaluating and recording student verbal and
nonverbal behaviour
Checklist items can be used easily by a student to compare with previous self-
assessment after a student has demonstrated each of the skills satisfactorily a check
is made next to the student's name, either by the teacher alone or in consultation
with the student.
DID THE STUDENT YES NO COMMENTS
1. Speak so that everyone could hear?
2. Finish sentences?
3. Seem comfortable in front

of the group?
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4. Give a good introduction? Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
5. Seem well informed about Programmes &
the topic? Activities
6. Explain ideas clearly?
7. Stay on the topic?
8. Give a good conclusion?
9. Use effective visuals to make

the presentation interesting?
10. Give good answers to questions

from the audience?
Figure 5.4: Sample checklist: assessing a student's oral assessment report
Presentation Scoring Rubric (Figure 5.5) which helps in rating group or individual
presentations made by students facilitated by specific rating considerations at each
level and Figure 5.6 presents a Scoring Rubric for assessing individual student in
cooperative-learning proj ect.work.
Presentation Scoring Rubric- Rating Scale
5. Presentation was excellent. Project details clearly understood and delivery
organized.
• Made eye contact throughout presentation.
• Spoke loud enough for all to hear.
• Spoke clearly.
• Spoke for time allotted.
• Stood straight and confidently.
• Covered at least five pieces of important information.
• Introduced project.
• All members spoke.
4. Presentation was well thought out and planned.
• Made eye contact throughout most of the presentation.
• Spoke loud enough and clearly all the time.
• Spoke nearly for time allotted.
• Covered at least four pieces of important information.
• Introduced project.
• All members spoke.
3. Adequate presentation. Mostly organized.
• Made eye contact at times.
• Some of audience could hear the presentation.
• Audience could understand most of what was said.
• Spoke for about half of time allotted.
• At least half of time spoke.
• Covered at least three pieces of important information.
• Project was vaguely introduced.
2-1 Under prepared presentation. Disorganized and incomplete information.
• No eye contact during presentation.
• Most of audience was unable to hear presentation. 95
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• Information presented was unclear.
• Spoke for only brief time.
• Covered less than three pieces ofinformation.
• Project was not introduced or only vaguely introduced.
Some teachers give bonus to all members of a group to add to their individual
scores when everyone in the group has reached preset criteria. It is important that
each member of a group feel rewarded and successful. Some teachers also give
subjective grades to individual students on their role performances within the group
(Figure 5.6).
Goals 9-10
Consistently and 8 7 1-6
actively helps identify Consistently communicates Sporadically communicates Rarely, if ever, works toward
group goals; works commitment to group goals; commitment to group goals; group goals or may work
effectively to meet goals. carries out assigned roles. carries out assigned roles against them.
Interpersonal 9-10 8 7 1-6

Skills Cooperates with group Cooperates with group Participates with group but has May discourage others, harass
members by members by encouraging, own agenda; may not be willing group members, or encourage
encouraging, . compromising, and/or taking to compromise or to make off-task behaviour. Makes
compromising, and/or a leadership role. significant contributions. significant changes to others'
taking a leadership role work without their knowledge
without dominating; or permission.
shows sensitivity to
feelings and knowledge
of others.
Quality 9-10 8 7 1-6
Producer Contributes significant Contributes information, Contributes some ideas not Does little or no work toward
information, ideas, time, ideas, time, any/or talent to significant; may be more the completion of group
any/or talent to produce produce a quality product. supportive than contributive; product; shows little or no
a quality product. shows willingness to complete interest in contributing to the
assignment but has no desire to task; produces work that fails to
go beyond average expectations. meet minimum standards for
quality.
Participation 9-10 8 7 1-6

Attends daily; Attends consistently; sends in Attends sporadically; absences Frequent absenses or tardies
consistently and actively work to group if absent; or tardies may hinder group hinder group involvement; fails
utilizes class time by utilizes class time by working involvement; may send in work to send in work when absent;
working on the task. on the task. when absent; utilizes some time; wastes class time by talking,
may be off task by talking to doing other work, or avoiding
others, interrupting other tasks; group has asked that
groups, or watching others do member be reproved by teacher
majority of the work. or removed from the group.
Commitment 9-10 8 7 1-6
Consistently contributes Contributes time out of class Willing to work toward Rarely, if ever, attends group
time out of class to to produce a quality product; completion of task during class meetings outside of class or may
produce a quality attends a majority of group time; attends some of the group attend and hinder progress of
product; attends all meetings as evidenced by the meetings; may arrive late or the group; fails to keep meeting
group meetings as group meeting log. leave early; may keep log.
evidenced by the group inconsistent meeting log.
meeting log.
Figure: 5.6: Sample scoring rubric for assessing individual student in cooperative-
learning project work.
(source: Elk Grove School District, Elk Grove California.)
(Possible score = 50; Scorer marks a relevant square in each of the jive categories=the
horizontal rows-and student s scorefor that category is the small-print number within that
square.) .
96 ."' .
/
Assessing What a Student Writes Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
When assessing what a student writes, we can use worksheets, written homework Programmes &
and papers, student journal writing, student writing projects, student portfolios, tests. Activities
Certain guidelines for assessing student writing have been given hereunder:
• Student writing assignments and test items should correlate with and be
compatible with specific instructional objectives.
• Read nearly everything a student writes (except, of course, for personal writing
in a student's journal-see subsequent items).
• Provide written or verbal comments about the student's work, and be positive
in those comments.
• Think before writing a comment on a student's paper.
Professional 14-15 12-13 11 1-10

Presentation Well organized; Well organized with Shows basic organization; Unorganized, lacks
Smooth transitions; students lacks transitions; some planning; no transitions;
transitions confer/present ideas; interaction; discussion reliance on one
between group shows ability to focuses mainly on spokesperson' little
sections; all interact; attentive research. interaction; disinterest,
enthusiastically discussion of too brief.
participate and research.
share
responsibility.
Engagement 14-15 12-13 11 1-10
of Audience Successfully and Engages audience in Attempts to engage Fails to involve
actively engages at least one related audience in at least one audience; does not
audience in activity; maintains activity; no attempt to maintain audience's
more than one attention through involve entire audience. attention; no connection
pertinent activity; most of presentation. May not relate in significant with audience. No
maintains way. relationship between
interest activity and topic.
throughout.
Use of 18 -20 16-17 14-15 1-13

Literature Strong Clear connection Weak connection to topic; No connection to topic;
connection between literature and unclear explanation; one no explanation;
between topic; clear genre; one piece used. inappropriate literature;
literature and explanation; no literature.
topic, Significant, appropriate to topic.
perceptive Two pieces used.
explanation of
literature;
pertinent to
topic. At least
two pieces used.
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Knowledge 18-20 16-17 14-15 1-13

of Subject Strong Good understanding Shows general Little understanding or
understanding of of topic; uses main understanding; focuses on comprehension of topic;
topic; knowledge points of information one aspect, discusses at uses little basic
factually researched; builds least one other idea; uses information researched;
relevant, solution on research, attempts to add forms minimal solution;
accurate, and examination of major to it; solution refers to relies solely on own
consistent; evidence. evidence. opinions without
solution shows support.
analysis of
evidence.
Use of Media
18-20 16-17 14-15 1-13
Effectively Combines two forms Includes two or three One form; no original
combines and with one original forms but no original piece; piece; connection
inteqrates three piece; relates to topic; media relates to topic. between media and
distinct forms connection between Explanation may be vague topic is unclear.
with one original media and topic is or missing.
piece; enhances explained.
understanding;
offers insight
into topic.
Speaking
Skills 9-10 8 7 1-6
Clear Good enunciation; Inconsistent enunciation; Difficult to understand;
enunciation; adequate projection; low projection with little inaudible; monotonous;
strong partial audience eye vocal variety; inconsistent no eye contact;
projection; vocal contact; appropriate posture inappropriate posture;
variety; eye posture. interruptions and
contact with distractions.
entire audience;
presentation
posture; solid
focus with no
interruptions.
Figure: 5.7 Sample of a scoring rubric for student project submission. (Source: Elk Grove
School District, Elk Grove, CA.)
(Sample score = 100. Scorer marks a relevant square in each oJ the six
categories-the horizontal rows-and student s scoreJor that category is the
small number within that square.)
5.6 CO CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES IN AN

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
Nowadays eo-curricular activities have been accepted as an integral part of a school's

programme because they provide scope for democratic living, develop social skills,
a sense of cooperation, team spirit and self discipline, which are important for a
citizen to function in a democracy. All this is possible only through students'
participation in eo-curricular activities.
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Co-curricular activities are equally important as curricular activities,as they supplement Management of Curricular
curricular activities. In other words the true aims of education can be fully realized & Co Curricular
Programmes &
by introducing eo-curricular activities at every stage of education. Let us discuss Activities
different types of eo-curricular activities.
5.6.1 Types
Broadly these activities are classified under six headings:
1. Physiological- to enhance psychomotor skills and increase vitality, endurance,
stamina, alertness, for example, sports, athletic activities etc.
2. Psychological and interpersonal- to build self esteem through promotion
of fellow feeling, team spirit, cooperation; interdependence, participation, mutual
understanding, confidence, better communication. (School Teaching, 2nd ed. [
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1978], p. 136
3. Decisionmaking, problem solving skills, for example, debating, dramatics,
camps.
4. Civic and Social- to develop an understanding of rights and responsibilities
as a citizen and respect for democratic principles, example, student councils.
S. Cultural, aesthetic and recreational- to generate tolerance for diversity in
culture, beliefs, skills, abilities, etc., example, folk and classical dance, music,
poetry, art and crafts.
6. Disciplinary - to promote an understanding and respect for rules and
regulations and emphasize formation ofhabits for self-development and learning,
example, scouts and guides, NCC, Yoga.
Table 5.1 presents specific examples of eo-curricular activities under different broad
categories or clusters of activities and their curricular relevance.
Table: S.l Categories and Examples of Co curricular Activities & Their
Relationship to the Formal Curriculum
S.No. Activity Category Examples Curriculum
Association
1. Governance Studefit'Council, Student Social Studies
,~~:: - , Senate
2. Cheerleadjng/pep club- Cheerleading squad, pep Physical education,
club Music
3 Subject Clubs Science club, Math club, Vocational Programmes
Language clubs, etc. and virtually all
academic subjects.
4. Hobby/leisure Photography, Chess, Skiing, Physical education, Art
Hiking, Riding, Skating
clubs
5. Athletic/Sport Interscholastic and Physical education
intramural sports,
basketball, baseball,
Tennis, Golf, Swimming,
6. Music Band, Orchestra, Chorus, Music
Marching, Singing groups,
etc.
7. Speech/drama School plays, Class plays, Language, Arts

Debate teams (Speech, theatre)
8. Pub Iications Newspaper, Yearbook, Language, Arts
Literary Magazine 99
Management of Curriculum 9. Community Service Audiovisual, Library, Variable
Monitors, Ushers, Red
Cross, NCC, etc.
10. Social Dances, folk songs, folk Variable
dances
It. Honors National Honour Society, Variable (Language,
foreign language honour Social Studies)
societies
12. Special Events Days Assemblies, Awards Variable
Programmes, Festivals,
Trips and Tours.
Source: Adapted from Gholson and Buser, 1981,44-45; Gholson and Buser, 1983,
7 -9; quoted in Buss 1998
5.6.2 Advantages
The advantages ofthese activities are as follows:
1. Integral to the education of young people and have legitimate links to the course
work.
2. Support the goals of teaching students to become responsible and fulfilled adults
and contain opportunities for the development of character, critical thinking,
social skills, and talents.
3. Allow students to find peers and adults who have interests and talents similar to
their own.
4. Provide opportunity to perform as individuals, to be part of a group, and to
learn about the importance of teamwork, responsibility, commitment, and hard
work through their experiences (Educational Research Service, 1999).
5. Help adolescents avoid risky behaviour such as dropping out, delinquency,
smoking, and drug abuse through three mechanisms:
• Time Displacement: You can not be in two places at once. If you are
engaged in constructive student activities, you do not have time to get into
trouble.
• Commitment Building: By developing ties to the school and a stake in
its success, you become committed to traditional career pathways and
existing institutions.
• Group Pressure: Participation on teams and clubs adds a sense of

belonging and positive peer pressure (Zill, Nord and Loomis, 1995).
6. Augment a good educational programme and support the academic mission of
the institution.
7. Allow students to apply their academic learning to social interactions and vice
versa (Allison, 1979).
8. Helps students in realization oftheir abilities and strengths.
9. Helps students to enrich cognitive skills learned in the classroom through
competitions and real experiences.
10. Develops leadership skills and the ability to plan, manage, organize, implement,
and evaluate. They also stress the importance of accountability, reliability, and
100 trustworthiness-all of which are elements of the fourth "R"-responsibility.
/
Check Your Progress Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. Programmes &
Activities
4) Mention types of eo-curricular activities .
..........................................................................................................
. ... ., .
, .
...., .
5) . Mention any three advantages of eo-curricular activities.
',' .
5.7 STEPS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF- CO

CURRICULAR' ACTIVITIES
Similar to Curricular activities, Co-curricular activities are also to be managed in a
systematic manner to gain maximum learning effectively. Figure 5.8 presents the
Management Cycle.
PLANNING
D ORGANISING
D EXECUTING
D MONITORING
D EVALUATING
Figure: 5.8 : Management Cycle

101
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Management of Curriculum The management cycle of eo-curricular activities comprises the following steps:
5.7.1 Planning - The first step is to identify strategic goals to be fulfilled and develop
indicators of success for the activities to be undertaken.
Clear goal
Each CCA must have clearly established goals as to how it intends to add value to
students' training. Sports CCA may establish performance goals like winning a
competition and developing further student athletes' sports skills. A technical-related
CCA may aim for the provision ofprojects to allow students to put into practice
their learned technical skills and knowledge. Whatever the CCA, if goals are clearly
stated, it provides a guiding vision to both teachers and students when participating
in the CCA. It will also help to focus energy and resources in the appropriate channels.
5.7.2 Organising - The next stage is to take decision regarding use of resources
and accountability patterns. A detailed task analysis needs to be undertaken at this
stage for the activity to be undertaken.
Appropriate activities
Well-defined goals establish the basis for the type of activities that should be organised
and conducted in a CCA. If the goal is to win the sports championship, then the
physical and technical preparation of the team will be focused on getting ready a
match-fit team. On the other hand, a CCA established to perform community service
will concentrate on targeting appropriate external or internal groups that can benefit
by the students' assistance to their homes, environment, or persons.
Adequate resources
CCAs cannot be organised and operated without sufficient resources being allocated
to them. Essential resources include sufficient funding through various sources,
provision of hardware like computers and rooms, technical resources (coaches and
related expertise), and venues for the conduct of its activities. When resources are
withheld or lacking, the activities cannot be optimally organised in terms of frequency
and scope, which will then affect participation and motivation of students. Hence, it
is important that education managers/administrators understand this factor and
provide the best support if the best is to be derived from the students.
Principles Underlying Organisation of Co-curricular Activities
The main principles which need to be kept in mind while organizing these activities
are:
• select activities that are closely related to curriculum. They should be
educationally relevant.
• selected activities should be constructive and should aim at development of

higher level objectives, which are not attainable through regular classroom
teaching e.g.novelty and originality,writing, skillof recitationofpoems, discussion
etc.
• activities should have place within timings so that all can participate.
• As far as possible all students should participate in one or the other activity
going on in the school.
• The atmosphere has to be democratic. Suggestions and ideas can be

incorporated in democratic atmosphere so nothing is imposed onstudents.
102
" Leadership should be propel' and careful. Every time the same person should Management of Curricular
not get a chance to lead. Leadership should be rotational and maximum number &, Co Curricular
Programmes &
of students should get opportunity to conduct an activity. Activities
• The responsibility for organizing and arranging the activities should be placed
on students. While teachers can guide, supervise and facilitate.
• Activities should be organised regularly i.e. they should have a place in school
time-table.
• The teacher should have an advisory role and should not impose hislher will on
students.
• Activities should grow from small to large gradually. Initially there may be a few
items and few students but gradually they should widen with maximum number
of students being involved.
• Necessary equipments should be provided well in time to students for practice
and organisation.
• A record of each activity should be maintained. Teachers should enter the details
in a special eo-curricular register.
5.7.3 Executing - At this stage delegation of tasks takes place. Results are achieved
through establishing mechanisms for communication and motivation.
Teacher-CCA Relationship
The teacher plays an important role in the success of any CCA. The interest and
leadership of the teacher is crucial to developing a vibrant and active CCA that
caters to the needs of the students. When the teacher is committed to an area of
interest, s/he will be more likely to provide the effective leadership required to drive
the CCA. Therefore, a positive eo-relation between teacher and CCA will have a
higher probability of success. While it will be difficult to ensure it, management should
try to assign teachers to CCAs where they have an innate interest. Where this is not
possible, then relevant support should be provided.
Relevant teacher training and support
When a teacher is made in charge of a CCA where s/he may not have the required
expertise, support will be required in terms of providing relevant training or support
personnel. The areas of training that the teacher can undergo to improve his/her
competence in managing the CCA are in areas of knowledge and skills. The skills to
be acquired can be technical in nature (gardening skills for green and landscaping
club), or administrative (team! group management). When staff undergoes relevant
training, their confidence in managing the CCA can improve, thus impacting positively
on the students.
Effective leadership by teachers
Effective leadership is important to the success of any organisation of activity. The

teacher must display the appropriate leadership behaviour to motivate the students
to participate in the activities ofthe CCA. However, effective leadership here does
not mean that the teacher directs all activities all the time, but acts accordingly to the
circumstances of students' abilities and task complexity.
5.7.4 Monitoring - Monitoring and reviewing involves measuring the performance
of eo curricular activities. Mid way corrections and adjustments can be made at this
stage. lO3
/ \
Management of Curriculum 5.7.5 Evaluating - The process of evaluation is necessary for gauging overall impact
of the eo curricular activity and for future planning.
1. An evaluation of each eo-curricular activity win be conducted by the supervisor
of Co-curricular Activities and the advisor at the end of the school year or the
conclusion of the activity.
2. The evaluation will measure the activity against its stated objectives to determine
ifthe objectives were met. Criteria may include: .
. '.
• membership and attendance records,
• . regularity of meetings ..
• .planning and execution of special events,
• evidence of student leadership and assumption of responsibility, and such
...other indicators of students' growth and development as the evaluators
may choose.
3. The evaluation will include recommendations for the improvement of the activity
or, if so indicated, for the cancellation of the activity.
4. The written evaluation must be signed by the Principal as well as advisor.
5. The In charge of eo curricular activities must conduct an annual evaluation of
the overall program of eo-curricular activities. That evaluation should consider
whether the program has resulted in:
• improvement in school attendance,

• improvement in academic performance,
• increased participation in schoolactivities, an<\
• improvement in school morale and students behaviours.
Records
1. A student's participation in eo-curricular activities shall be recorded in hislher
record, will be preserved for the duration of the student's enrollment in the
school.
2. Records of the conduct of eo-curricular activities will be maintained by the In-

charge of eo curricular activities and will include, as appropriate to the activity;
• The period in which the activity occurred,
• The numbers of participating students in each school year and/or present
at each eo-curricular event,
• The name of the activity in-charge,
• The printed product of the activity, such as copies of the school newspaper
or literary collection,
• Copies of reports of the activity in newspapers and/or other public relations
releases, and
• The financial records of the activity.
104
Check Your Progr~ss Management of Curricular
& Co Curricular
Note: a) Space.is given below for writing your answers. Programmes &
Activities
6) What are the stepsinvolvedin management of eo-curricularactivities?
7) Mention any three principles which need to be kept in mind while organizing _
the eo-curricular activities.
........-,.,
. .' "'," ":' ., ~ .
• • •.•.•• -, •••• ~ ••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 0#•••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••• ~ ••• .,' •••••••••••••••••••
. .
••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••
. .' " ••
.
" •••••••••••••••••• e
5.8 LET US SUMUP

Schools/educational institutions usually have an elaborate system of activities and
learning experiences which in its totality is called curriculum. Curriculum comprises
a multitude of curricular and eo-curricular activities. While classroom teaching,
practical, library work, demonstrations, self study etc. are part of curricular activities,
celebrating national holidays like the Independence Day, Republic Day and other
important days like Teachers' Day, Children's Day etc. and conducting special
activities on such occasions like staging of plays and presentation of cultural activities
are instances of eo-curricular activities.
Schools/educational institutions, therefore,have to plan and organize various activities
to facilitate all round development of the students. School curriculum includes
activities/programmes for cognitive development of students, adequate provision
for other activities like socially useful productive work (SUPW), music, painting,
various types of sports and games etc. Physical education, for example; should get
its due share among school activities. Working in teams or groups offers abundant
opportunities to students to develop endurance, co-operation, self-discipline,
leadership, fair-play and even sportsmanship. Games which require physical strength
. enable them to master their temper, control their emotions and develop good manners.

1) Visit any school in your area Colleet information about the number and nature
of the different curricular as well as eo-curricular activities conducted in an
academic session. Interview some in-charges of these activities 'Onthe strengths
and weaknesses in management of curricular and eo-curricular activities of the
school. Write a report.
2) Interview a college principallhead about the organizational challenges of CCAs

for college students.
105
Management of Curriculum 3) If a teacher is not interested in conducting suitable curricular activities, can
something be done?
4) Without financial help is it possible to conduct eo-curricular activities on the
school? How?
5) If some students start devoting too much time on eo-curricular activities, then
how will you control them?
5.10 REFERENCES
David, B.G. (1993). Toolsfor Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Kellough, R.D. & Kellough, N.G. (1999). Secondary School Teaching: a guide
to methods and resources: planning for competence. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
Inc.
Louis, C., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2004). A Guide to Teaching Practice.
New York: Routledge.
Moore, K.D. (2005). Effective Instructional Strategies: From Theory to Practice.
California: Sage Publications
Zais, R.B. (1976). CURRICULUM: Principles and Foundations, Thomas Y.
New York: Crowell Company, Inc.
1) Curricular activities are instructional activities that are integral to the classroom
as part of the stated curriculum. The curricular activities includes classroom
teaching, subject based practicals, demonstrations, field work, self study, library
work, tutorials, seminars, group discussion and so on.
2) There are many different types of curricular activities which can be placed
under:
a) Teacher controlled curricular activities
b) Learner controlled curricular activities
c) Group controlled curricular activities
3) Peer tutoring is classmate tutors another. For example, when one student helps
another who has a limited proficiency in English or when a student skilled in
math helps another who is less skilled.
4) The activities classified under six categories:
a) Physiological
b) Psychological and interpersonal
c) Decision making
d) Civic and social
e) Cultural, aesthetic and recreational
f) Disciplinary
106
/
5. D Integral to the education of young people and have legitimate link to the Management of Curricular
course work. & Co Curricular
Programmes &
iI) Allow students to find peers and adults who have interests and talent Activities
similar to their own.
ill) Helps students in realizing of their abilities and strength.
6. D Planning
iI) Organising
ill) Executing
iv) Monitoring
v) Evaluating
7. a) Select activities that are closely related to curriculum. They should be

educationally relevant.
b) Activities should have place within timings so that all can participate.
c) As far as possible all students should participate in one or the other activity
going on in the school.
107
MES-044 Institutional Management
Block-I Management of Curriculum
Unit-I Classroom Management (Instructional Management)
Unit-2 Curriculwn Transaction
Unit-3 Management of Evaluation
Unit-4 Management of Academic Resources
Unit-S Management of Curricular & Co-curricular Programmes &

Activities
Block-2 Management of Financial Resources
Unit-6 Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and Scope
Unit-7 Cost and Budgeting
Unit-S Accounting and Auditing
Unit-9 Resource Mobilization
Block- 3 Management of Human and Administrative Resources
Unit-l 0 Management of Student Support System
Unit-ll Management of Administrative Resources
Unit-12 Management ofHwnan Resources
Block-4 Management ofInfrastructure
Unit-13 Concept, Importance, Need
Unit-14 Management of Physical Resources
Unit-15 Utilization of Infra-structural Resources
Block-5 Total Quality Management
Unit-16 Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators
Unit-17 1001sof Management
Unit-18 Strategies for Quality Improvement
Unit-19 Role of different Agencies
Unit-20 Quality Concerns and Issues for Research
/
/
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~ ~ -ft err ~ cl\ctHi'31 c6t ~ q;r ~ 1ft
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- Indira Gandhi
/
Ite~1Indira Gandhi MES-044
~ National Open University
Management
Block
2
MANAGEMENT OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES
UNIT 6
Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and Scope 5

UNIT 7
Cost and Budgeting 25

UNIT 8
Accounting and Auditing 47

UNIT 9
Resource Mobilisation'ltt~dt((adOn 83
Expert Committee
Prof. Lokesh Koul Prof. S.L. 1ena Prof. S.V.S. Choudhary
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Prof. Vibha Joshi
SOE,IGNOU
Prof. B.B. Khanna
Senior Fellow IGNOU
Prof. S.K. Panda
STRIDE, IGNOU
New Delhi

Course Contributors Unit Design and Editing Content Editing
Dr. Ashok Gaba Prof. Vibha Joshi Prof. M.B. Menon
Reader, SOVET SOE,IGNCU Deptt. of Edu UNRWA
IGNOU HQ(A), 1ordon
Proof Reading
Dr. Geetika Dutta Mr. Trilokes De
Lecturer Consultant
Army College of Education SOE,IGNOU
New Delhi
Dr. S. Geetha
Associate Professor
NUEPA, Delhi
Mr. Trilokes De
Consultant
SOE,IGNOU
Production
Prof. M.L. Koul Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam . M. Sumathy Nair
School of Education
October, 2009
ISBN-978-8J-266-4268-7
means, without permission in writingfrom the lndira Gandhi National Open University.
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-IIO 068.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar. Phase-I, Delhi-9I.
Printed At :- Kalyan Enterprises ,215/5 Ambadker Gali Moujpur,Delhi -53
/
BLOCK 2 MANAGEMENT OF FINANCIAL
RESOURCES
Introduction
Any organisation involved in any kind of economic activityhas to maintain a systematic
record of all the day-to-day transactions. The very basis of economic efficiency is
based in identifying the financial resources we have at our disposal and to variety of
uses we need to put them to. Accounting is that branch of knowledge which provided
us ways.and means of recordings of all the transactions pertaining to financial character
in an organisation in a systematic and orderly manner. And so it is important to
study and identify the different types of costs incurred by the institution and formed
a sound fiscal plan or budget. It is important to mention that investment in education
has been realised as an investment that bears high economic returns to the society,
but it generally has took a longer gestation period. Similarly, huge resources are
required for both quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement and also for
the maintenance for the education system. Resource mobilization is one of them. It
could be possible through internal and external resources. The present block contains
four units covering different aspects on financial resources. So let us discuss briefly
about all units:
Unit 6 of this block titled Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and Scope.
Here we have discussed meaning, scope and importance of educational finance.
The different sections of the unit dealt with the different criteria for educational
financing, resources mobilization and utilization, financing of school education versus
tertiary education, pricing and subsidy of education, trends in expenditure among
the different stages of education. We further preceded the discussion on these aspects
which are closely related with the educational policies of a country.
Unit 7 dealt with Costing and Budgeting. It began with the concept, its
classification, system, techniques and methods of costing, as well as the concept of
budgeting and its types.
Unit 8 dealt with Accounting and Auditing. It describes the very concept of
accounting and its importance in an educational institution. Subsequently discussion
on the auditing, it's types and classification has been included. Preparation of an
audit report is an important aspect of auditing, the points to be included in the audit
report have been mentioned.
Last unit i.e 9 of this block dealt with Resource Mobilization in Education. We
discussed some major issues pertaining to the financing of education. Other sections
of this unit discussed internal and external sources, governmental and non-
governmental resources under internal resources. Simultaneously multilateral and
bilateral resources have been discussed as a part of external resources also .
.' . \ ,-' ,
/
Block-I Management of Curriculum
Unit-l Classroom Management (Instructional Management)
Unit-Z Curriculum Transaction

Activities
Unit-S Accounting and Auditing
Unit-I 0 Management of Student Support System
Unit-I 1 Management of Administrative Resources
Unit-12 Management of Human Resources
Block-4 Management oflnfrastructure
Unit-I 3 Concept, Importance, Need
Unit-IS Utilization of Infra-structural Resources
Unit-17 Tools of Management
Unit-I 8 Strategies for Quality Improvement
Unit-I 9 Role of differentAgencies
/
UNIT 6 EDUCATIONAL FINANCE:
MEANING, IMPORTANCE AND
SCOPE
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Educational Finance: Meaning
6.3.1 Criteria for educational finance
6.4 Mobilisation of Physical and Financial Resources

6.5 Financing of School versus Tertiary Education
6.6 Sources of Educational Finance
6.6.1 Contribution of government and household in educational financing
6.6.2 Contribution offoreign aid in educational financing
6.6.3 Cost effective model
6.7 Expenditure on Education

6.7.1 Indian Expenditure on Education as a percentage of GNP
6.7.2 Educational Expenditure by Level
6.8 Plan-wise Outlay on Education in India

6.9 Let Us Sum Up
6.10 UnitendActivities
6.11 References
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit an attempt has been made to describe meaning, scope and importance
of educational finance. The various issues pertaining to financing for school versus
tertiary education and subsidy to education have been discussed. The other sections
of this unit dealt with different criteria for educational financing,resources mobilisation
and utilisation, financing of school versus tertiary education, pricing and subsidy of
education, trends in expenditure among the different stages of education. We
preceded our discussion on these aspects which were closely related with the
education policies of a country.
As we all know that educational finance deals with (a) policy issue, (b) planning
methodology,techniques and administration procedures and management approaches
in financing in education. So there are many sources for financing in education either
government or private or public in the country. Actually government does not have
any private sources of income. The government took resources or aid from others
and subsidies the cost of our education. The main issue in financing in education is
mobilisation of resources both - government and private resources, their allocation
and utilisation in all levels of education.
Financial management is one of the importance aspect in any management. Similarly
5
management offinances is equally important in educational context. The basic purpose
/
Management of Financial of an organisation is to produce and distribute knowledge as far as possible (service
Resources to the society). Finance is to business as well as educational venture what blood is to
the human body. Thus it is the life blood ofbusiness or education. As we know that
finance which brings together the various parts of an organisation and transformed
that in various ways for smooth functioning of an institution and achieving the goal of
an institution. Thus, finance has been recognised as the backbone of an institution.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning, scope and importance of educational finance;
• describe the adequacy, equity and efficiency of educational resources in
education;
• describe the nature ofthe processes involved in the resource mobilisation and
utilisation;
.• explain the financing of school and tertiary education;
• explain sources and subsidy issues of education and contribution of fees,
government grants and foreign aids in income;
• describe the process of educational planning in developing countries with special
emphasis on India.
6.3 EDUCATIONAL FINANCE: MEANING
Finance is the science of the management of money and assets. It deals with resource
allocation as well as resource management, acquisitions and investment. Presently,
education is being provided through different modes such as formal, non-formal,
distance and online (e-learning). For providing different levels of education through
different modes a variety of resources are needed. In general, resources can be
categorised into two broad types: human and non-human resources. Educational
institutions run by money. It is also not necessary that all the problems of education
........can
be solved by allocating money to them. But without money to secure the essential
physical resources of education (buildings, equipment, materials) and human resources
(teachers, administraters and custodians) would be not possible and eventually the
organised educational system would collapse onto an empty centre.Coombs, 1985,
p. 137). Therefore, money becomes very important for the survival of any system.
So, let us define educational finance. It is the management of money and assets
thereby physical and human resources are allocated for educational purpose. The
next question would be how do we assess the systems of educational finance and
what are the criteria for their assessment.
6.3.1 Criteria for Educational Finance

In this subsection let us try to understand the various criteria used for Educational
Finance.
Benson (1987, P 423) defined three main criteria by which systems of educational
finance are traditionally judged:
These are as follows:
(i) whether the level of provision of educational services is adequate;
6
/ \
(ii) whether the distribution of educational resourcesis efficient; and Educat~1 Fi~anee:
Meaning,lmpodance
(m) whether the distribution of educational resources is equitable. and Scope
These three criteria are interrelated. During the 1960s and the first half of the 1970s,
adequecy was defined in terms of the percentage of gross national product devoted
to education (thy figure of eight percent was often deemed "adequate"), and in
terms of the share of the central government's budget spent on education (20 percent
was considered to be an appropriate figure). These kinds of measures are not
thoroughly satisfactory because they sometimes ignore private education and
educational revenues generated in provincial and local authorities. Their meaning
was also confusing because they failed to address the question of the efficiency with
which a given government run its educational programmes. The objectives by which
adequacy of education is defined also require at least a minimum level of competence
and commitment on the part of teachers. Required cost per capita will vary from
country to country and even state to state, city to city, urban to rural areas and so on
depending on the degree of efficiency with which the educational system is operated.
Publicly fmanced institutions, whether at the school, technical institute or university _
level, ordinarily claim a certain degree of autonomy in managing their day to day
affairs. In some instances, institutional views of educational policy may be contrary
to the dictates of efficiency, as seen from a national perspective. Efficiency is always
linked with achieving acceptable quality of the educational system within affordable ,
resources. I
There have been different views regarding equity issue of financing in education.
Mostly central government seeks an arrangement, which is neither wholly centralized
nor wholly decentralized. Complete centralization implies an excessive amount of
bureaucratic delay in making decisions, and it also entails, probably, an incapacity to
take proper account of changes in local needs and desired practices. Complete
decentralization destroys the capacity of the central government to direct local
authorities to meet long-range national needs for training personnel. It prevents a
progressive administration from imposing higher standards of public morality on
backward local authorities. Local authorities that have a pleasant climate in which
the students are thoroughly middle class may be able to attract a teacher of given
competence at a lower salary than an industrial suburb in a harsh climate may be
required to pay. Using their estimates oflocal needs and local resources, the central
government is likely to employ one of three main fiscal devices to link together .
central and local support for education.
The government has different procedures for educational finance:
First, government decides on the basis of per student cost. I
Second, government share in the costs of a locally determined education budget

and to share.local budgets in such a position that any two local authorities that levy
the same local school tax rate are provided with the same sum of money to spend
per student. In this case, the percentage share of state money will be higher in a poor
local authority than in a rich one.
Third main type of grant is the "weighted-population grant". This is the simplest
. arrangement of the three and the one that is the most flexible. One of the important
considerations in the design of grants is the population features of the state(s), district
and even in an institution. Population distribution, development index, proximity to
development, geographical and educational status of the school are the common ,.
indicators that influence grants to an educational institution. For example, teachers
working in schools located in difficult terrains get special incentives, scholarship/ 7
----------------------------------------------------------------------------.~
/
Management of Financial freeship provisions for students from socially deprived population pockets and so
Resources on.
There is a need to evolve a financing mechanism for educational system. There is a
comprehensive model or framework common to all the countries. This calls for
comprehensive studies and data base on socio economic profile of the learners, and
cost per student and the quality of the education which being provided by the
educational institutions.
Check Your Progress
Note : a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
1) What do you mean by educational finance?
2) What are the criteria for assessing educational finance?
......................................................................................................................
3) What CiU7e
the three procedures for the government finance?
6.4 M~lLISATION OF PHYSICAL AND FINANCIAL

RE80tf.RCES
In the previous section, you have studied about the meaning and criteria for educational
fmance. You have also studied about the requirements of physical and non-physical
resources for the survival of any educational system. In this section, we shall discuss
the non-human resources only. Non-human resources include both physical and
finaaeial resources.
In the developing countries, physical resources of capital nature for education are
generally provided by the community. Land required for building educational
institutions isoften donated by individuals, religious bodies, trusts, industrialists,village
panchayats or/and government. Some members of the community, who are financially
wen of, make liberal donations towards the construction of buildings and provision
of other infrastructural facilities. Given the capacity, the extent of mobilisation of
physical resources depends on the ability ofthe management of the institution and
the community leaders to exploit these sources.
/
Financial resources, by themselves, do not make education provision possible until Educational Finance:
Meaning, Importance
a country has acquired both the human and physical resources. The major role of
financialresources is to mobilise human and physical resources and bring them together
and ScoPe
for providing education. Lack of fmancial resources adversely affects not only the
maintenance of the existing system of education but also its development. The financial
resources for education may be examined both from the point of view of expenditure
and income (Bawa, 2001).
Very little research evidence is available on (a) the present pattern of utilisation of
resources, and (b) the scope for effective utilisation. But researchers raised issues
like pattern of allocation of financial resources at macro level to the education sector
and whether optimum level of resources are allocated for education. The allocated
budget funds need to be utilised for the purpose for which they were given. While
re-appropriation may lead to the better utilisation in certain cases, it is not necessarily
so in most cases, particularly when the original allocations were made after careful
examination of the needs of the system. It is also necessary to estimate normal unit
costs, and also the 'effective' costs, measuring the real effectiveness of the system,
while analysing cost size relationship. The utilisation of resources in education is a
function of several inter-related factors that lie both within the education system, and
outside. Factors including are institutional factors, behavioural aspects, managerial
aspects, existing norms, rules and procedures, etc. ,some of which may not be
quantifiable.But all are important. One has carefully analysed the relative effectiveness .
of various inputs, before suggesting reallocation.
There is a need for research in the area of relative effectiveness of hardware (e.g.
buildings) versus software (e.g. books). There may be paradoxical situation, such
as one characterised by very low level of resources and complete utilisation, in
contrast to a situation characterised by large amount of resources and under utilisation.
Lack of financial resources adversely affects not only the maintenance of the existing
educational system but also its growth in the country. '
Check Your Progress

4) Explain effective type of utilisation with example
6.5 FINANCING OF SCHOOL VERSUS TERTIARY

EDUCATION
In the previous sections, we apprise you about the criteria for 'educational finance
and resource mobilisation and utilisation in educational system. In this section, we
shall study about financing of school versus tertiary education.
How do you balance between financing different sectors of education? There is
always debate over financing of school education vis a vis tertiary education. Each
country has its own educational priorities, system of government finance, political
9
Management of Financial mechanisms for making decisions and administrative structures for implementing
Resources them. Schools' finance represents one of the major dimensions of these structures
and processes, and such financial decisions must be made along with broader policy
decisions in education and in the larger society. In a sense, each educational decision
has implications for ascertaining how resources will be obtained and allocated. By
reviewing a number of different decision areas in education, it is possible to see their
consequences for school finance (Levin, 1987).
On the other hand, tertiary education is an important element in national economic
performance and a major determinant of a person's life chances. But it is costly, and
faces competing imperatives forpublic spending. It's financing is therefore, important
and immensely sensitive politically. Despite the problems, widespread agreement
exists on two core objectives: strengthening quality and diversity, both for their
own sake and for reasons of national economic performance; and improving access,
again for both efficiency and equity reasons. If it is not possible to rely completely on
public funding, it is necessary to bring in private finance-but in ways that do not
deter students from poor backgrounds. There is also a different opinion emerging
among economists that tertiary'education is a right and should therefore be financed
from taxation. However, the fact that something is regarded as a right does not mean
that it should be tax-financed. For example, access to food and education is a basic
right, yet nobody argues that it is wrong to charge for it. The moral imperative is not
about instruments (for example, prices) but about outcomes, that is, that a gifted or
talented children should be able to go to the best school or university irrespective of
his I her financial circumstances. The historical record shows that tax finance has
done little to widen access, while, as noted, tax finance isdeeply regressive. Ifit is
unfair to ask graduates to pay more for the cost of higher education, it is even unfair
to ask non-graduate taxpayers to do so.
H may be noted here that in developing countries like India, there exists a complex
mechanism for providing financial resources at meeting expenditure at different levels
as presented in Table 6.1. This will give you an overview about percentage of the
total' educational expenditure at different levels.
Table 6.1: Expenditure on Education in the Five Year Plans (In Percentage)
Five Elementary Adult Secondary Higher Technical Total % of

Year Total
Plan -, Plan
Outlay
.1st 56 3 13 9 13 100 7.86
z= 35 1 19 18 18 100 3.83
3ra 34 0.3 18 15 21 100 6.87
41h 30 1 18 25 13 100 5.04
51h \ 35 4 17 22 12 100 ~.04
611 30 3 25 18 11 100 3.27
71h 34 6 22 14 12 100 3.50
8111 42 8 16 7 13 100 4.90
<,
9th 51 2 18 8 9 100 6.20
Source: Tilak, J.B.G. (2003) Public expenditure In India, in Tilak J.B.G. (Eds),Financing
Education in India, Current Issues and Changing Perspectives, New Delhi: NIEPA
& Ravi Books, p. 24.
)0
----_-:... 7',-='=' --------- __ ~ --.--..,.. _
/
Check Your Progress Educational Finance:"
Meaning, Importance
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. and Scope
. b) Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit
5) Why is fmancing politically sensitive?
6) Based on efficiency and equity reasons what are the two core objectives of
tertiary education?
7) What are the three procedural for the government finance?
6.6 SOURCES OF EDUCATIONAL FINANCE

Who will invest in education and why? Those invest in education from where they
will get money? Let us examine a case as an illustrationhere to replyto these questions.
You will find that your education involved a cost. Cost could be both private and
public and it has yielded stream of benefits both to private and public. First, we
present you the costs in education here. There were some private costs, which were
borne by your family. They spent their private time and money out of their pockets
to pay for part of your education. You too spent time; time which has an opportunity
cost. You could have been doing some job and adding to your family income instead
of going to school. That needs to be added to the account for the private costs.
Apart from the private costs, there were public costs. Your family did not pay full
price for your education. The government paid part of your fee. The government did
not actually pay since the government does not have a private source of income.
The government took resources from others and subsidized the cost of your education.
In other words, the general public paid for part of your education and you think the
major part of the cost was paid for by the public. You, and indirectly your family,
benefited from this subsidy, which was achieved through a transfer of resources
(taxes). Adding up the private and public components ofthe costs gives us the
"social" cost.
Like the costs, the benefits can also be distributed as private and public, and the
sum of the two is the social benefits. The private benefits are easy to account for.
Had you not acquired the skills during all those years in school, you would not have
been able to eam the amount you eamtoday. The returns to the private investment
11
in your education, thus, is not just po=' but incredibly positive. What about the
----~----------------
/
Management of Financial public benefits? Because of your education, you are a more productive worker and
Resources hence create more stuff than you would have had you not been educated. Though it
is hard to quantify, you add some amount of wealth to society. It is trivially true that
you must add more wealth to the society than what 'You paid as salary. This is so
because what you produce must be worth more to your employer than your salary.
The difference between your salary and the total wealth you produce is what is the
public benefits of your existence. Add the private and public benefits, and you arrive
at the social benefits.
If the social benefits exceed the social costs, then society is better off investing. And,
if private benefits exceed private costs, then a private person is better offinvesting.
In your case, both conditions exists. Society is better off for having subsidized your
education and your family is better off for having invested a little in your education.
But those who have the money to invest in education privileged enough to get
subsidized education, and are reaping the benefits of that education. But unlike you,
the poor are credit constrained. They too would privately benefit from investing in
education, and society too will benefit from having them being educated, but as it
happens, the poor cannot afford to make that investment. Therefore, government
grants funds for poor students.
Check Your Progress
Note : a) Space is given below for writing your answers.
8) What is social benefit?
9) What is opportunity cost?
10) When is society better offin investing?
...................................................................................................................
11) When is a person better off in investing?
12
/
6.6.1 Contribution of Government and Household in Educational Finance:
Meaning, Importance
Educational Financing and Scope
Government meets the institutional costs of education to a large extent. Elementary
-primary and middle (upper primary) education is almost fully financed by the
government- Central, State and Local bodies. Generally, government - Central,
State and Local bodies -rneet 99 per cent of the total recurring expenditure at
primary level and 96 per cent at upper primary level.
Generally high levels of household investment in education are favoured on the
following three main grounds:
• Government does not have adequate resources to finance education and hence
households have to necessarily finance their education at least partly;
• It is believed by some that household expenditure, including specifically fees,
would improve efficiency in the system, by making the children more serious
with studies, and
• Household expenditure reflect both ability to pay and willingness to pay for
education. It is argued that the ability and willingness to pay need to be fully
exploited.
At the same time, there are strong arguments against household expenditures. The
phenomenon of household expenditure, particularly on lower levels of education is
against the letter and spirit of free and compulsory education in many countries, as
enshrined, for example, in the Constitution of India, and in several UN declarations,
including Convention of the Rights of the Children. Students in primary schools,
who were enrolled even in government schools, were found to be paying fees of
various kinds, including tuition fee, apart from incurring huge expenditure on various
other items. Fees are found to form a major component of expenditure of the
households on their children's schooling. Other significant determinants of household
expenditures are the average size of the household, schooling levels of the population
in the state, poverty, government expenditure on education and the size of the private
school sector in a state. Constraints on availability of data on the one hand, and
multi-eo-linearity between the few selected variables are the two major weaknesses
of the exercise attempted in this context (Tilak, 2003). The Union Government of
India passed a Free and Compulsory Education Bill in order to makethe 86th
amendment to the Constitution that has made elementary education a fundamental
right, statutorily enforceable. Tilak (2004, p.619) remarks on this bill " It does not
discourage the growth of the fee-charging private school system. In fact, in several
ways, through several clauses, the bill seems to be encouraging dual system of
elementary education -public education system (of poor quality) for the poor, and
fee charging private education (of better quality) for those who can afford."
On the other hand, institutions that generate revenues on their own were also provided
with added incentives, in terms of grants, etc. As a result of all these policy directives,
there was a race among many institutions to generate resources on their own, through
• substantial and erratic increases in fees and introduction of fees for items which
were earlier provided free-such as application fees, fees for marked assignments,
extra fee for consolidated mark statements, fees for authentication of transcripts
and others; ,
• .introduction of self-financing courses, and

• consultancy, saleof services, etc. 13
, .•......... , •
',.';
/
Management of Financial Cost recovery has been the exhortation and it largely refers to recovery from students'
Resources through fees and other charges. Those who are critical of the proposed cuts in fees
levels have also argued in this context that the state should subsidise only primary
education, and should not subsidise higher education. Neither empirical evidence
from other countries nor theory supports such view. High levels offees, and reduction
in state subsidies lead to privatisation of higher education. Cut in fee levels will lead
to increase in enrolment of students from lower economic background. This in turn
would lead to fall in quality and standards of higher education, this equating lower
economic background to low quality, quite ignoring that distribution of merits is not
so skewed in favour ofthe rich (Tilak, 2004b, p.871).
A discriminatory fee structure implies that fee will be charged according to the paying
capacity of the student, the fee to be levied based on the cost of providing education
for each faculty or subjects on the one hand and paying capacity of individual students
on the other. Needless to add, those belonging to the highest socio-economic
households will pay the most, close to the full pricing of education. Students from
the lowest social and economic households will pay the least which indirectly helps
target subsidies in favour of the poor. One can argue that discriminatory pricing may
lead to an increased income for higher education without adversely affecting equity
considerations in educational provisions. In this sense, a discriminatory fee structure
will reduce the perverse effects ofthe existing public subsidy system (Varghese,
1987).
•
However, in case of higher education in the country.as a whole, government subsidies
,
are about three-fourths of the total recurring expenditure. Student fees and •
endowments and others meet the rest more or less in equal proportions. B~t in'the
recent years, given the changing economic and educational policies, the proportion
seems to be rapidly increasing to significant levels in many Universities.
It is interesting to note that even when there was a decline in public funding for higher
education, the non-professional courses were more adversely affected than the
professional ones. The 1980s was a period of economic crisis in many developing
countries. During this period many countries resorted to extensive external funding,
primarily through the structural adjustment programmes. Studies have shown that
countries which received structural adjustment loans showed declining public
expenditure on education. It was primarily due to the fact that structural adjustment
necessitated a redefinition of the role of government and envisaged a reduced
.government intervention in all sectors, including education.
Check Your Progress
12) Why do household investments favoured?
...................................................................................................................
13) What are the arguments put forward against household investment?
....................................... ", .
14
/
\
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Educational Finance:
Meaning, Importance
and Scope
14) How does Union Government of India guarantees elementary education as a

fundamental right?
6.6.2 Contribution of Foreign Aid in Educational Financing

Foreign aid is one important source of fmances for education in several developing
countries. Its importance gets enhanced in developing countries like India where
public budgets for education become very tight with the adoption of structural
adjustment policies. Currently, a large number of primary education projects have
been in progress under the District Primary Education Programme (later named
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan), from assistance by several international agencies, such as
the World Bank, the Swedish International Development Agency, the UNICEF, the
Overseas DevelopmentAdministration (ODA), the European Economic Community,
etc. Thus the external aid is both bilateral flowing from countries, and multi-lateral
flowing from international- UN and other organizations.
The effect of aid on education in India is yet to be seen. But high expectations are
being created on the contribution of foreign aid for primary education, particularly
with the launching of the social safety net programmes with the help of assistance
from the World Bank, that are being initiated to reduce the adverse effects of structural
adjustment policies that are being adopted. There are very few studies on the role of
foreign aid for education in India (Tilak, 2003),
In US, the country with the biggest system of higher education and the country
where the high-priests of privatisation call the shots, 80 percent of the higher education
sector is sustained by government funding. The rest of the money comes from
endowments and only some bit of the resources is generated by the institutions
themselves. And how is expenditure to be controlled in a university? There is thee
practice to cut expenditure on salaries by appointing ad hoc teachers to whom no
dearness, housing, city compensatory, travel, medical allowances are paid. Nor is
any contribution to the provident fund or pension fund of such teachers deemed
necessary.Similarly,to cut the costs of building campuses, universities have authorised
study centres to dispense education for their degrees, especially,in computer software.
All this has given higher education the nick name of' hire education' (Tilak, 2004b).
In India analysis of recurring (non-plan) expenditure by level (i.e. from primary

schooling to higher education) shows that 94.5 percent of the expenditure on school
education was met by government sources. The corresponding proportion for higher
education (in 1986-87) was 76 percent and 'fees' and 'endowments' accounted for
the rest (i.e. 12 percent each: These are presented in Table 6.2. Privatization of
higher education which was encouraged as a matter of government policy during
1990s, and the impact of which is not fully reflected in the data presented for 1992-
93 in Table 6.2, is expected to increase the share of the component to a much higher
level. 15
Management of Financial Table 6.2: Sources offunds (recurring) for education in India: 1992-93 (%)
Resources
Level/Source Govern- Local Fees Endow- Total
ment bodies ments
• etc .
Primary 91.1 7.5 0.0 1.4 100.0
Middle 88.6 8.0 0.0 3.3 100.0

Secondary 93.2 3.0 2.9 1.0 100.0
Higher secondary 84.4 3.6 10.2 1.8 100.0
Intermediate 18.2 0.8 58.8 22.2 100.0
Total school sector 89.5 5.0 2.9 2.6 100.0
Higher education (1986-87) 75.9 0.0 12.6 11.5 100.0
Source: Tilak (2004a)
A commonly suggested cost recovery method, therefore, is to increase students

fees. The share of fees in the total expenditure in higher education has declined over
time (Table 6.3). This has happened because fees for courses in higher education
was kept constant for a long time even though the cost of providing education
increased manifolds. In the Indian context, the following alternative ways of increasing
the fees have been suggested:
(i) a uniform increase for graduate and post-graduate courses;
(ii) increasing the fees based on the cost of provision of courses; and
(iii) giving autonomy to colleges for deciding on the fees to be charged for courses
offered, and others (Tilak, 2004).
In most colleges and universities over 90 percent of the expenditure goes towards
paying salaries ofteachers and staff. Therefore, it is not surprising thatmany dual
mode universities have been resorting to distance education.
Table 6.3: Funding for Higher Education by Source (percent)
Year/Source Government Local Fees Others Total
bodies
1950-51 49.1 0.3 36.8 13.8 100.0

1960-61 53.1 0.4 34.8 11.7 100.0
1970-71 60.4 0.5 25.5 13.5 100.0
1980-81 72.0 0.8 17.4 10.8 100.0
1985-86 79.7 1.4 14.4 4.5 100.0
1986-87 75.9 0.0 12.6 11.5* 100.0
* includes local bodies.

Source: Tilak (2004a) .
6.6.3 Cost Effective Model

,
For decreasing cost in education, most of the developing countries adopted cost
effective models for delivery education i.e. Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
System. Open universities and open schools have been established both at the
national and state levels in India. ODL system reduces recurring expenditure on
account of salaries and non-recurring expenditure on account of institutional
~.....~ ••..~"
_ . arr_an_g_e_m_e_n_ts_fi_o_r
India i_m_p_art_in_g_e_d_u_c_at_io_n_'_Th_er_e_fo_r_e_,
to meet the increasing o_n_e_O_f_th_e_s_tr_a_te_g_ie_s_a_d_o_pt_e
demand for higher education is through the open university
system and correspondence courses. Enrolment in higher education in the non- Educational Finance:
Meaning, Importance
institutionalised sector (open universities and correspondence courses) has increased
and Scope
by 20% in India since last couple of years. It needs to be noted that this sector does
not necessarily cater to the age-group which normally attends courses in universities
and colleges. It is now well known that in face to face, about 90% funding come
from government sources where as, contribution ofODL system is almost nil in
most of the ODL institutions in India. We shall discuss in detail of this issue in the
forthcoming sections.
Check Your Progress
15) Why is ODL considered cost-effective mode?
6.7 EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION

So far you might have understood the criteria for educational finance presented in
the previous section. It describes that the total allocation to education as a percentage
of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross National Product (GNP) is an important
indicatorfor adequacy in financing of education. There is also the viewthat 'normally' ,
expenditure on education should grow at double the rate of economic growth in
early stages of educational development (Tilak, 2006).
The pattern of institutional funding is reflective of the state policy on education. The
government/public expenditure on education in selected developing countries (Table
6.4) indicates that, as percentage of GDP, these countries spend much less on
education generally, though countries like Thailand and Myanmar spent as high as
31% and 18% respectively of the total government expenditure on education. This,
however, is not reflective of their expenditure on higher education.
Table 6.4: Public Expenditure on Education (2000-01)
Country As % ofGDP As % of total
government expenditure
Myanmar 1.4 18.1
Indonesia 1.5 9.6
Pakistan 1.8 7.8
Bangladesh 2.5 15.7
Sri Lanka 3.1 -
Philippines 3.5 -
India 4.1 12.7
Thailand 5.4 31.0
Malaysia 6.2 -
Source: UNESCO (2003)
]7
/
Management ofFinanciaJ Contrary to what is noted above, in some of the countries, federal and provincial
Resources governments have been supporting higher education considerably. In Denmark,
Netherlands, Canada, India, and U,SA governments provided funding support to
campus-based higher education to the tune of 99%, 98%) 90%, 89%, and 78%
respectively. These World Bank data further suggest that, in countries like Norway,
France, Australia, Germany, Indonesia, Kenya, and U .K., government finance for
higher education was 90%, 89.5%, 88%, 68.5%,62.8%,62.2%, and 55%
respectively (World Bank, 1995). However, both the OECD (Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development) countries (which include largely the
developed countries including Canada and USA) and the WEI (World Education
Indicator) countries (which include developing countries and Russia) spent almost
similar amount as percent ofGDP on tertiary education (i.e. 1.4%), and some ofthe
WEI countries like lamaicaand Malaysia spent more than the OECD countries
(UNESCO, 2005a). Due to the transition of higher education from an elite system
to a mass system during the last few decades in all of these countries, the governments
are fmding it difficultto support further expansion of higher education and the offering
of higher education to large masses has led to the proposal of cost recovery, especially
from students. Some of the countries, however, have increased percent GDP
expenditure for higher education to meet the growing demand. It is therefore not
surprising that most of them have resorted to distance and allied forms of delivery of
education and training (Panda and Gaba, 2008).
Check Your Progress
16) How does the OECD countries compare with WEI countries in spending for
higher education?
....................................................................................................................
6.7.1 Indian Expenditure on Education as a Percentage of

GNP
The Education Commission of 1964-66, the most comprehensive education policy
document so far, recommended that the government should endeavour to
progressively increase its expenditure on education to reach the level of 6 % of
national income (i.e., GNP) over a twenty year time frame. The federal government
of today is seriously considering doing so. Trends show (Table 6.5) that the
expenditure on education in India increased two-folds over the period 1966-86
(from 1.8 % of GNP in 1965-66 to 3.7 % in 1985-86). The highest that it reached
in the successive years was 4.4 % in 2000-0 1,whereupon there is a visible declining
trend. The decade over growth rate in average per capita real expenditure on
education suggests that while there was an increase from 5.7 percent in 1970s to
6.4 percent in 1980s, it declined to 4.1 percent during 1990s. This is largely attributed
to the efforts of the government to withdraw from the education sector (particularly
the higher education sector) during 1990s. It has been pointed out that in countries
like India and Chile expenditure has increased faster than the increase in student
enrolment. The reverse isthe case for countries like Brazil and Philippines (UNESCO,
2005).
18
/
Table 6.5: Indian expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP: Educational Finance:
1951-2005 Meaning, Importance
and Scope
Year Expenditure as a percent of GNP
1951-52 0.67
1965-66 1.82
1985-86 3.71
1989-90 4.21
1999-2000 4.30
2000-01 4.40
2001-02 3.90
2002-03 3.83
2003-04 (RE) 3.81
2004-05 (BE) 3.54
Source: Tilak (2006)

RE: Revised estimates; BE: budget estimates
6.7.2 Educational Expenditure by Level

The analysis of budgeted expenditure shows that elementary education accounts for
around 45 percent of total expenditure on education by the government (Table 6.6).
There is a slight increase in from 1995-96 onwards, which is at the cost of secondary
and technical education.
Table 6.6: Budgetary Expenditure on Education (per cent)
Year Elementary Secondary Technical Higher Total

1990-91 46.3 32.2 4.4 13.4 100.0
1991-92 46.3 33.0 4.3 13.0 100.0

1992-93 45.2 34.3 4.3 12.9 100.0
1993-94 46.2 33.2 4.3 13.3 100.0
1994-95 46.4 33.2 4.4 12.9 100.0
1995-96 48.3 32.8 4.1 12.3 100.0
1996-97 49.1 32.3 4.0 11.8 100.0
1997-98 49.6 32.3 , 3.9 11.8 100.0
1998-99 49.0 32.6 4.1 11.9 100.0
1999-00 48.1 30.9 3.9 12.7 100.0
2000-01 48.9 30.1 3.9 .14.8 100.0
Source: Tilak (2004c), p-347
Check Your Progress

17) Why did public expenditure in education declined during the nineties?
19
\
Management ofFinandal 18) Which level of education got largest expenditure by Government of India?
Resources
.................. ; .
6.8 PLAN-WISE OUTLAY ON EDUCATION IN INDIA

From the First-Five Year plan, launched in 1951, educational planning has continued
to be a part and parcel of every Five Year Plan ofIndia. Planning Commission
consolidates the Central Plan prepared by the MHRD and State Plans prepared by
various state's Governments and proposes an integrated national plan for educational
development.
The main priorities in the First-Five- Year Plan were:
(i) to make available, in various fields, personnel of suitable calibre;
(ii) to satisfy the cultural needs ofthe people;
(m) to stimulate the growth of facilitiesthat would help in the development of creative
abilities, and
(iv) to increase the capacity for enjoyment and to develop the spirit of critical
appreciation of arts, literature and other creative activities.
In the First Five Year Plan, education was allocated 1,690 million rupees, but only
1,530 million was actually spent. This was 7.86% of the total plan outlay. Two facts
that are indicative ofthe approach followed for educational investment in the First
Five Year Plan are as follows:
• within the general category of education, elementary education was given the
highest priority, followed by secondary and university education. The weightage
given to secondary and university education put together was a little above
one-third of that given to the elementary education.
• Second, the priority given to technical education was a little more than one-
sixth of that given to general education .
.In the Second Five Year Plan, a sum ofRs.3,070 million rupees was allocated to
education. Out of this amount, Rs.2,730 million rupees was actually spent which
. was 3.83% of the total plan outlay. Few changes in priorities, as compared to the
First Plan, are given in 2nd plan. They are as follows:
• First, in the general category, the weightage given to elementary education was
drastically reduced (21%) and this was diverted to the university sector (9%
more) and the secondary education sector (6% more).
• Second, there was an increasing trend in the priority given to technical education
(5% more than the First Plan).
In the Third Five Year Plan, educatiorrwas provided Rs.5,600 million. The actual
expenditure, however, was Rs.5,890 million which was 6.87% of the total Plan
outlay. So far as weightage to various levels and types of education were concerned,
there were minor reductions in the expenditure of all the levels of general education,
whereas more importance was given to the spread of technical education.
20
/
In the Fourth Five YearPlan, an amount ofRs.8,220 million was allotted to education, Educational Finance:
out of which only Rs.7,860 millions were spent (i.e.5 .04% of the total Plan outlay). Meaning, Importance
andSoope
You would notice that, in comparison to the Third Five Year Plan, in the general
category of education, weightage given to university education increased from 15%
to 25%. Another important point to highlight here is the low priority given to technical
education (the weightage was lower than even that of the Second Five Year Plan).
So it can be concluded that there was expansion of general higher education at the
cost of technical education. '
The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) aimed at ensuring equality of opportunity as
part of the overall planning strategy to provide social justice, and establish closer
links between the pattern of education on the one hand and socio-economic
development on the other hand. The emphasis shifted from university education to
the expansion of elementary education. The reduction of weightage for technical
education was 1%. Moreover, there was a slight increase in the weightage given to
general education. In the Fifth Five Year Plan, the total allocated budget for the
educational sector was Rs.12,850 million (i.e., 3.27% of the total plan out lay), out
of which only Rs.9, 120 million (i.e., 2.31 %) were finally spent.
In the Sixth Five Year Plan, the total outlay for education was Rs.25,237 million,
constituting 2.60% of the total Plan outlay. The actual expenditure for the entire Plan
period amounted to Rs.29,430 million (i.e., 2.70% of the total outlay). Though,
there was reduction in the weightage given to technical education and university
education, and increasing priority attached to elementary education, the total weightage
given to the total general education showed an increasing trend. This difference was
due to more emphasis given to general education (an increase of2.20%) which
included adult and non-formal education.
The Seventh Five Year Plan allocated Rs.63,826 million to education, i.e. 3.55% of
the total plan outlay; while the actual expenditure came to be Rs.85,000 million (i.e.,
3.50%). Similarly, during the Eighth and Ninth Five Year Plans the total actual
expenditure was 2,12,120 million (4.90% of the total plan outlay) and Rs. 53520
million (6.20% of the total plan outlay) respectively. There was a special emphasize
given to elementary and secondary education at the cost oftertiary education.
Check Your Progress
19) Mention any two priorities areas given to various levels and types of education
in first fifth five years plan in India
6.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learnt about the meaning and the nature of criteriafor educational
finance, resource mobilisation and utilisation, financing of school versus tertiary
education, sources of educational finance in general and in India in particular,
expenditure on education in India, Plan-wise outlay on education in the country. 21
/
Management of Financial The financial resources depend upon both human and physical resources for further
Resources, utilisation and compareboth income and expenditure. Additional resources can be
generated by the government levying taxes on the private firms, and increasing the
fees for various courses at the higher education stage. Besides, the government
spending on education can be reduced by measures, such as privatisation, providing
education through open and distance learning and adopting cost effective methods.
There is a need to change the approach to funding education. It has to be recognized
that it is a public good, a merit good, a basic human right and an important instrument
of socio-economic equity, besides being an important investment in human
development as a whole, with intrinsic value of its own.

Select any educational institution. Study the financial authorities, scope and analyse.
Write a report highlighting the positive and limitations of their financial estimates of
an academic session.
6.11 REFERENCES
Barr, N. (2005) Financing Higher Education in Finance and Development, 42(2),
www.im£org
Bawa, M.S. (2001) Generation and Utilisation of Resources in ES- 317, Block 3,
IGNOU,p53
Benson, C. (1987) Educational financing, in Psacharopoulos, G. (Eds) Economics
of Education, Research & Studies, Pergamon Press, p.323
Blaug, M. (1970) An Introduction to the Economics of Education, Allen Lane,
The Penguin Press, p. 139.
Coombs, P. (1985) The world crises in education: The view form the eighties, New
York, Oxford, p. 137.
Gaba, A. (2006) Economics of Vocational Education, New Delhi: Aravali Books
International (P) Ltd.
Garg, v.P. (1989) Economics of Education, Metropolitan, New Delhi, p.58-85
Hinchiffe, J .K. (1987) Education and the labour market, in Psacharopoulos, G.
(Eds) Economics of Education, Research & Studies, Pergamon Press, p.141
Levin, H. M. (1987) School finance, in Psacharopoulos, G. (Eds) Economics of
Education, Research & Studies, Pergamon Press, p.426
NIEPA (1992) "Effective Utilisation of Resources in Education" Report of the
Proceedings and the Papers Presented in the Workshop on Effective Utilisation of
Resources in Education, 3-5 March.
Panda and Gaba (2008) Funding Distance Education: A Regional Perspective (Under
Publication).
Philip, H. Coombs (1970) What is Educational Planning? UNESCO International
Institute of Educational Planning, p.12-14.
Tilak, J.B.G (2003) Determinants of household expenditure on education in India in
Tilak,J.B.G. (Eds.) Financing Education in India, Current Issues and Changing
22 Perspectives, New Delhi: NIEPA& Ravi Books.
/
Tilak, IB.G. (2003) Public expenditure on Education in India, A review of trends Educational Finance:
and emerging Issues in Tilak, IB.G. (Eds.) Financing Education in India, Current Meaning, Importance
and Scope
Issues and Changing Perspectives, New Delhi: NIEPA& Ravi Books.
Tilak, J.B.G. (2004a) Free and compulsory education, Economic and Political
Weekly, February 14.
Tilak, IB.G. (2004b) Fees, autonomy and equity, Economic & Political Weekly,
February 28.
Tilak, J.B.G.(2004c) Public Subsidies in Education in India, Economic & Political

Economy, January 24.
Tilak, J.B.G. (2006) On allocating 6 per cent ofGDP to education, Economic &
Political Weekly, February, February 18.
Varghese, N.Y. (2000) Reforming Education Financing-http://www.India-
semmar.com
Wiseman, J (1987 ) Public finance in education, in Psacharopoulos, G. (Eds)

Economics of Education, Research & Studies, Pergamon Press, p.436
Yadav, Bhupendra Higher education: new dilemmas in Economic & Political
Weekly, February 28.
UNESCO (2003) South and East Asia: regional report. Montreal: Unesco Institute
for Statistics.
UNESCO (200Sa) Education trends in perspective: Analysis of the World Education

Indicators, Paris: UNESCO-UIS/OECD.
UNESCO (200Sb) EFA Global Monitoring Report. http://portal.unesco.org/

educationlenlev (Accessed 20.1.08).
1) Ref. section 6.3
2) a) Whether the level of provision of educational service is adequate
b) whether the distribution of educational resources is efficient, and
c) Whether the distribution of educational resources is equitable
3) Ref. section 6.1 & 6.3
4) Ref. section 6.4
S) Ref. section 6.S
6) a) Strengthening, and
b) Diversity
7) Ref. section 6.S
8) Ref. section 6.6
9) Ref. section 6.6
10) Ref. section 6.6
23
Management of Financial 11)" Ref. section 6.6
Resources'
12) The household investments in education are favoured on the following three
main grounds: .
i) Government does not have adequate resources to finance education and

hence households have to necessarily finance their education at least partly;
ii) It is believed by some that household expenditure, including specifically

fees, would improve efficiency in the system, by making the children more
serious with studies, and
ill) Household expenditure reflect both ability to pay and willingness to pay
for education. It is argued that the ability and willingness to pay need to be
fully exploited.
13) Ref. subsection 6.6.1
1~) Ref. subsection 6.6.1
17) Ref. subsection 6.7.1 &6.7.2
19) The main priorities in the First-Five- Year Plan were:
• to make available, in various fields, personnel of suitable calibre;
• to satisfy the cultural needs ofthe people;
• to stimulate the growth of facilities that would help in the development of

creative abilities, and
• to increase the capacity for enjoyment and to develop the spirit of critical
appreciation of arts, literature and other creative activities.
24
UNIT 7 COST AND BUDGETING
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Concept and need for Costing and Budgeting
7.4 Costing
7.5 Classification of Cost

7.5.1 On the Basis of Variability
7.5.2 On the Basis of Controllability
7.5.3 On the Basis of Relevance
7.5.4 On the Basis of Normality
7.5.5 Other costs concept.of Decision making
7.6 Some Basic Concepts

7.7 System of Costing
7.8 Techniques of Costing
7.9 Methods of Costing
7.10 Budgeting
7.11 Why Do We Need Budgets?

7.12 Types of Budgets
7.12.1 Master Budgets
7.12.2 Departmental Budgets
7.12.3 Fixed Budgets
7.12.4 Flexible Budgets
7.13 Budgetary Control
7.14 Let Us Sum Up

7.16 References
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Any organization (whether for profit or not-for-profit) strives to attain economic

efficiency.Economic efficiencybasicallyrefersto putting our limitedfinancialresources
(which have multiple uses) to their utmost utility so that we can maximize our
satisfaction. The very basis of economic efficiency lies in identifying what financial
resources do we have at our disposal and to what uses we need to put them to.
These resources have to be used very judiciously as most of the expenses that we
incur today have far reaching consequences. Therefore, it is very important for a
school or college head to study and identify the different types of costs incurred or
to be incurred by the institution and form a sound fiscal plan or budget. Such planning
requires estimating future costs and expenses, prioritization of needs and performing
cost-benefit analysis and then takir ri decisions. This in turn will enable the 25
/
Management of Financial institution to provide better educational services to the students and ensure economic
Resources and educational efficiency. In the following pages we will be dealing with the Costing
and Budgeting process.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit, the learners will be able to:
• defme and differentiate the terms cost and costing
• classify the costs into its various types
• differentiate between fixed costs and variable costs and discuss their impact on
decision-making
• identify the costs relating to any institution as controllable and non-controllable
costs
• discuss the impact of normal and abnormal costs on an institution
• take into account the opportunity cost of various alternatives pertaining to a
problem situation
• make sound decisions taking into account the replacement and differential costs
• explain Cost Unit, Cost Centre and CoM Driver
• elaborate upon the two basic systems of costing
• discuss the relevance of different techniques of costing for an institution
• discuss in detail the method of operating costing for educational institutions
• prepare Cost-Sheet for any educational institution given relevant data
• explain the concept of Budgeting

• elaborate upon the importance of preparing Budgets by an educational institution
• discuss the different types of Budgets

• discuss the role and importance ofBudgetaIy Control in an educational institution
7.3 CONCEPT AND NEED FOR COSTING AND

BUDGETING
Case:
ABC Educational Trust has been running a couple of schools for the past 15 years.
In this span of time their schools have earned a good brand name for themselves.
But they were confronted with number of queries like:
• How to keep a tab on the costs of the institution?

• How to manage funds effectively?
• How to decide which ventures to indulge into and what should be level of
operations?
• On what basis should these decisions be taken and by whom?
• . Also how can different senior people be involved in the decision-making process
26
so that the employee morale is high?
/
• How can we systematically arrange for funds for the more viable ventures? Cost and Budgeting
• Also how can we come to know if the institutions are actually doing well or
not?
In order to get an answer to these fundamental questions, they consulted a professional
accountant and the accountant advised them to study some details about costing
and budgeting in order to fmd answers to their questions. This unit is an endeavor to
make you familiar with the most basic concepts of costing and budgeting so as to
make them capable of taking sound decisions.
7.4 COSTING
According to the Chartered Institute of Management Accountant (CIMA),

Costing is the technique and process of ascertaining costs. It lays down basic
principles to be followed for ascertaining the cost of products, jobs, processes and
services. The process of costing is very dynamic and keeps on changing from time
to time and from industry to industry. The application of techniques helps the
accountant and management in deciding how to reduce and control various costs.
Now, Cost as we all know, refers to the amount of resources spent for producing a
product or for rendering a service. The resources may be tangible (eg. material,
equipment, transport etc.) or intangible (eg. Wages, salaries, rent, electricity
charges, etc.). The cost may be «fixed amount for a lease period or duration (eg
rent of the building) or variable (eg. stationary, electricity, petrol etc). We will
study about the different types of costs in following sections.
• Cost and Expense Distinguished: Expense for a year is the amount charged
to the final accounts for that particular year. When the economic benefit of an
outflow of resources is received and matched against revenue, it becomes an
expense. Whereas, 'Cost' is the amount of expenditure (actual or notional)
incurred on, or rather attributable to, a given thing. It refers to the resources
spent for producing a product or rendering a service. These resources may be
tangible or intangible. Payment for these resources may have been made in the
past, present or to be made in future. Computation of cost, to a large extent,
depends on (a) the type of industry or service and (b) the context in which it is
used. Some amount of volunteers render to the institution and benefit given in
exchange.
7.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ( OST
One of the most important inputs in managerial decision-making is cost. All major
decision-making includes a detailed analysis of costs involved. Therefore it becomes
imperative for managers/ principals/heads of educational institutions to have a
profound knowledge on different types of costs and their impact on the overall
functioning of the institution. The concept of cost is divided into the following
categories:
7.5.1 On the Basis of Variability

This criterion deals with the change in the level of operation of an institution; whether
the costs vary or not. There are four types of costs on the basis of variability as
discussed below-
• Fixed Costs- Costs which do not change with the increase or decrease in the
level of operation are Fixed Costs. The examples include rent of the institutional
27
/
Management of Financial premises, salary of permanent employees, depreciation on fixed assets etc.
Resources Following figure 7.1 illustrates the fixed cost:
I Average Fixed Cost I

I ToW Fixed Cost I I §I
~-------~ X ~--------~ X
Level of Operation Level of Operation
Figure 7.1 : Fixed Cost
From the above figure it is clear that the total amount of fixed cost remains the same
but as the level of operation increases, the cost per unit decreases and vice-versa.
Clue: In figure7.1 (a) the straight line parallel to x- axis shows that as the level of
operation increases fixed cost remains same. For example expenditure on land rent,
managerial salary remains constant in short run even if we increase the production
etc .. For example expenditure on land rent, managerial salary remains constant
even if we increase the production. So if in a school the salary of the manager is Rs.
20,000 p.m., for the total strength of2000 students, if the strength is raised to 3000
students, then also the salary is going to remain the same. In figure (B), a ~urve
sloping downwards shows that as we increase the production, cost per unit
decreases. Taking the same example, per student ,cost of manager's salary is Rs.
10. but if we increase the strength to 3000 students it will come down to Rs. 6.67
and if the strength is 4000 then it will be Rs. 5 per student. So we can see that per
unit cost keeps on decreasing if we keep on increasing the number of cost units.
You can take an example from government sector also. Like plan and non plan
expenditure is there. In figure 7.1, a curve sloping downwards shows that as we
increase the production, cost per unit decreases. Let us take an example. If we are
producing 100 books per unit cost is 1,00,000 and if production is increased to
200 books, pet unit cost is 50,000 and if300 books than 33,333.
• Variable Costs- There are costs like electricity charges, stationary expenses,
etc. in an institution which can vary if the productions increased by the producers.
These are variable costs. These costs vary directly in proportion to the change in
the level of activity. If the level of operation increases, these costs increase and if the
level of operation decreases the costs also decrease proportionately. For example,
if a school has two shiftsoperating in the morning and evening using the same facilities,
then the electricity, water, petrol consumption and school transport will increase,
these will influence the cost too. These are variable costs.
28
---_.--- ------
Cost and Budgeting
Total
Variable Cost
c A verage Variable Cost
c o
o S
S T
T
ixl
I Level of operation --l
Level of operation U
'a' 'b'
Figure 7.2: Variable cost
• Semi-Variable Costs- These are also known as mixed costs. These costs
increase with the increase in operation but not as proportionately and decrease
with the decrease in operation but less than proportionately. Practically, majority
of costs belong to this category. For example, telephone expenses consist of a
fixed rental charges irrespective of the calls made and variable charge consists
of number of calls made. This phenomenon can be shown with the help of the
following figure 7.3
Total Semi-
Variable Cost
c Fixed cost
o component
S
T
I Level of operation I
Figure 7.3 : Semi-Variable Cost
• Step Costs- These are the costs which remain fixed till a certain point of
operation. As soon as the level of operation exceeds this point, it leads to
increase in cost. Then the costs remain fixed for certain level of operation and
if we keep on increasing the level of operation, again the costs will increase.
The graph looks like steps as shown below:
29
Management of Financial
Resources o
I Total costs
C
o
S
T
Level of operation
Figure 7.4: Step Costs
Example: If as per norms there has to be one teacher for 30 students, in case we
take in another student, we have to hire another teacher and if we keep on adding
students, up till 60 students the costs will remain the same and after that it will
mcrease.
7.5.2 On the Basis of Controllability

Cost can be of two types: Controllable Costs and Non-controllable Costs.
Costs which can-be controlled or manipulated by the management are controllable
costs. Non-controllable costs are those costs whose size cannot be influenced
significantly by the management or any authority. Example for Controllable costs is
the number of trips of school bus can be controlled and this may reduce total number
of buses involved Examples for non-controllable costs could the rent of the building,
salaries ofthe permanent employees, etc.
7.5.3 On the Basis of Relevance

Costs can be classified into relevant and irrelevant costs with reference to decision-
making. Cost which is influenced by a decision is a relevant cost and hence important
for decision-making. Cost which is not influenced by decision-making is irrelevant.
Generally in schools teachers for all compulsory subjects have been appointed on
regular/full-time basis while music, arts and crafts and others hobby courses teachers
as part time or visiting teachers. Here the terminology relevant and irrelevant is in the
context of decision making by management.
7.5.4 On the Basis of Normality

The costs can be normal costs or abnormal costs. All costs which can be plarmed
or budgeted are normal costs. All the unanticipated costs, which carmot be foreseen
or budgeted are termed as abnormal costs .Examples: Normal- House keeping
facility charges regularly. Abnormal: Damage to the institutional building by some
calamities and the cost for repair is abnormal. Because it is unforeseen.
7.5.5 Other Costs Concept for Decision-Making:

• Opportunity Cost- Opportunity Cost represents the benefits foregone by not
choosing the second best alternative in favour of the best one. The benefit that
would have accrued if the second option was followed would be the opportunity
cost for the alternative selected. For example, foregone rent for using own
30
~~J _
/
\
/
premises would be the opportunity cost for using it for institutional purpose. Costand Budge"
These costs are not shown in financial statements but can be shown in cost-
sheets as they are hypothetical costs. For example if children from economically
poor families to be made to attend primary schools regularly, the management
has to create incentives comparable to the income these children have to forgo.
As one of the main reason for low enrollment is opportunity cost of child labour.
Here parental income is too less to afford child's education and other basic
needs.
• Out of Pocket Cost- Costs incurred or to be incurred in terms of outflow of
cash due to a particular decision is out of pocket cost. In situation where the
funds or resources are limited, such costs become very pertinent in the decision-
making process. Example: Sometimes the schools impose extra fees under .
construction of school building, organizing schools functions etc.
• Sunk Cost- Investment of cash resources in the past decision-making are
sunk costs. These cannot be changed in the future. Since, sunk costs are the
results of past commitments, they should be ignored for the purpose of decision-
making. The policy of management should be "don't cry over split milk'.
Example: The honorarium to be paid to the members fixed for attending meeting.
• Replacement Cost- Cost of replacing an existing machinery or equipment

with an identical one is replacement cost. It includes the cost price plus the
transportation cost or any other installation cost. For example, the school goes
for replacement of old computers with the new ones. The cost incur in this
activity is known as replacement cost.
• Differential Cost / Incremental Cost- This is the most important cost in
decision-making process. Differential cost is the additional cost which will be
incurred if the Principal or management chooses one alternative in place of
another. They are in that way extra or incremental costs caused by a particular
decision. For example, in the introduction of e-administration instead of manual
administration the amount to be spent is this cost.
Check Your Progress
1) What is Costing?
2) What is fixed costs? Mention two examples of fixed costs .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ! •••••••••
31
7.6 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
Resources
Costing is defined as the 'the Process of collecting, arranging, processing and

presenting costs. Let us now discuss some basic concepts of costing:
Cost Unit: It is a unit of quantity of product, service or time (or a combination of
these) in relation to which costs may be ascertained or expressed (Institute of Cost
and Management Accountants, London). For example, the cost unit in respect of
educational instifutions can be cost 'per student' .
I '
Cost Centre: It is location, person or item of equipment (or a group of these ) for
which costs may be ascertained and used for the purpose of control (CIMA, London) .
..A department, teaching or other personnel or equipment such as computers,
projectors, etc are some of the examples of different Cost Centres.
Cost Driver: Any activity which generates cost is a Cost Driver (CIMA). For
example, if a college want to initiate a new department, extra money or fmance is
required. Thus initiation of any project or working hours, power consumed,
kilometers covered by school bus, etc are comes under cost drivers.
Check Your Progress
3) What is variable cost? Write an example.
4) Give an example of cost centre for an educational organisation?
.......................................................................................................... , .
7.7 SYSTEM OF COSTING

As discussed earlier, Costing is the technique and process of ascertaining cost. The
cost data should be arranged and processed in a coordinated manner according to
one of the following systems:
Historical Costing
Historical costing also known as the Traditional Method, is the determination of
cost by actuals i.e. actual cost incurred. It is the process of accumulation of cost in
a systematic manner after the cost has been incurred. It is based on recorded data
32
(vouchers) and all costs are recorded on historical basis. Since, past is a guide to
/
future, Historical cost of a product can help us to project future cost. However, it Cost and Budgeting
does have some limitations. It is only a post-mortem of costs incurred. Also other
problem with this method is that the time gap between the period when the costs are
incurred and when the data is computed, may be long so it can lead to misleading
interpretations with respect to cost price of products or services. Also it does not
offer a Measure of Efficiency since it does not take into account the changes in price
level, change in technology, etc. Because of these limitations, Standard Costing came
into existence.
Standard Costing
It is a system in which the cost of a product is ascertained in advance on the basis
of certain predetermined standards. It deals with the costs which, are yet to be
incurred. They are rather should-be costs. Standard Costs are determined after a
detailed and systematic study of costs. Once the Standard Costs are determined,
the actual cost of actual output is compared with the standard cost of that output.
The difference between the two accounts for a 'favorable' or 'adverse' variance.
Hence, it is an important controlling device in the hands of management.
Check Your Progress
5) What are the different types of systems of costing?
7.8 TECHNIQUES OF COSTING

Costing techniques refer to the ways in which cost data is processed and related to
cost centers and cost units which in turn lead to ascertainment of cost of products
and services. The following are main techniques of costing.
Absorption Costing- It is also known as the orthodox or conventional method of
costing since it is the oldest method of costing. It includes charging of all costs, both
variable and fixed to operations, products end processes.
Marginal Costing- Under Marginal Costing, only the variable costs are treated as
Product Cost but fixed costs are treated as Period Costs. Therefore, only variable
costs are charged to products, operations and processes whereas, fixed overheads
are charged to the accounting
-,
period in which such costs are incurred.
Uniform Costing- It is cl technique in which standardized principles and methods of
cost accounting are employed by a number of undertakings related in some way for
example institution falling under same industry or institutions under same regulatory
authority. This technique facilitates comparisons between firms w.r.t.costs, controls,
pricing policies, comparative performance, etc.
Activity Based Accounting (ABC)- A form of cost accounting that focuses on the
costs of performing specific functions (processes, activities, tasks, etc.) rather than
on the costs of organizational units. ABC generates more accurate cost and
performance information related to specific products and services than is available
33
to managers through traditional cost, mting approaches. Activity Based Costing
------------------------------~--
/
Management of Financial is based on a simple principle: activities consume resources and customers
Resources consume activities. Associating the labor and overhead expenses of the business
with the activities that consume those resources provides valuable facts.ABC defines
categories of activityin overhead departments, which on the one hand are recognizable
to overhead department managers but, on the other hand, are driven by factors
(cost drivers) which are characteristic of products and other cost objects. This allows
a much higher proportion of total company cost to be allocated to products according
to causation. Ultimately, ABC provides accounting data points that can be used to
improve decision-making and identify cost improvement opportunities. The basic
building blocks for ABC are activity accounting spreadsheets for each element of a
business. The workload of each activity is measured resulting in a cost per output.
Check Your Progress
6) Enumerate any two main techniques of costing .
......... ~ .
7.9 METHODS OF COSTING

As you have read in the earlier section that costing is the 'the process of collecting,
arranging, processing and presenting costs.' The principles in every type of
costing are the same but the method of analyzing and presenting the costs differ with
the nature of business. The choice of a method of costing depends upon the nature
of product, industry or service. Though there are many methods like Job Costing,
Contract Costing, Batch Costing and ~ylliore, but we shall concentrate on
the method suitable for educational institutions which is Operating, Costing or
Service Costing. This method is suitable for enterprises indulging in rendering of
services like educational services, medical services, catering and hotel services,
transport companies etc. Operating Costing is used for ascertaining cost of all services
within an undertaking. In this method in order to calculate the cost per unit of service
rendered, the total cost incurred in a period on a service is divided by the total
number of cost units of the service. For educational institutions the cost unit can be
cost per student. Various costs can be categorized in various ways as follows:
Standing Costs- These costs are of fixed nature over a period oftime. They do not
change with the change in the number of students or the number of working days.
For examples include rent of building, insurance premium, salary of staff and other
permanent employees.
Maintenance Charges- These are of semi-variable nature and include costs such
as repair and maintenance of computers, other equipment, cars, buses, electrical
fittings, maintenance and upkeep oflawns, play grounds, laboratory perishable items,
etc .
. Operating or Running Costs- These costs relate to actual running of the institution
and include costs on stationary, refreshment, guest lectures, conduction of activities,
electricity, etc. These are directly proportional to the number of days or working
hours worked in the institution ..
.34
All these costs can be shown in the Cost Sheet as shown in the following format: Cost and Budgeting
COST SHEET
For ABC Institute of Education

--
PARTICULARS AMOUNT
(per annum)
Annual Total Cost:
Standing Costs-
1. Salaries of Staff
2. Rent
3. Insurance
4. Repairs and Maintenance
5. Upkeep of rooms-and lawns
Operating / Running / Variable Costs-
1. Power and electricity
2. Refreshments
3. Hospitality charges
4. Honorarium for special Lectures or Activities
5. Cost of running School buses, vans, cars etc.
6. Cost of up-gradation of equipment (eg. Computers)
7. Electrical Fittings
8. Depreciation of fixed assets
9. Any other cost
TOTAL COST
. Total Cost + Surplus

Therefore Cost per Student = --------=----
, Total number of Students
Example!:
From the following particulars, calculate the cost relating to a charitable school.
Also calculate cost per student assuming that the strength of the school is 1200 and
the school includes a surplus of 10% on cost as a means of meeting any contingency.
(1) Salaries of Staff Rs. 8,00,000 p.a.
(2) Wages of Class Attendant Rs. 4500 p.m.
(There is one attendant for every 2 classrooms)
(3) Lightingand Power:
a) For each classroom the lighting expenses are Rs. 200 p.m,
b) For offices and other rooms the lighting expenses are Rs.300p.m.
c) For Computer Lab the expenses are Rs.500p.m.
35'
Manag~ent of Financial (4) Repairs to Building Rs. 1,00,000 p.a.
Resources
(5) Curtains, Sheets and other supplies Rs. 48,000 p.a.
(6) Sundries Rs. 66,000 p.a.

(7) Maintenance and upkeep oflawns Rs. 10,000 p.a.
(It includes the wages of gardener also)
(8) Depreciation @ 5% is to be charged on building costing Rs. 40,00,000 p.a.
, There are 50 classrooms in the school and there are 10 other rooms including offices,
Principal's office and other laboratories. There is however only one computer
laboratory. '
COST SHEET OF A CHARITABLE SCHOOL
PARTICUALARS AMOUNT
(per annum) in Rs.
Total Annual Cost:
Fixed Costs:
Salaries 8,00,000
Wages of attendant (50 rooms / 2 = 25 attendants)
(25 attendants x Rs. 4,500 x 12 months) 1,35,000
Repairs to Building
Depreciation on Building @ 5% 1,00,000
Variable Costs: 2,00,000
Lighting Classrooms (50 x 200 x 12) = 1,20,000
Offices (10 x 300 x 12) = 36,000
Computer Lab. (500 x 12) = 6,000
Curtains, Sheets etc 1,62,000
Sundries 48,000
Maintenance and upkeep of lawns 66,000
10,000
TOTAL COST 15,21,000
Therefore, the cost per student will be
15,21,000 + 1,52,100
1200 = Rs. 1394.25 per student
Here an attempt has been made to acquaint you with the methods of costing and a
common format cost sheet of an educational organisation. Cost sheet of a charitable
school has been presented as an examplar.
·36:' -
..••. :f .• ,
--- ..- .~---

Check Your Progress Cost and Budgeting

7) Write the formula for calculating the cost per student.
8) What is standing cost? Giye an example of standing cost from a governm;nt

run school.
/
7.10 .BUDGETING
We all are familiar with the term Budgeting. Budgets are important tools of financial
planning. Every organisation needs to make basic decisions about how it will allocate
its resources. An explicit planning is required for setting goals, determining resource
allocation patterns, and deciding what program services will be provided. In wake
of these requirements, a budget is required to be prepared. A Budget can be defined
as a "comprehensive and coordinated plan, expressed infinancial terms,for
the operations and resources of an enterprise for some specified period in
future". Budgets are an important tool of financial planning of any organisation.
Budgeting, as a tool of planning, is closely related to the broader system of planning
in an organisation
ClMA, London has defined Budget in a very comprehensive manner as follows-

"Afinancial and/or quantitative statement prepared and approved prior to a
definedperiod of time, of the policy to he pursued during the period for the
purpose of attaining a given objective. It may include income, expenditure
and the employment of capital."
Main features of Budgets
The main features of budgets have been given below:

• It's aplan- Budget is a plan- comprehensive and coordinated, for a specific
period of time in future. It is prepared much in advance for the stipulated period.
37
/
Management of Financial • Expressed lnflnancial terms- Budgets are prepared in terms of monetary
Resources value such as rupee, dollar or any other currency. Expressing everything in
terms of money provides a common denominator to compare diverse activities
and operations.
• Specifiedfuture period of time- The period is usually one accounting period

but budget can also be drawn on a monthly or quarterly basis.
• May be related to incomes, expenses, capital receipts and capital

expenditures.
• Basically relatetoplanned events. They refer to policies and programmes to

be pursued by any organization. <,
• Lay down the objectives to be pursued by any organization and are an

important tool for planning, coordinating, directing, motivating and controlling
in the hands of management.
Check Your Progress
9) What are the key features of a budget?
7.11 WHY DO WE NEED BUDGETS?

In educational institution, Budgets serve as a guide to the conduct of operations and
a basis for evaluating actual results. Preparation of Budgets serves the following
purpose:
Statement of Expectations- A budget is a device to express goals or objectives to
be achieved in a stipulated period of time. They formulate targets of expected
performance. They explicitly communicate the expectations of the management
regarding goals or objectives to be pursued in the forthcoming period.
Communication- Budgets are generally prepared by the management of any
institution. By way of Budgets they can effectively communicate to their employees
and other stakeholders, the direction in which the efforts of the institution have to be
channelized.
Coordination- Amajor function of Budgeting is coordination. Coordination refers

to the operation of all departments in an institution in connivance with each other so
that there are no bottlenecks in the smooth functioning ofthe institution. Budgets
should be drafted in such a manner that the operations of different departments are
related to each other for the achievement of overall goal of institution.
38
.,
Controlling- Since a budget establishes expectations, defines the goals and the Cost and Budgeting
means of achieving them, it serves as a very effective controlling device. We can
judge the operations of different departments and individuals and compare them to
the standards. However, budget should not be regarded as a rigid requirement
ofperformance. It should be regarded as aplan, not as an ultimate commitment
of performance.
Check Your Progress
10) Explain the need of budgets by any educational institutions?
....................................... , .
.................................................................................................................... ..
7.12 TYPES OF BUDGETS
We shall now look into the different types of budgets. Please see the figure 7.5
Types of Budgets given in the following:
TYPES OF
BUDGETS
I I
On the basis On the basis
Of Of
Functionality Flexibility
Fixed or ;~.~
Master Budgets I- - Rigid ~ .
Budgets1¥fii
Departmental
Budgets - - FlexibleBudgets
<0 ,
Figure 7.5: Types of Budgets
Let's now discuss each of these briefly:

7.12.1 Master Budgets- An institution's Master Budget projects the overall financial
and operating plan for a forthcoming fiscal period. It is generally prepared annually.
It is very comprehensive in nature as it includes all possible sources of incomes and
expenditures. It is the end-product of all the budgeting process and is generally
prepared after all different Departmental Budgets have been prepared. An example
of a format of a Master Budget is given below: ,
39
Resources
PARTICULARS BUDGETED BUDGETED Difference
FIGURES FIGURES (in
In Rs In Rs percentage)
(prev. year) (current. year)
Estimated Fund Balance (Opening)
(A) Receipts and Revenues:
l. Fees
2. Donations
3. State or any other Grant
4. Rent received
5. Interest on deposits
6. Membership fee received
• 7. Any other receipts
(B) Disbursements and Expenses:
l. Regular employee salary (teaching)
2. Regular employee salary
(administrative staff)
3. Guest teacher or ad-hoc staff
4. Overtime salary
5. Insurance
6. Any special event expenses (fetes,
excursions, etc.)
7. Rent paid
8. Local travel
9. Different Departmental expenses
10. Repairs and maintenance
11. Stationary
12. Postage
13. Other supplies
14. Telephone expenses
15. Electricity
16. Equipment
17. Any other expense
Budgeted Net Surplus or Deficit (A - B)
This might have given you a better understanding of preparing budgets of any
organisation.
7.12.2 Departmental Budgets: Budgets of different departments must be prepared.

by their respective Departmental Heads. The different departments may be-
L Primary Section
1L Secondary Section
-. iii. Higher Secondary Section
IV. Senior Secondary Section
Or the institution may prepare subject-wise department budgets like:
a. Languages Department
b. Physical Sciences Department
c. Biological Sciences Department

40
d. Social Science Department Cost and Budgeting
Or inthe institutes of Higher Education, faculty-wise budgets may be prepared:
a. Arts Stream
b. Commerce Stream
c. Sciences- Physical and Biological
d. PhysicalEducation
e. Theatre and Dramatics etc
The format of a departmental budget is given below:
PARTICULARS BUDGETED BUDGETED Difference

FIGURES FIGURES (in
InRs InRs percentage)
(prev. year) (current year)
Receipts:
1. Grant I Donation
2. Fund Allocation
Expenditures: •
1. Laboratory Expenses
2. Library
3. Periodicals, Journals, etc
4. Teaching Material bought
5. Excursions or field trips etc
6. Seminars or work-shops conducted
7. Faculty Enrichment Programme
8. Any additional Inew activity
conducted during the period.
9. Any other expense
7.12.3 Fixed Budgets: A Fixed Budget is prepared for a fixed level of anticipated
operation.According to CIMA "a budget which is designed to remain unchanged
irrespective of the level of activity actually attained is a fixed budget". It is
based on the assumption that an institution can accurately and precisely forecast the
level of its operation in a specified period of time, The format of budgets discussed
under Master and Departmental Budgets cane taken up as examples of fixed
budgets.
7.12.4 Flexible Budgets: These are also known as Variable or Sliding or

Dynamic Budgets. It is geared towards reflecting different levels of operation and
activities. The merit of flexible budgets is that instead of one estimate it contains
several estimates or plan in different conditions or situations. It works on the
assumption that since future is unpredictable, therefore operations of an institution
cannot be predicted with absolute certainty. Therefore, flexible budgets provide a
more realistic basis of budgeting. So we can say that as a tool of planning and
control, they are superior to fixed budgets as they present costs at different levels of
activities. The format is discussed as under:
41
Management ofFinaocial
Resources .----P-A-R-T-I-C-U-L-A-R-S-----.--P-E-S-S-IM-IS-T-IC--.--M-O-S=T----,--O-=-P=-T=I=-M-=I-=ST=I=-=C::-1
LIKELY
A. Revenues
B. Fixed Costs
C. Variable Costs
Check Yours Progress

11) What is budget?
12) What is fixed budget?
7.13 BUDGETARY CONTROL

--~-----------------
Budgetary Control is a system of managfjment and accounting control by which
all operations - revenues and expenditures are forecasted as far ahead as
possible and the actual results when known are compared with the budget
estimates. This implies after the stipulated period, for which budgets were drawn, is
over, the actual results are compared to the estimates and the variance is calculated ..
Also the reasons for deviations are looked into. Therefore, the use of budget and
the budgetary process for planning, coordination and control is known as budgetary
control.
Advantages of Budgetary Control
"
A system of budgetary control is very important for any institution to work in a
systematic and coordinated marmer. It helps the management in its different functions
at various stages like Planning, Organizing, Coordinating, Directing, Motivating and
Controlling. The main points are summarized as under-
• Budgets help in fostering a systematic and disciplined approach to problem-

solving based on comprehensive advance planning.
• It forces the management to identify the objectives, prioritize them and work
on them in an orderly manner. _
42
-------~~'--------------------.--------------------------------------
/
• Budgets invariably bring efficiency in any organisation and it helps as a great Cost and Budgeting
tool offinancial discipline.
• It forces the institution to foresee problems well in advance and hence ways
and means of dealing with them.
• It helps in better coordination between different levels of management and
different departments.
• It boosts the spirit of team cooperativeness.
• It helps in making optimum use of resources- their allocation and utilization.
• It is also a great motivational tool.
• It provides ground to management to reintrospect their future plans, policies
and revise and reformulate them.
• They also help in bringing about uniformity in the entire system of functioning of
the institution.
Check Your Progress

13) Explain the term budgetary control?
14) Write any two advantages of budgetary control?
7.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we dealt with cost and budgeting. As we know that every institution or
organizationtries to raise the financial resources. To maximize this it is every institution
to calculate the institutional cost and budgeting. Actually cost refers to the amount of
resources expense for producing a product or for rendering a service, the resources
may be material equipment, transport, salaries, rent, power, etc. On the other hand
budgeting is an important tools of financial planning. It is an important task of any
organization or institutions to prepare a financial budget at preliminary level for a
stipulated period. We focused on how an institution will develop with the help of
costing and budgeting methods. In the advancement of the society, it is very necessary
to upholding the institution, the principal would keep in mind core concept of costing
and budgeting teaching and methods, and modification or replacement could be
most welcome.
43
Resources
Select any educational institution. Study thefinancial budget heads and analyse them.
Write a report highlighting the advantages and limitations of their financial estimates
of an academic year.
7.16 REFERENCES
Hansen, Don Rand Mowen, Maryanne M.; Cost Management-Accounting and
Control; Forth Edition; South- Western- Thompson Learning; USA; 2003.
Khan, M.Y.and Jain, P.K.; Management Accounting; Third Edition; Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Ltd.; New Delhi;
Lalli, William R. (Editor); Handbook of Budgeting- Fifth Edition; John Wiley and
Sons. Inc; New Jersey; 2003
Lucey, T.; Management Accounting; Forth Edition; Continnum; Lomdon; 1996.
Mittal, D.K.; Cost and Management Accounting; Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd.;
New Delhi; 2007.
Morse, Weyne J. and et.al.; Management Accounting- A Strategic Approach;
Second Edition; South-Western College Publishing; USA; 2000
Murti, V.G.K.; Budgeting- A Guide for Practicing Managers; Sterling Publishers
Private Ltd.; New Delhi; 1984
Nigam, B.M. Lall and Jain, I.C.; Cost Accounting- An Introduction; Prentice-Hall
ofIndia Private Ltd.; New Delhi; 2001

1) According to CIMA, costing is the technique and process of asserting cost. It
is the process of estimating cost for items in a programme.
2) Cost which do not change with the increase or decrease in the level of operation
are fixed cost. The examples includes rent of premises, salary of permanent
employees,etc.
4) Ref. section 7.6
5) a) Historical costing
b) Standard costing
6) a) Absorption costing
b) Marginal costing
c) Uniform costing
- Total Cost +Surplus

7) Cost per Student = .
I Total number of students
8) Ref. section 7.9
44
9) The main features of budgets have been given below:
• It's a plan- Budget is a plan- comprehensive and coordinated, for a specific Cost and Budgeting
period of time in future. It is prepared much in advance for the stipulated period.
• Expressed infinancial terms- Budgets are prepared in terms of monetary
value such as rupee, dollar or any other currency. Expressing everything in
terms of money provides a common denominator to compare diverse activities
and operations.
• Speclfiedfuture period of time- The period is usually one accounting period
but budget can also be drawn on a monthly or quarterly basis.
• May be related to incomes, expenses, cap)tal receipts and capital
expenditures.
• Basically relate to planned events. They refer to policies and programmes to

be pursued by any organization.
• Lay down the objectives to be pursued by any organization and are an
important tool for planning, coordinating, directing, motivating and controlling
in the hands of management.
10) In educational institution, Budgets serve as a guide to the conduct of operations
and a basis for evaluating actual results. Preparation of Budgets serves the
following purpose:
Statement of Expectations- A budget is a device to express goals or objectives to
be achieved in a stipulated period of time. They formulate targets of expected
performance. They explicitly communicate the expectations of the management
regarding goals or objectives to be pursued in the forthcoming period.
Communication- Budgets are generally prepared by the management of any
institution. By way of Budgets they can effectively communicate to their employees
and other stakeholders, the direction in which the efforts of the institution have to be
channelized..
Coordination- A major function of Budgeting is coordination. Coordination refers

to the operation of all departments in an institution in connivance with each other so
that there are no bottlenecks in the smooth functioning of the institution. Budgets
should be drafted in such a manner that the operations of different departments are
related to each other for the achievement of overall goal of institution.
Controlling- Since a budget establishes expectations, defines the goals and the
means of achieving them, it serves as a very effective controlling device. We can
judge the operations of different departments and individuals and compare them to
the standards. However, budget should not be regarded as a rigid requirement
ofperformance. It should be regarded as a plan, not as an ultimate commitment
of performance.
11) Budgets are important tools of financial planning. A budget can be defined as a
comprehensive and coordinated plan, expressed in financial terms, for the
operations and resources of an organisation for the operations and resources
of an enterprise for some specified period in future. According to lCMA, " A
financial and for quantitative statement prepared and approved prior to a defined
period of time, of the policy to be pursued during the period for the purpose of
attaining a given objective. It may include income, expenditure and the
employment of capital"
45
Management of Financial 12) A fixed budget is prepared for a fixed level of anticipated operation. According
Resources to CIMA" a budget which is designed to remain unchanged irrespective of the
level of activity actually attained is a fixed budget.
13. Budgetary control is a system of management and accounting control by which
all operations - revenues and expenditures are forecasted as far ahead as
possible and the actual results when known are compared with the budget
estimates. This implies after the stipulated period, for which budgets where
drawn is over, the actual results are compared to the estimates and the variance
is calculated. Also the reasons for deviation are looked into. Therefore, the use
of budget and the budgetary process for planning and control is known as
budgetary control.
14. (i) Budgets help in fostering a systematic and disciplined approach to
problem-solving based on comprehensive advance planning.
(ii) It forces the management to identify the objectives, prioritize them and
work on them in an orderly manner.
(iii) Budgets invariably bring efficiency in any organisation and it helps as a
great tool of financial discipline.
(iv) It forces the institution to foresee problems well in advance and hence
ways and means of dealing with them.
(v) It helps in better coordination between different levels of management
and different departments.
(vi) It boosts the spirit ofteam cooperativeness.
(vii) Ithelps in making optimum use of resources- their allocation and utilization,
(viii)It is also a great motivational tool.

(ix) It provides ground to management to reintrospect their future plans, policies
and revise and reformulate them.
(x) They alsohelp inbringingaboutunifonnity inthe entiresystemoffunctioning
of the institution.
-.
46
UNIT 8 ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Accounting- The Concept
8.3.1 Basic Accounting Concept
8.32 The Money Measurement Concept
8.3.3 The Cost Principle
8.3.4 The Matching Principle
8.3.5 The Going - Concern Concept
8.3.6 The Realization Concept
8.3.7 The Accrual Concept
8.3.8 The Conservatism or Prudence Conce~t
8.3.9 The Convention of full Disclosure
8.3.10 The Dual Aspect Concept
8.4 The BasicAccounting Equation
8.4.1 Debits and Credits
8.4.2 Types of Accounts and Debit Credit Rules
8.5 Few Basic Concepts to be Understood
8.5.1 Income Measurement
8.52 Capital and Revenue Items
8.5.3 Deferred Revenue Expenditure
8.6 The Accounting Cycle
8.6.1 Joumal- Book of Original Entry
8.6.2 Ledger: Classifying Transactions
8.6.3 Trial Balance
8.7
8.7.1 Receipt and Payments Alc
8.7.2 Income and Expenditure Alc
8.7.3 Balance Sheet
"'
Financial Statement to be Prepared At The End Of The Year
'-
I
8.8 Auditing Concept

8.9 Objectives of Auditing
8.10 Types of Audit
8.11 Audit Report
8.12 Let Us Sum Up
8.14 References
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Any organization involved in any kind of economic activity has to maintain a systematic
record of all the day-to-day transactions so as to keep a track on the financial health
of the organization. Accounting is that branch of knowledge which provides us ways
and means of recording all the transactions pertaining to financial character in an
47
organization in a systematic and orderly manner. And the process of Auditing ensures
/
Management of Financial that 'accounts are maintained according to accepted norms. In the following pages
Resources we will study the basic postulates and practices of accounting and auditing with
special reference to the educational institutions.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the student will be able to:
• explain the meaning and need of accounting;
• define the basic concepts of accounting and discuss their importance;
• analyze the importance of Accounting Equation and the impact of it on various
transactions;
• discuss the dual aspect of debit and credit for every transaction and the
importance of doing so;
• understand the process of Accounting Cycle;
• prepare Journal, Ledger and Trial Balance from any given transactions;
• prepare Financial Statements for any educational institution;
• discuss upon the concept and importance of auditing;
• state the objectives of auditing;
• discuss the scope and types of auditing; and
• discuss the importance of audit report.
8.3 ACCOUNTING - THE CONCEPT

A complete and comprehensive definition of Accounting has been given by the
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICpA) as follows:
" Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant
manner and in terms of money transactions and events which are, in part at
least of financial character and interpreting the results thereof"
Accounting is often referred to as the "language of business". Accounting is the
common language used to communicate financial information to individuals,
organisations, Governmental agencies and so on about the various aspects of business
and its financial position. Accounting information is needed by two sets of users-
internal and external. Internal users are associated with management of the concern
for which information is sought to be gathered and surveyed and external users
\ \
consist of several explicit groups. The users of accounting information are specified
as follows:
USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION I

• INTERNAL USERS • EXTERNAL USERS
- Board of Directors - Investors
- Partners - Lenders
- Managers - Suppliers
- officers - Governmental
agencies
- Employees
- Customers
- Regulatory authorities
- Legislators
48 - Researchers
In a nut shell we can say that - Accounting and Auditing
• Accounting is a science as well as an art but more importantly it is a profession.

• The process of accounting includes the steps of recording, classifying and
summarizing financial transactions and events.
• The process of accounting is executed based on certain rules, principles and

concepts.
• The process of accounting takes place in certain books known as the' Books
ofAccounts' and the major Books of Accounts are Journal, Cash Book, Ledger
etc.
• Accounting is used to communicate financial information to its various users.
• The accountants have to meet the requirement of various laws such as Companies
Act, Income Tax Act and laws framed by other regulatory bodies from time to
time.
• Accounting enables to forecast the future performance and financial position

using past accounting information and it provides vital data on the basis of
which the managers take vital decisions.
A Story for Relating to Accounting Basics
We will present the basics of accounting through a story of a person new to

field of accounting. The person is Vipin Chandra=a savvy man who is a
visionary and has a number of ideas relating to the ways in which an educational
institution can be made and run successfully. He along with his associates
form a society and plan to run an educational institution. They all are hard
workers, but admit that they are not comfortable with matters of accounting.
They want to understand the financial statements prepared in an educational
institution and wants their school to be on the top. Their attorney recommends
Ms. Nair, an accountant who can help them understand the nitty-gritty of
accounting. In his first meeting with Ms. Nair; Vipin Chandra asks her for an
overview of accounting procedures, basic accounting procedures, and the
different financial statements to be prepared. Let us briefly discuss some of the
very basic concepts on which the whole system of accounting is based.
8.3.1 Basic Accounting Concepts

Accounting is not an exact science like Phys~csor Mathematics where methods can
be validated by natural laws. The process of accounting is executed on the basis of
certain principles, rules and concepts. Therefore, a set of Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles (GAAP) provide a unity of understanding and also unity of
approach in the practice of accounting. The term 'generally accepted' means that
these principles must have solid support of the professional accounting bodies like
lCAl (Institute of Chartered Accountants ofIndia). Now let us briefly discuss the
basic accounting concepts:
Tlte Entity Concept
Fundamental Ouestion:
Mr, Vipin Chandra and his associates have invested money, in a school. And
since the school belongs to them so are they different financially from the
school?
49
Management of Financial Ms. Nair makes them understand that this question basically relates to a fundamental
Resources concept also known as "Separate Entity Concept". It says that the business and its
owners are two separate or distinct entities. Both of them have their separate
accounting existence. The owners are treated as creditors for the investment they
have made in the business. The capital of the owners is always treated as a liability
of the business. Each business has its own earnings and revenues and incurs its own
expenses and owns its own assets and liabilities. So the school has separate legal
existence from its owners.
Check Your Progress
1) Mention two internal and external users of accounting.
2) What is GAAP ?
...................................................................................................................
,
8.3.2 .....
The Money Measurement Concept
Fundamental Question:
----------------~
Do the books of accounts take into consideration all events and happenings
in an organization? For e.g anew directorjoining or a teacher/principalleaving?
No, even if an important event like joining or leaving of a director occur, it will not
find a place in the books of accounts. Of course, the financial aspect ofit like Payment
of gratuity, leave encashment etc. will be recorded. Ms. Nair explains that Money
Measurement Concept is an assumption that all business transactions are expressed
and recorded in terms of money. This means that money is the only media which
can be used to recOI~dfinancial transactions. And so only those transactions and
events which can be measured in terms of money can be recorded in the books of
accounts.
8.3.3 The Cost Principle

If Mr. Chandra purchases a building for the institution valued at Rs. 15 lakhs
from a builder friend at Rs. 12 lakhs, at what price will it be recorded in the
books of accounts?
According to this principle, an asset is recorded in the books at the price paid for it
and not at its market value. In accounting there is not place for personal opinions as
50
far as the value of transactions is concerned. The effects of this cost concept are:
1. All assets are valued at Cost Value or the Book Value (which is the cost value Accounting and Auditing
minus the depreciation).
2. The items which have no cost are ignored, i.e. ifthe business has not paid for
an asset, it does not appear in the books of accounts.
8.3.4 The Matching Principle

Fu.ndamental Question:
If an institution purchases furniture and equipment for Rs. 15 lakhs in 2005

which is expected to function for the next 10 years, should the whole amount
ofRs. 15 lakhs be charged in the books of accounts of2005?
No, the cost of the furniture will be divided over a span of 10 years that is its life
span. This principle matches the earnings for a period with the expenses incurred in
order to make those revenues. This principle is applied while calculating profit or
loss for an accounting period. Calculation of income or profit is a matter of matching
the revenues with the respective expenses and we have to take into account all
costs- direct and indirect in order to arrive at the true value of profit.
So, if we have purchased an asset, which we are likely to be used for a considerable
number of years to come, ifthe entire cost is considered in the first year's income
statement, there will be a huge burden in the income statement of~he first year and
no burden at all in the subsequent years (whereas the firm is earning revenues on
account of usage of this asset). In other words, there will a mismatch between the
revenue earned from the asset and the cost incurred for the machine. The matching
principle matches the earnings for the period and the expenses incurred to earn
these earnings. So the cost of the asset has to be allocated to its total span of useful
years.
8.3.5 The Going-Concern Concept

Ms. Nair also explained this simple but important concept that an enterprise or an
accounting entity has an endless life. It means that if an organisation is set-up, the
purpose is to run it forever. It will not be dissolved or liquidated in the immediate
future until and unless there is a clear evidence to the contrary. This assumption or
concept is important as it provides for sound accounting oflong-term or fixed assets.
It also facilitates classification of assets and liabilities into short-term and long-term.
8.3.6 The Realization Concept

- Ms.Nair advised Mr. Chandra to keep the Realization concept in mind while
preparing the final financial statements at the end of the financial year. We know that
income of any organisation is measured as the excess of revenues over expenses.
However, it is not always easy to determine when the revenue should be considered
as realized? Is it when the goods or services are produced or when an order is
received by the customer or when the goods or services are delivered or accepted
by the customer or when the cash is received from himlher. There can be huge time-
gap between the performances of these activities so Realization concept states that
revenue should be recognized when it has been realized i.e. when the transaction
gives a legal right to the receipt of money. So we can record a revenue.or an
earning as revenue of that period in the books if either the cash has been received
against the transaction or an outside party has promised to pay.This is simple playing
safe and not taking a risk of recording a revenue which is not earned.
51
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/
Management of Financial 8.3.7 The Accrual Concept
Resources
If an income is earned but not received, should we take into account such
income?
Again this concept is in consonance with the previous concept. The accrual concept
is a very important accounting system which recognizes revenues and expenses as
they are earned or incurred respectively without regard to the date of receipt of
payment. In the income statement of an organisation revenues and expenses are
recognized as they are earned or incurred respectively and it is immaterial whether
the cash has changed hands or not. The essence of this concept is mere promise on
the part of customer to pay money for services rendered is considered a revenue
and similarly promise on the part of organization to make payment for salaries, rent
etc is considered as an expense.
8.~.8 The Conservatism or Prudence Concept

Ms. Nair also told him that a good accountant is always very conservative in his/her
approach. Conservatism is a prudent reaction to uncertainty to ensure that
uncertainties and risks inherent in business situations are adequately considered.
The rule ofthumb is to "anticipate no gains but to provide/or all losses and if
in doubt, write them off". This concept requires that assets and profits should not
be overstated and revenues should never be anticipated; being recognized only when
there is reasonable certainty about its realization. At the same time provision must
be made for all possible liabilities, whether the amount is known with certainty or is
based on estimation. A prominent example of the treatment of this concept in accounts
is that inventory or stock is valued at cost price or market price whichever is less.
Also ifthere is a debt which is not likely to be realizable, a provision for bad and
doubtful debts is set aside to meet any contingency.
8.3.9 ....The Convention of Full Disclosure

Accountants are unanimous that there should be full, fair and adequate disclosure of
all financial information. Thus this concept pertains to communication and reporting
of accounting and non-accounting information to various direct and indirect users
for the purpose of their analysis and decision-making. It implies that no information
of substance or interest to the average investor will be omitted or concealed.
Mr. Chandra purchased furniture worth Rs. 5 lakhs for the schooL Now how
this transaction should be recorded- as furniture added or as cash going out
of the organisation?
8.3.10 The Dual Aspect Concept:

This is an extremely important concept. The understanding of the whole accounting
process is based upon this concept. According to this each and every transaction
has dual aspect and in the books of accounts both the aspects have to be shown
properly. For an example, Mr. Chandra and his associates when starting the school
invested a sum ofRs. 20 lakhs cash. Now as per the entity concept, we know that
Mr. Chandra and his institution are two distinct accounting entities. Since we are
trying to understand accounting for institutions, so we will be discussing the books
of accounts of the school or the institution. In the books of accounts ofthe school
52
the transaction would be
Cash received/ram Mr. Chandra and associates Rs.20,OO,OOOas capital. Accounting and Auditing
We can see that it has got a dual aspect: (1) cash coming in and (2) institution
owning Rs. 20 lakhs to it proprietors i.e. the society formed.
Similarly, if furniture worth Rs. 50,000 has been purchased, again the two aspects
would be (1) Rs. 15,000 paid as cash and (2) furniture coming in. We will discuss
this in detail in the following pages.
Check Your Progress
Note : .a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

3) What is Separate Entity concept in response to business?
4) What is the process of Accounting?
5) Who are the users of accounting information?
8.4 THE BASIC ACCOUNTING EQUATION

. "
In a business organization the total of assets is always equal to its liabilities.

This is the basic Accounting Equation. Each and every transaction will have an ,
impact on the equation but in every case assets will always be equal to liabilities. Let
us observe the above situation:, ,
Mr Chandra investing Rs. 20 lakhs in the institution: this implies there is cash coming
in and the business owing the amount to Mr Chandra, the proprietor.
So Assets = Liabilities
Therefore, Cash (20 Lakhs) Owners' claim/Capital

(Rs. 20 lakhs)
Further, furniture was purchased for Rs. 5 lakhs. Since furniture is an asset, we can
show it as:
53
Management of Financial Assets = Liabilities
Resources
Cash (20,00,000- 5,00,000)
+Furniture (5,00,000)
Rs.20,00,000
Now further Laboratory Equipment worth Rs. 7,00,000 was purchased. Again, we
know that Laboratory Equipments are assets for the organisation, we can show the
changes in the equation as under:
Assets = Liabilities
Cash (15,00,000-7,00,000)
+Furniture (5,00,000)
+ Lab. Equipment (7,00,000) Rs. 20,00,000
NOTE: There has been no change in the value of Liabilities as there has been no
transaction which affects the state of Liabilities.
Now say, the institution's library needs to be set up and the cost of setting up the
library comes out to be Rs. 8,00,000. Mr. Chandra decides to take a loan for the
purpose from a bank. The effect on the equation would be:
Assets Liabilities
Cash 16,00,000 (8,00,000+ 8,00,000) Capital (20,00,000)

+ Furniture ( 5,00,000) + Bank Loan (8,00,000)
+ Lab. Equipment (7,00,000) Therefore, TOTAL LIABILITIES = 28,00,000
Therefore, TOTAL ASSETS = 28,00,000
In order to show both the aspects of any transaction, we follow the double entry
system. Double entry is a simple yet powerful concept: each and every one of a
company's transactions will result in an amount recorded into at least two ofthe
accounts in the accounting system where one account is debited and the other is
credited.
8.4.1 Debits and Credits

Ms N air introduced them to very important concepts of debit and credit used in the
double entry accounting. Rather than using a single column for each account and
entering some numbers as positive and 'others as negative, we use two columns for
each account. Whether the entry increases or decreases the account is determined
by choice of the column in which it is entered. Entries in the left column are referred
to as debits, and entries in the right column are referred to as credits. Two accounts
always are affected by each transaction, and one of those entries must be a debit
and the other must be a credit of equal amount. In accounting, the verbs "debit" and
"credit" have the following meanings:
DEBIT CREDIT
Means "enter in the left column of' Means "enter in the right column of'
8.4.2 Types of Accounts and the Debit-Credit Rules

The rules of Debit and Credit can be explained further according to different of
54
accounts. All accounts can be classified as either a RealAccount, or a Nominal
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Account or a PersonalAccount. And all these different types of accounts have Accounting and Auditing
their own rules of debit and credit as explained under:
S.No. TYPE OF DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES RULE OF
ACCOUNT DEBITAND
CREDIT
1. Personal Account Account of persons- Proprietor's Debit the
natural or artificial. A Alc, Seller's receiver and
person can either give Alc,a credit the giver.
or receive something. Creditor's Alc
2. Real or Property Account of things CashAlc, Debit what

Account which are real but Building Alc, comes in and
lifeless. A thing may Equipment Alc, credit what goes
either come into the Machinery Alc out.
business through etc.
buying or go out of it
though selling.
3. Nominal or These are accounts of Wages Alc, Debit all
Ficticious Account expenses, losses or Interest Alc, expenses and
gains and incomes. Salaries Alc, losses and
Fees Alc, Mise. Credit all
Expenses Alc, incomes and
Donations Alc gains.
etc.
Another very important step in understanding Accountancy is to understand a few

very significant and basic concepts which are explained below:
8.5 FEW BASIC CONCEPTS TO BE UNDERSTOOD
8.5.1 Income Measurement

Income is a synonym ofNet Profit but in case of educational institutions, since most
of them are non-profit organisations, we do not use the term profit. Also in the
further pages we would be dealing with the accounts as per the norms of Not -for-
Profit Organisations. Income is the increase in the net worth of an organisation.
Net worth is calculated by subtracting the outside liabilities from the assets of the
organisation. ~"'.•...••.
So, Net Worth == Assets - Outside Liabilities
And if we subtract the net worth of a concern in the beginning of the accounting
period and at the end, the difference would be the income for the period. For
calculating the income of the period we prepare the Income and ExpenditureAlc.
8.5.2 Capital and Revenue Items

It is very important to distinguish between the capital and revenue items. The term
'Revenue Items' is different from the concept of revenue. Revenue indicates earnings
for an organization like in case of an educational institution, it can be fees, donations,
and other funds received. On the other hand revenue items indicate revenue expenses
and revenue receipts. Let us discuss each ofthem in detail: 55
/
Management of Financial • Capital Items: They include capital expenditures and capital receipts. Capital
Resources expenditure is an expenditure which.is incurred (i) to buy a fixed asset, (ii)
increase the useful life of fixed asset, (iii) increase the productivity of fixed
assets, or (iv) making an asset usable or reusable. Capital Receipts are those
receipts which are collected from the sale of old fixed assets, sale of investments,
issue of shares, debentures or raising loans etc. These are of non-recurring
nature. They are basically shown in the Balance Sheet.
• Revenue Items: Revenue expenses are those expenses which are incurred in
the usual course of business on a regular basis. These are of recurring nature.
For e.g. payment of salaries, wages, rent, taxes, insurance etc. Revenue
incomes are those which are collected in usual course of business on regular
basis. e.g fees collected, interest earned, commission received, donations
received etc. These items are taken into consideration while calculating the
income for an accounting period.
8.5.3 Deferred Revenue Expenditure

Sometimes, the amount involved in the revenue expenditure is very heavy. If such
expenditure is charged fully in the income statement of a year, it will result in heavy
reduction of profit of that year. Therefore, only a part of such expenditure is shown
in the income statement every year and the balance is shown in the balance sheet
since their benefit is likely to accrue in many years to come. The examples may be
expenditure on advertisement etc.
Check Your Progress
6) Explain the term income measurement.
...................................................................................................................
..•.
7) Differentiate between capital and revenue items .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• >•••••••
8.6 THE ACCOUNTING CYCLE

Now let us have a look at the basic accounting cycle. The sequence of activities
beginning with the occurrence of a transaction is known as the accounting cycle.
This process is shown in the following Figure 8.1.
56
Accounting and Auditing
Jd~ptify the.;::rrans~.~tion
Identify the evenfas a transaction
and generate the source document.
Analyze the Transaction

Determine the transactionamount,
wbich accounjsare aft~9te9:';%4'
and'in which direction. ~.
r""~-~-""'··""--""""""·""""'<~""'''''''''''~'-Y'~~''~~~·''''''=''~''T'''''''"''''-l
~ Journal Entries" . I
! The transaction is re~orded in J
t.. }~e journ:~!~$~~~!ji~~~t~f~~J
....+0R';r:>'0;'vw":'i\iifi.">j
lli0·R''''···f;····· ..·c- ·T27HJV..~''T\'i\~.;;W·
Trial Balance I
A trial balance is calculated I
;
to verify that the sum of the debits

o re .
Financial Statements
The financial statements
are prepared in order to ascertain income or loss for the period.
Figure 8.1: Steps in the Accounting Cycle
Study the Accounting Cycle carefully. Let us now discuss each of these steps in
some detail. There are two records very significant in the accounting process. These
are Journal and Ledger. After preparing these records, we prepare the Trial
Balance and at the end of the financial year, we prepare the Final Accounts. Each
of these steps are discussed below in detail.
8.6.1 Journal- book of original entry

Having discussed the concepts of Debit and Credit and the Accounting Cycle, let us
57
Management of Financial first of all discuss the veryfirst and important hook of original entry i.e. Journal.
Resources The format of'Joumal is given below:
Journal
In the books of
-----------------
J.V. Date Particulars L.F. Amount
No.
Debit Credit
'.
In the format, in the first column we note down the number of Journal Voucher. In
this voucher the transaction is shown exactly the way it is recorded in Journal. The
Journal Voucher (JV) is signed by the authorized signatories of each department and
is supported by actual vouchers like bills, receipts etc. These JV become the
authenticated document forrecording all transaction in the Journal. The next column
is the date on which the JV is prepared. In the 'Particulars" column we write the
accounts being affected by the transaction. The next column is the Ledger Folio
(LF). We know that after the transactions are recorded in Journal, next they are
transferred to Ledger. So LF is the page on which a transaction is classified in the
ledger. It is for reference sake and is filled up at the time of preparing ledger. In the
next two columns i.e. debit (Dr.) and credit (Cr.) we note down the dual aspect of
each transaction.
8.6.2 ....
Ledger : Classifying Transactions
This is the second stage in the accounting process in which we classify the
transactions into various different accounts. Now the question arises why do
we need to classify accounts? We know that during a month we write down all the
transactions taking place in the Journal. So if we want to know how much expenses
we have incurred on stationary or the total amount offees collected during the
month, or the amount of cash available with the school, this information is not there
in the Journal.
So in Ledger all transactions' pertaining to a single account are accumulated at one
place. For example, all transactions pertaining to cash will be shown in the Cash AI
c, all transactions pertaining to stationary will be shown in one account. The format
of an account is given as under:
Capital Ale or Proprietor's Funds Ale
Dr. Cr.
DATE PARTICULARS IF. AMOUNT DATE PARTICULARS J.F. AMOUNT
58
The account has two sides-left hand side is known as Debit (Dr.) side and right Accounting and Auditing
hand side is the Credit (Cr.) side. This is also known as T-shapedAccount. There
are similar columns on both Dr and Cr side. First is the 'Date' in which we write
down the date of the transaction as recorded in Journal and the vouchers. In the
'Particulars' column, the names of those accounts are written which give Dr or Cr to
this particular account. The name of the account in the Dr side is preceded by
writing 'To' and the Cr side by 'By'. In IF. (Journal Folio), we write down the folio
or page number of Journal :fromwhere the transaction is noted. And we write down
the folio of Ledger in the Journal also. You would recall that therewas a LF column
in Journal. In the last column we write down the value of the transaction. Let us
discuss this with the help of an example:
Example 1:
Prepare the Journal and post the entries into the Ledger for the following transactions:
Jan4: Received cash on account of fees- Rs.5,00,000

Jan 10: Furniture purchased :fromX Rs.5,00,000
Jan 12: Equipment purchased Rs.3,00,000
The above transactions will be shown in the Journal as:
Journal
(in the books of )
lV.No. DATE PARTICULARS L.F. AMOUNT AMOUNT

(Dr.) (Cr.)
2005 CashAlc Dr. 5,00,000

Jan4 To Fees Alc 5,00,000
" fees received in Cash)
(Being
Jan 10 Furniture Alc Dr. 5,00,000

ToX 5,00,000
(Being furniture purchased
from X)
Jan 12 Equipment Alc Dr. 3,00,000
To CashA/C 3,00,000
(Being Equipment purchased
for cash)
Here, in thefirst transaction, the two accounts involved are CashAlc and Fees
Alc. So, # CashAlc is debited (since cash is coming in and the rule is debit what
comes in) and # # FeesAlc is credited (since fees is income and rule says credit all
incomes and gains) NOTE: After the entry is written, we write the narration to
describe the entry in brackets as shown after each and every entry.
In the second transaction, the two accounts affected are the FurnitureAlc and
X (creditor)Alc. Since the name of the creditor is given so we presume that furniture
has been bought on credit; otherwise the affected account would have been the 59
\
/
Management of Financial cash Ale; which is not the case here. So, here FumitureAlc is debited (since it is
Resources coming in; and we have to debit what comes in) and X'sAlc is credited (since he is
the giver and we have to credit the giver)
In the third transaction, similarly equipment has been bought, but for cash. So the
affected accounts are CashArc and the Equipment Arc. so we have debited the
EquipmentAlc and Credited the CashAlc.
POSTING IN THE LEDGER
In order to show the above transactions in Ledger we will have to open all affected
accounts as shown below:
Cash Azc
Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
2005 2005 -
Jan4 To Fees Alc 5,00,000 Jan 12 By Equipment Alc 3,00,000
By Balance c/d 2,00,000
(Closing Balance)
Jan 31
5,00,QOO 5,00,000
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
Jan 31 To Balance cid 5,00,000 Jan4 By CashAlc 5,00,000
5,00,000
5,00,000
60
Equipment Ale Accounting and Auditing
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
Jan 12 To Cash Alc 3,00,000 Jan 31 By Balance cid 3,00,000
3,00,000
3,00,000
Furniture Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
Jan 10 To X Alc 5,00,000 Jan 31 By Balance cid 5,00,000
5,00,000
5,00,000
X Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
Jan31 To Balance cid 5,00,000 Jan 10 By Furniture t Alc 5,00,000
. 5,00,000
,
5,00,000
61
/
Management of Financial Therefore, we can see that both the aspects of a transaction are shown in their
Resources respective accounts in the ledger. Ms Nair pointed out that a very important thing
which is to be done is to tally both the sides of each account. The difference is
known as the closing balance ofthe account and is carried down (cid) to the next
month or year by writing "Tobalance c/d" in case of credit balance and "By balance
c/d" in case of debit balance.
The balances which are carried forward are shown in the next month accounts as
opening balances in the debit side (To balance bid) and in the credit side as (By
balance bid) as the case may be. In this way the balances of all accounts are calculated i
and then we prepare the Trial Balance.
8.6.3 Trial Balance

Once the process of posting to all ledger accounts is complete and the balances are
calculated, these balances can be used to prepare the financial statements. But before
doing that the correctness of the ledger accounts has to be ensured. In order to
ensure the correctness of the accounts, we prepare the 'Trial Balance'.
Trial Balance is basically a list of names and balances of all accounts appearing in the
ledger. We know that all transactions have dual aspect i.e. equal amounts of debits
and credits and these same amounts are posted in the ledger so, it becomes imperative
that the total of all debits is equal to total of all credits. Therefore, the total of all
debits and credits in a trial balance tallies. Thus, we can conclude that TrialBalance
is a statement of balances of all ledger accounts prepared to verify the
correctness of ledger accounts.
The format of Trial Balance with the balances of above given ledger balances are
shown below:
Trial Balance
Of at31stJan.,2005
Account Heads L.F. Debit Credit

1. Cash Nc 2,00,000
2. Fees Alc 5,00,000
3. Equipment Nc 3,00,000
4. Furniture Ne 5,00,000
5. X Ne 5,00,000
10,00,000 10,00,000
So we can see that both the sides in this trial balance is tallying. Therefore, we can
conclude that our accounts are correct.
62
Check Your Progress Accounting and Auditing

8) Is Trial Balance [mal proof of correctness of Accounts? Explain.
9) Enumerate the steps of an accounting cycle.
No, not all the errors can be detected with Trial Balance. There are certain errors
which if committed cannot be seen in the Trial Balance. They are briefly discussed
below:
1. Error of Principle:There are the errors in which some basic principle or rule
of accounting is violated e. g. purchase of assets is shown as revenue expenditure.
2. Error of Omission: When one or more transactions are not recorded fully or
partially in the books of accounts.
3. Error of Commission: such errors consist of entries ofthe transactions in a
wrong account ofthe same class e.g. posting of an entry in the account ofA.N.
Suri insteadofS.N. Suri's account.
4. Compensatory Errors: these errors are self-balancing and do not affect the
balancing ofTrial Balance e.g. Praveen's account is debited by Rs. 2,500 instead
ofRs. 2,700 and Atul's account is debited by Rs. 3,200 instead ofRs 3,000.
Now, let us take up a comprehensive example to understand the the whole process
ofJoumal, Ledger and Trial Balance:
Example 2:
Journalize the following transactions and prepare Ledger Accounts with closing
balance on 30th April, 2006. Also prepare the Trial Balance from the Ledger Accounts:
April l: Cash invested by Proprietor Rs. 20,00,000
April 1: Building purchased for Rs. 12,00,000
April 2: Stationery purchased for Rs. 25,000.
April 3: Furniture purchased for Rs. 5,00,000
April 5: Cash received on account of fees Rs. 5,00,000
April 10: Equipment purchased from X for Rs. 3,00,000
April 12: Loan from Bank taken Rs. 20,00,000.
63
Management of Financial April 20: Libtary books purchased for Rs. 5,00,000, payment made by cheque.
Resources
April 25: Withdrawn money for personal USefrom bank Rs. 50,000
April 26: Purchased a car for institute's use Rs. 2,00,000
April 27: Salaries paid to staffRs. 80,000.
Apri127: Payment made to X Rs. 2,95,000 in full settlement.
April 28: Received Sports fee Rs. 85,000
Apri128: Received donations Rs. 2,00,000
April 29: Personal telephone bill paid for proprietor Rs. 1,500.
Now let us prepare the Journal, Ledger and Trial Balance out ofthese transactions:
Journal
(in the books of )
J.V.No DATE PARTICULARS L.F. AMOUNT AMOlJNT

(Dr) (Cr)
2006 Cash A/c Dr. 20,00,000
Aprill To Proprietor's Alc 20,00,000
(Being capital bought by the
proprietor in cash)
Aprill Building Alc Dr 12,00,000
-
To_cash Alc 12,00,000
»>
(Being-building bought for
cash) --- ~ .'
April 2 Statiomiif~~c ~. Dr 25,000

.•
To CashArc 25,000
(Being stationary purchased
for cash)
April 3 Furniture Alc Dr 5,00,000
To CashAlc 5,00,000
(Being furniture bought for
cash)
April 5 CashA/c Dr 5,00,000
To Fees Alc 5,00,000
(Being cash received on
account of fees)
April 10 Equipment Alc Dr. 3,00,000
ToX 3,00,000
(Being equipment
purchased on credit from X)
April 12 BankA/c Dr 20,00,000
To Bank Loan Alc 20,00,000
(Being loan taken from
bank)
64
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/
April 20 Library Books Dr 5,00,000

To Bank Azc 5,00,000
(Being books purchased for
library and payment made
by cheque)
April 25 Drawings Alc Dr 50,000

To BankAlc 50,000
(Being cash withdrawn from
bank for personal use)
April 26 CarAlc Dr 2,00,000
To CashAlc 2,00,000
(Being car purchased for
office use)
April 27 Salaries Alc Dr 80,000
To CashAlc 80,000
(Being salaries paid to
employees in cash)
April 27 X Dr 3,00,000
To CashAlc 2,95,000
To Discount Alc 5,000
(Being payment made to X
in full settlement and
discount received)
April 28 Cash Alc Dr 85,000
To Sports Fee Alc 85,000
(Being Sports Fee received)
April 28 Cash A/c Dr 2,00,000
To Donation Alc 2,00,000
(Being donation received in
cash)
April 29 Drawings Alc Dr 1,500
To Cash Alc 1,500
(Being personal telephone
bill paid out of institute's
fund)
April 30 BankAlc Dr 2,00,000
To CashAlc 2,00,000
(Being Donation amount
deposited in Bank)
65
Management of Financial Now, let us post these Journal entries into the Ledger:
Resources
Cash Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April! To Proprietor's 20,00,000 April 1 By Building Ale 12,00,000

Capital
April 5 To Fees Ale 5,00,000 April 2 By Stationary Ale 25,000
April 28 To Sports fees Ale 85,000 April 3 By Furniture Ale 5,00,000
April 28 To Donations Ale 2,00,000 April 26 By Car Ale 2,00,000
April 27 By Salaries Ale 80,000
April 27 ByX 2,95,000
April 29 By Drawings Ale 1,500
April 30 By Bank Ale 2,00,000
April 30 By Balance c/d 2,83,500

(closing balance)
27,85,000 27,85,000
BankAlc
Dr. Cr.

2005 2005
April 12 To Bank Loan 20,00,000 April 20 By Library Books 5,00,000
April 30 To Cash Ale 2,00,000 Apii125 By Drawings Ale 50,000
AprU30 By Balance cid 16,50,000

(closing balance)
22,00,000 22,00,000
66
Proprietors' Funds Ale Accounting and Auditing
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To Balance cid 20,00,000 April 1 By CashAlc 20,00,000

(closing balance)
20,00,000 -20,00,000
Building Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 1 To CashAlc 12,00,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 12,00,000
12,00,000 12,00,000
Stationary Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 2 To Cash A/c 25,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 25,000
25,000 25,000
Furniture Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 3 To Cash A/c 5,00,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 5,00,000
5,00,000 5,00,000
Fees Ale
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To' Balance c/d 5,00,000 April 5 By Cash A/c 5,00,000
5,00,000 5,00,000 67
Management of Financial EquipmentAlc
Resources
Dr Cr.
2005 2005
April 10 ToX 3,00,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 3,00,000
3,00,000 3,00,000
XAlc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 27 To Cash Ale 2,95,000 April 10 By Equipment Ale 3,00,000
To Discount Ale 5,000
3,00,000 3,00,000
Bank LoanAlc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To Balance c/d 20,00,000 April 12 By Bank Ale 20,00,000
20,00,000 20,00,000
Library Books Ale

Dr Cr
, Date Particulars Amount Date Particulars Amount
2005 2005
April 20 To Bank Ale 5,00,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 5,00,000
5,00,000 5,00,000
Drawings Alc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 25 To Bank Ale 50,000 April 30 By Balance c/d 51,500
April 29 To Cash Ale 1,500
51,500 51,500
CarAlc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 26 To Cash Ale 2,00,000 April 30 By Balance c/d , 2,00,000
2,00,000 2,00,000
68
Salaries Alc Accounting and Auditing
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 27 To Cash Ale 80,000 April 30 By Income and 80,000
Expenditure Alc
80,000 80,000
DiscountAlc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To Income & 5,000 April 27 By X AI'c 5,000
Expenditure Alc
5,000 5,000
Sports Fee Alc

Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To Income & 85,000 April 28 By Cash Alc 85,000
Expenditure Alc
85,000 85,000
Donation Azc
Dr. Cr.
2005 2005
April 30 To Income & 2,00,000 April 28 By Cash A/c 2,00,000
Expenditure Alc
2,00,000 2,00,000
NOTE: The balances of the Salaries Alc, DiscountAlc, Sports FeeAlc and Donation
Alc have been transferred to the Income and ExpenditureAlc as these are items of
revenue incomes and expenditure for the period. So these balances are not carried
forward to the next accounting period; they are taken to the Income and Expenditure
Nc from which we come to know the total income (surplus) or deficit of the institution
for the period.
69
Management of Financial Now, let us prepare the Trial Balance from the balances of the Ledger Accounts.
Resources
TRIAL BALANCE
(As on 30th April, 2005)

Account Heads L.F. Dr. Cr.
Proprietor's Funds 20,00,000
Bank Loan Alc 20,00,000
Buildings Alc 12,00,000
Furniture Alc 5,00,000
Equipment Alc 3,00,000
Library Books Alc 5,00,000
Stationary Alc 25,000
- Fee Alc 5,00,000
XAlc ------------ ------------
Drawings Alc 51,500
Car Ale 2,00,000
Donation Ale 2,00,000
Salaries Ale 80,000
Discount Ale 5,000
Sports Fee Alc 85,000
BankAlc 16,50,000
Cash Ale 2,83,500
47,90,000 47,90,000
Thus, we can see that after taking the balances of all accounts in the Trial Balance,
the total of both the sides tallied.
8.7 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS TO BE PREPARED AT

THE END OF THE YEAR
After the preparation of the Trial Balance, the fmal stage in the accounting process is
the preparation of Financial Statements at the end of accounting period. Although
educational institutions are non-profit organisations (NPOs) but still the organizers,
contributors and the society at large would like to know the result of their activities.
So these organizations do not find our profit or loss of their operations. In order to
show their various items of incomes and expenditures, the NPOs basically need to
prepare these financial statements at the end of the financial year to know the
surplus (excess of income over expenditure) or deficit (excess of expenditure over
income). The ihstitutions prepare the following financial statements:
1. Receipts and PaymentsAlc
2. Income and ExpenditureAlc
70 3. Balance Sheet
8.7.1 Receipts a~dPayments Alc Accounting and Auditing
A Receipts and Payment Account is a summary of Cash Book or Cash Account. It

is prepared to present the result of the organization's cash position. This account is
a Real Account. Hence on the debit side all receipts (whether in cash or cheque)
are recorded and all payments (Cash or cheque) are recorded on the credit side. It
starts with the opening cash and bank balances on the debit side; and ends with their
closing balances on the credit side. If there is a bank overdraft in the beginning of the
accounting period, it appears as the first item on the credit side. Another very
important point to be noted is that no distinction is made between Capital and Revenue
Receipts and Payments. All receipts and payments made during the year are shown,
irrespective of the fact whether they are related to the present period or not. For
example, if we received a payment in advance which relates to the next accounting
period, it will be shown in the account. Similarly, if a payment pertaining to the
previous year is received in the current period, it will be shown. So all receipts (by
cash or cheque); of capital and revenue nature; pertaining to past, present
and future periods are shown in the Receipts and Payments Account. The
pro-forma is given below:
Receipts and Payments Ale
RECEIPTS AMOUNT PAYMENTS AMOUNT

Balance bId (opening): Balance bId (Bank
Cash in Hand Overdraft) (opening
Cash at Bank Balance)
Capital Receipts (for past, Capital Payments(for past,
present & future periods): present & future needs):
Legacies Building- purchased or
Sale of office furniture constructed
Sale of equipment Sports equipment
Donations received for Cost of Leasehold Land
specific purposes ego Bank Loan
Buildings, prizes etc * Purchase of any asset
Sale of investments Revenue Payments (for
Interest on funds past, present & future
Revenue Receipts (for periods):
past, present & future Prizes paid
periods): Entertainment expenses
Government grants * * Printing and stationary
Entrance fees Newspapers & Magazines
General donations * Repairs
Proceeds from fairs, Postages
entertainment Insurance, rent, salaries
Sale of old newspaper, Advertisement
magazmes Audit fee
Miscellaneous receipts Telephone & electricity
Balance cId (Bank charges
Overdraft) (closing Garden maintenance
balance) Municipal taxes
Charity
Printing of diaries, magazine,
newsletter etc.
Bank overdraft (adjustment)
Drawings
Balance c/d
' ,
Cash in Hand
Cash at Bank 71
-
Management of Financial Note:
Resources
Q Donation: it is a sort of gift in cash or in kind received from some existing
person, firm or company. It appears on the Receipts side of Receipts and
Payments Account, if received in cash. They can be for a specific purpose or
for general purpose. If the donation is for a specific purpose, it is capitalized
and is shown in the liabilities side of Balance Sheet. If the donation is general,
then it is treated as revenue income as they are generally received every year.
So this is shown as income in the Income and Expenditure Account.
ii) Government Grants may be of revenue nature if such grants are received
regularly and are of recurring nature.
8.7.2 Income and Expenditure Alc

It is prepared to find out the Surplus (excess of income over expenditure) or Deficit
(excess of expenditure over income). It is a nominal account. The debit side of
this account is known as the Expenditure side and credit side is known as the Income
side. The balance of this account - surplus or deficit - is transferred to the Balance
Sheet. Surplus is added to the Capital Fund and deficit is deducted from the Capital
Fund.
A very important point to be kept in mind is that all revenue items ofincomes and
expenditures are shown in this account. Capital receipts and capital expenditures
are excluded for example if any fixed asset has been purchased, or any amount
received from sale of investments or any other fixed asset are not shown in this
account as these are not of recurring nature. Another, very important point is that
only those items are shown which pertain the current accounting period. So any
amount received or paid which pertains to the preceding or succeeding accounting
period is not shown. Also we need to keep in mind that any income or expenditure
which is accrued (any outstanding payment or income) in the present accounting
period is shown as it pertains to the current year. The pro-forma is given below:
Income and Expenditure Alc
(For the year ending on )
EXPENDITURE AMOUNT INCOME AMOUNT

Any expense (like salaries) Any Income (eg fees):
Total paid: Total amount received
Add: outstanding at the end Add: outstanding at the end
Less: outstanding in the Less: outstanding in the
beginning beginning
Add: advance paid in the Add: advance received last
previous year year
Less: advance paid for the Less: advance received this
current year year
Salaries for the year Current income
Expenses on consumables: Government grant

Opening stock Profit on sale of an asset
Add: purchases during the (sale price - book value)
year Other revenue receipts
Less: Creditors in the Donations (general)
beginning Income on specific items
72
Add: Creditors at the end Deficit (excess of

Less: advance payments in the expenditure over income)
current year
Add: advance payments in the
preVIOUSyear
Less: closing stock
Value actually used
Loss on sale of an asset
(Book value-sale price)
Other expenses and losses
Depreciation
Surplus (excess of income
over expenditure)
8.7.3 Balance Sheet

It is a statement which shows the financial position of an organisation on a specific
date. That is why it is prepared on a specific date and does not represent the whole
year. The Balance Sheet provides information on nature and book value of assets,
nature and amount ofliabilities, the amount of proprietor's funds and its liquidity
position. It has two main columns i.e.Assets and Liabilities.Under the Assets column
we show all the assets of the organisation like Land, Building, Machinery,Equipment,
Furniture, Stock of various items, Cash in hand and Cash at Bank. In the Liabilities
side, we show different Liabilities of the organisation like the Proprietor's Fund,
Capital Fund, any Legacy or Special Fund, Reserves and Surpluses, and Liabilities
towards outside parties like creditors, any debt taken from bank or individuals etc.
The pro-forma is given below:
Balance Sheet
(ason ~)
LIABILITIES AMOUNT ASSETS AMOUNT
Capital Fund Assets (Book Value)

(Proprietors' Capital) Last balance
Add: Surplus Add: purchased during the
Less: Deficit year
Capital Incomes Less: book value of the
Legacies asset sold
Special Donations/Fund: Less: depreciation
Creditors Stock of consumable
Any outstanding materials
expenditure (eg salaries) Outstanding income
Bank overdraft Cash at Bank
Cash in Hand
Example 3:
Now let us discuss a practical case. Below is the Trial Balance ofShri Venkateshwar
Educational Society. Prepare the Income and Expenditure Account for the year
ending 31 si March, 2005 and a Balance Sheet as on that date.
73
,
Management of Financial TRIAL BALANCE
Resources
DEBIT BALANCES AMOUNT CREDIT BALANCES AMOUNT
Building 2,50,000 Admission fees 5,000
Furniture 40,000 Tuition Fee 2,00,000
Library Books 60,000 Creditors for supplies 6,000
Investments @ 9% 2,00,000 Rent for the school hall 4,000
Salaries 2,00,000 Mise. Receipts 12,000
Stationary 15,000 Government Grant 1,40,000
General Expenses 8,000 Capital Fund 4,00,000
Sports Expenses 6,000 Donation for Library 25,000

Books
Cash at Bank 20,000 Sale of old furniture 8,000
Cash in Hand 1,000
8,00,000 8,00,000
Additional Information:
Fees yet to be received for the year are Rs. 10,000. Salaries yet to be paid amount
to Rs. 12,000. Furniture costing Rs. 15,000 was purchased on 1-10-2004. The
Book Value ofthe furniture sold was Rs. 20,000 on 1-4-2004. Depreciation is to
be charged @ 10% p.a. on Furniture, 15% on Library Books and 5% on Building.
Give working Notes.
Shri Venkateshwar Educational Society
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE AlC
(for the year ended 31 st March, 2005

EXPENDITURE AMOUNT INCOME AMOUNT
Loss on sale of Furniture 12,000 Admission Fees 5,000
Salaries 2,00,000 Tuition Fees 2,00,000
Add: outstanding 12,000 2,12,000 Add: outstanding 10,000 2,10,000
Stationary 15,000 Rent for school hall 4,000

General Expenses 8,000 Miscellaneous receipts 12,000
Depreciation: Government Grant ·1,40,000
Furniture 1,250
Building 12,500
Library Books 9,000
Sports Expenses 6,000 Interest accrued on 18,000
investments
Surplus 1,13,250
3,89,000 3,89,000
74
BALANCE SHEET Accounting and Auditing )
(As on 31 sI March, 2005)

LIABILITIES AMOUNT ASSETS AMOUNT
Creditors for supplies 6,000 Buildings 2,50,000
Less: Depreciation 12,500 2,37,500
Outstanding salaries 12,000 Furniture 40,000
Less: sold 20,000
Less: Depreciation 1,250 18,750
Donation for Library-Books 25,000 Accrued Fees /' 1O,~00
Capital Fund 4,00,000 Library Books 60,000

Add: Surplus 1,13,250 5,13,250 Less: Depreciation 9,QOO 51,000
Investments @ 9% 2,00,000
. Interest accrued 18,000
Cash at Bank 20,000
Cash in Hand 1,000
5,56,250 5,56,250
Working Notes:
Admission Fees is a regular income of the school.
Depreciation has been calculated on furniture assuming that it was sold on 1st April,
2004.
Book Value on 31 SI march, 2004 40,000
Less: Book Value sold 20,000
20,000
Depreciation on Rs. 5,000 for one year 500
Depreciation on Rs. 15,000 for + 750

6 months (Oct.- March)
Check Your Progress

10) State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. Revenue receipts are not shown in the Receipts in Payments Account

2. Capital receipts are shown in Income and Expenditure Account
3. Items of non-recurring nature are shown in Balance Sheet
75
Management of Financial 11) What are the receipts and payment account?
Resources
8.8 AUDITING- CONCEPT

Till now we have discussed the procedure of maintenance of accounts. Once the
process of accounting ends, the process of auditing starts. An auditor examines and
verifies the items therein with the help of relevant documentary evidence and
explanations and information given to him. Or we can say that the auditor critically
analyses the accounts and financial statements prepared by the accountant. The
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (lCA!) has defined auditing in the following
words.
"Auditing is a systematic and independent examination of data, statements,
records, operations and performance (financial or otherwise) of an enterprise
for a stated purpose. In any auditing situation, the auditor perceives and
recognizes the proposition before him for examination, collects evidence,
evaluates the same and on this basis, formulates his judgment which is
communicated through his audit report."
The key points in the definition are discussed as under:

• Systematic: An audit has to be carefully planned and sequenced logically.
• Independent: The auditor while formulating and expressing his opinion should
not be susceptible to any influence from client or anybody else.
• Data, statements, records, operations and performance: This phrase

indicates the-scope of audit. It extends from examination of books to review of
vouchers to performance connected to non-financial areas also.
• Stated purpose: The stated purpose should be clearly defined. For example,
the stated purpose of Environment audit is to examine and report on verifiable
quantitative and qualitative information in the area of environmental concerns.
• Perceives and recognizes the propositions before him for examination:
The auditor must know 'what he/she has to prove'.
• Collects evidence, evaluates the same: The auditor has to take into account
all kinds of evidences like books of accounts, tax returns, direct confirmation,
departmental budgets etc.
• Formulates his judgment which is communicated through his audit

report: The opinion of the auditor is communicated through an audit report
which is made depending upon the type of audit, statutory requirements and
purpose of audit.
8.9 OBJECTIVES OF AUDIT

The objective of a financial audit is to determine whether the financial statements
are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
76
\
The management of an organization is responsible for preparing the financial Accounting and Auditing
statements. The auditor is responsible for rendering an opinion on the fairness of
those financial statements based on his or her audit. The two broad objectives of
audit are discussed below:
1. Expression of opinion about the truthfulness andfairness offinancial
statements:The primary objective of auditing is expression of opinion that the
financial statements of an enterprise do show true and fair view of its financial
position and earnings. So the auditor has to ensure that these statements comply
with:
(i) recognized accounting principles which have been consistently applied.

(ii) relevant legislation and
(m) are correctly extracted from books and records.
2. Detection and Prevention of Error and Frauds: An incidental but very

important objective of audit is detection and prevention of frauds and errors.
For an auditor it is very important to distinguish between error and fraud which
is briefly described below with the help of the following diagram:
ERRORS
·;(Accountirig Errors) . . FRAJ)DS.
(Intentional)
. (Unintentional)
: ·Fra~aufent financi~l·
2ErrorofPrinciple
Reporting
(Management fraud)
Misapprb~riation of
Assets
Figure 8.2: Types of Errors
As shown in the Figure 8.2, the auditor's job is detection of various errors and
frauds,as both resultsin misstatement of financial statements.Though the responsibility
ofthe auditor is same in both the situations, however distinction is important in
practice because fraud raises doubt about the integrity of management and those
charged with governance.
8.10 TYPES OF AUDIT

Auditing can be classified into different types as follows:
77
Resources
Figure 8.3: Organisational structure
1. Classification on the basis of Organizational Structure- As sho~ in the

Figure 8.3, an audit can be:
(i) Private Audit- it is carried not to satisfy any statutory requirement but at
the initiative of the management. It is generally carried out by sole,
proprietors, partnership firms, individuals and non-profit organisations.
(ii) GovemmentAudit: It is the audit of commercial accounts maintained by
public enterprises such as departmental undertakings, statutory corporations
and government companies. It is basically a control measure for public
accounting of government funds.
(iii) Statutory Audit: Audit which is made compulsory under any statute is
Statutory Audit. Various acts like the Companies Act 1956, The Insurance
Act 1938, the Co-operative Societies Act of various states passed various
laws for different organisations regarding various auditing procedures.
2. Classification on the basis of Specific Objectives: Different types of audit
can be carried to meet specific objectives as explained below:
78
(i) Independent Financial Audit: Independent Financial Audit has been Accounting and Auditing
made compulsory by different regulatory authorities under different Acts.
Most of the educational institutions have to go for it by compulsion. It is
carried out by professionally qualified auditors and the purpose is to
ascertain the truthfulness and fairness ofthe financial statements. At the
end the auditor submits his report which is a very useful document for the
organisation for meeting different requirements.
(ii) InternalAudit: Internal audit is generally carried out by the employees of
an institutionappointedby management to reviewfinancialand non-financial
operations. The objective of internal audit is to suggest improvement to
the function of the entity and add value to and strengthen the overall
governance mechanism of the entity including strategic risk management
and internal control systems. Thus it is more of a managerial control
mechanism to ensure that- (a) financial and other types of information is
reliably recorded, (b) the valuation of assets of an institute is done as per
the policies and plans of the management and as per the accounting norms,
(c) the resources of the institution are used in the most efficient manner. It
is generally carried out throughout the year.
(iii) Cost Audit, Management Audit, Tax Audit, Secretarial Audit,
Performance Audit and Propriety Audit: These audits are conducted
for meeting specific needs. Cost Auditing pertains to correctness of cost
accounts. Management Audit is for examining and reviewing the various
plans, policies and actions of management on certain specified standards.
Tax Audit is done to assess the correctness of calculation of Income and
other taxes under the provisions of different Acts. The objective of
Secretarial Audit is to ensure that full and adequate compliance of various
legal requirements has been established in the institution. Performance
audit is concerned with valuation of performance against set standards
and Propriety audit ensures that whether the actions and decisions of the
institution are in public interest or not.
(iv) Social Audit and Environment Audit: Awareness of social responsibility
of institutions has led organisations to go in for social audit. It is conducted
on four major areas of social performance- (a) Community
Development, (b) Human Resource Development, (c) Physical
contribution and environmental contribution and (d) Product or
Service contribution. Ifwe see around us we can see that in one way or
the other all institution try to contribute towards these social causes. In the
same way, Environmental Audit is a management tool comprising a
systematic, periodic and objective evaluation of how well organisation,
management and equipment are performing to safeguard the
environment. It is concerned with assessing whether institutions policies
meet regulatory requirements or not.
3. Classification on the basis of time: Depending upon the time at which the
audit is carried out, the different types are:
(i) Continuous Audit: According to R.C. Williams "A continuous is one
where the auditor or his staffis constantly engaged in checking the accounts
during the whole period or where the auditor or his staff attends at regular
or irregular intervals during the period." It has the advantage of early
detection of frauds and errors plus ,the auditor gets knowledge of all
technical details which leads to efficiency of the auditors and acts as moral 79
check on the staff.
Management of Financial (ii) Annual Audit: Audit which is carried out once only at the end of an
Resources accounting period once the books of accounts are closed is annual audit.
The work of auditing is completed in a single continuous session. It is
effective for small concerns.
(iii) Interim Audit: Audit conducted between two annual audits is called
interim audit. It is always carried out for a specific purpose and does not
enjoy a statutory status.
(iv) Balance Sheet Audit: It is a limited audit in which all the Balance Sheet
items are verified .
.
4. Classification on the basis of scope of audit: There can be complete,
partial or detailed audit on the basis of scope of audit. These are briefly described
below:
(i) Complete Audit: In this the auditor is appointed to check all transactions
and books of accounts with the help of relevant vouchers, documents,
correspondence etc. It is not feasible or practicable.
(ii) Partial Audit: When the audit is conducted on some of the records and
books or a part of books for whole 01part of the period, it is called
partial audit.
(iii) Detailed Audit: Audit which starts with the books of prime entry and
ends with the Balance Sheet. The checking sequence is arranged in order
of recording the transactions in the books of accounts.
Therefore, an educational institution has to go in for statutory, independent financial,
detailed audit (in majority of cases) on a continuous or annual basis as per the
requirement of the management and in conformation of different regulatory authorities.
8.11 AUDIT REPORT

After the auditing has been carried out by the auditor, hel she prepares a report .
communicating his/her opinion on the truthfulness and fairness of financial statements.
The auditor's report may be unqualified, unqualified with an 'emphasis of matter' ,
qualified or an adverse report commenting on the (a) weakness or strengths of
accounting system in that institution, (b) inadequacies in the financial policies and
practices, (c) deficiency in the financial control system (d) non-compliance with the
accepted accounting practices. In response to the auditor's report the institution has
to take the required corrective action maybe in the form of submitting further
information, checking of figures, calculation, balances etc in Trial Balance, or going
over the books of accounts in order to check for any fraud or errors that might have
crept into the books advertently or inadvertently.
Check Your Progress
12) What are the two broad objectives of audit ?
80
13) In to how many types audit is classified on the basis of time? Accounting and Auditing
14) Mention the functions of auditor.
8.12 LET US SUM-UP

The main point under discussion in this unit is the development or understanding of a
concept of accounting and auditing of a school organization in a particular way. The
accounting has certain rules, principles, and concepts, on the other hand auditing
has to be carefully planned and sequenced logical activities. Actually both are the
important part of an organisation. When the process of accounting ends, the process
of auditing starts. Actually, accounting information is stand on two set of people- i.e.
Internal and external. On the another way auditing can be categorised in a different
way, but which types of auditing is required it depends on the particular institution
and situation.

Select any educational institution. Study accounting and auditing statements of a
financial year and analyse in the context of points given in the unit. Write a report
highlighting on the advantages and disadvantages.
8.14 REFERENCES
Harsolekar, Dinesh D.; Financial Accounting for Management; Multi-tech Publishing
Co.; Mumbai; 2001.
Monga, lR.; Financial Accountng; Mayur Paperbacks;NOIDA; 2007-08
Mukherjee.Amitabha and Mohammed Hanif; Modern Accountancy; Tata Mc-Graw
Hill Publishing Company; New Delhi; 2002
Jha,Aruna;Auditing; TaxmannAllied Services (P) Ltd.; New Delhi; 2007

1. Partners, Managers and Investors, landers.
2. The meaning ofGAAP is Generally Accepted Accounting Principles.
3. Ref. subsection 8.3
81
Management of Financial 5. Ref. subsection 8.3
Resources
7. Capital expenditure is an expenditure which is incurred- (i) to buy a fixed asset.
(ii) increase the useful life of fixed asset. (iii) increase the productivity (iv) making
an asset usable or reusable. In revenue terms are those which are collected in
usual course of business or regular basis e.g. fees collected, interest earned,
commission received, donations received etc.
8. Ref. subsection 8.6.3
9. The steps in the accounting cycle
1. Identify the Transaction
2. Analyze the Transation
3. Making entries in the Journal
4. Posting to Ledger
5. Preparation of Trial Balance
6. Preparation of Financial Statements
10. Ref. Section Accounting
12. (i) Expression of opinion about the truthfulness and fairness of financial
statements
(ii) Detection and prevention of Error and Fraud.

13. 1. Continuous Audit
2. Annual Audit
3. InterimAudit
4. Balance Sheet Audit

14. Ref. Subsection 8.11
82
UNIT 9 RESOURCE MOBILISATION IN
EDUCATION
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
. 9.3 Taxonomy of Resource Mobilisation
9.4 Internal Resource Mobilisation
9.4.1 Graduate Tax
9.4.2 Education Cess
9.4.3 Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK) in Elementary Education
9.4.4 Community Resource Mobilisation
9.4.5 Fees
9.4.6 Principles of Resources Mobilisation Through Cost Recovery
9.4.7 Other Sources
9.4.8 New Approaches
9.5 External Resource for Education
.~ 9.6 Policy Options in Resource Mobilisation

9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Unit-EndActivities
9.9 References
9.l0 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Rationale for Resource mobilisation
We all are aware of that investment in education yield high economic returns to the
society. More importantly, there are a multitude of externalities associated with
education, including positive effects on health, reduction in infant mortality rate,
reduction in fertility rate, etc. All these benefits and externalities of education
necessitates a positive approach to financing and mobilising resources for education,
and underscores the need to step up the levels of government and non-government
expenditure on education substantially.
As we know plenty and huge resources are required for quantitative expansion,
qualitative improvement and for the maintenance of the education system. The
requirements of the education systems are much higher than the levels of availability
of resources. Hence, resource mobilisation can be from internal and external
resources. Within the internal resources for education, resources mobilisation can
be from both within the government and non-government resources. Government
has been the major source of finances of education in India and also in many developed
and developing countries. The non-governmental sources are marginalllirnited, but
gaining momentum since 1990s in the country and also across the globe.
83
Management of Financial All types of resources financial, material and human resources and through all possible
Resources sources viz., government, household, private sector, cornmunities, international donors
and agencies are being tapped under the current regimes of economic globalization.
(Indeed), it is needless to say that, resource mobilisation is an important agenda!
aspects both nationally and internationally and across school and higher education
as well.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit you would be able to:
• describe the reasons for resource mobilisation in education;
• list various resources that can be mobilized for education;
• analyze the limitations of the non-governmental or external sources of mobilizing
resources for education.
9.3 TAXONOMY OF RESOURCE MOBILISATION

Resource mobilisation can be broadly categorises into internal and external resources.
Internal resource mobilisation means generating resources within the country, whereas
external resource mobilisation indicates mobilisation of resources from outside the
country. (The Figure 9.1 illustrates the taxonomy of resource mobilisation). Let us
go for illustrating the taxonomy of resource mobilisation.
Internal
Resources
Non-
Governmental
Fees
Figure 9.1: Taxonomy of Resource Mobilisation
You may be curious to know that how the resources mobilisation of education are
working. Let us try to know the details -
84
Resource Mobilisation in
9.4 INTERNAL RESOURCE MOBILISATION Education
Internal resource mobilisation means resources that are generated within the nation
or domestic resource mobilisation for education. There are two broad sources of
resource mobilisation at the domestic front such as government and non-
government resources. For example in the context of an educational institution
students fee, donations or grants received from the management revenue generated
,for hiring the institution's building and other infrastructural facilities, etc. are non-
governmental resource mobilisation.
• Mobilising Governmental Resources for education: Government
Resources can be further categorized as the resources from the general pool
of resources like the graduate tax which is specific or earmarked for education
such as education cess.
9.4.1 Graduate tax

The common suggested measure is to recover the cost of higher education through
the graduate tax. The graduate tax is an education specific tax levied on those who
use educated manpower. The paradoxical situation in India is that while the
expenditure on education is borne by the government, the products of the educational
system are used by the public and private sectors. The educational sector in India
provides manpower to the production sectors and they generate profits which are
beneficial to the employers. However, employers seldom contribute to the education
sector on a regular basis. There is, therefore, a strong case for levying a tax on every
graduate who is employed in an organisation. An employer can be asked to pay an
annual tax to the government for each graduate recruited. The amount of tax to be
levied should be based on the cost of education at that particular level. The duration
of the tax can be determined so as to recover the total cost of education.
This seems logical and hence a desirable proposition. The major drawback with the
scheme isthat itmay work as a disincentive for many employers in recruitingUniversity
graduates; they may use lower level educated manpower as a substitute. This may
exacerbate the already aggravated situation of unemployment of the better educated
in India. The substitution possibilities may be lower in those organisations where the
burden oftaxation can be shifted to individual employees. Nevertheless taxing
employers based on the type of manpower they use has a good rationale even if it
leads to substitution.
9.4.2 Education Cess

Traditionally, education cess is an important additional, but small source of finance
for education at the local level. Many states used to impose an education cess on
land revenue in rural areas and on urban property in urban areas. An advantage with
the education cess is that though it generates a small amount of resources, they are
necessarily to be allocated to schools inthe given area. They are earmarked that
these resources cannot be used for some other purpose. These small resources are
useful for implementing special programmes of quality improvement and innovation
at the school level, as visualized and planned by schoolteachers. The Government
of India has introduced an education cess since 2004 on all central taxes to finance
the commitment to universalise access to quality basic education.
9.4.3 Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK) in Elementary

Education
A two percent Education Cess was levied on all major central taxes to help finance
85
the government's commitment to basic education. The proceeds of this Education
ManagemenlofFinancial Cess is earmarked for the non-lapsable fund called Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh
Resources (PSK) and would be spent exclusively on SSA and Mid-Day Meal Scheme (Box 1).
Box 1:Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (pSK)
.:. A two percent Education Cess was levied on all major central taxes
through the Finance (No.2) Act, 2004, to help finance the Government's
commitment to "quality basic education'. Education Cess is being
increased to 3 percent since 2007 -08 to cover secondary and higher
education too .
•:. In order to receive the proceeds of this Education Cess, this Ministry
has created a dedicated, non-lapsable fund called Prarambhik Shiksha
Kosh (P'SK) that would be spent exclusively on SSA and Mid-Day-
Meal (MDM)Scheme .
•:. A provision ofRs 8,746 crores for the initial transfer to the newly created
PSK has been made in the Union Budget 2006-07 against estimated
receipts of Education Cess. During the year 2006-07, the Schemes of
SSAand MDM will be financed from PSK to the following extent:-
Source: Annual Report, 2006-07, MHRD, Government of India. (Box No. 1)
Check Your Progress

1) How many types of resources mobilisation we have?
2) What is graduate tax?
.~
...................................................................................................................
3) What is education cess?
............................. ~ .
• Non-governmental Resources Mobilisation
State funding alone may not be adequate to meet the daunting task. The fast expanding
enrolment at all stages of education has necessitated harnessing of non governmental
86
resources for educational development. This is more so because there has been Resource; Mobilisation in
substantial decline in the contribution from private sources under charity provision Education
of education.
Major systematic attempts to raise non-governmental finances need to be confined
to higher education. But in case of school education, the role of the community is
believed to be potentially significant. At the same time there appears to be no case
for fees, nor for increased role ofthe private sector in basic education. Hence,
different criteria of resource mobilisation are to be adopted at different levels of
education ..•
9.4.4 Community Resource Mobilisation

Conventionally, at the local level, resources are generated by the schools/education
authorities from the community in a variety of ways. In some areas, villages contribute
in cash andlor kind towards the construction of school buildings, in the form of
monetary donations, free labour, etc. Small donations and gifts in cash and kind
towards educational development is also common in many villages. Further, schools
also generate their own resources through small production activities, such as
production of vegetables and flowers in the school garden, production of saleable
material from school related crafts and vocational classes in the schools. While it is
important to encourage schools to generate such resources, caution should be taken
that these measures do not put unnecessary burden on school teachers and principals.
In other words, these activities should not lead to disturbance in core educational
activities. Secondly, such measures are better left to the school authorities to be
implemented on a voluntary basis rather than making it compulsory.
The beginning of 1990s, community resource mobilisation has been viewed as one
. ofthe favoured sources of income for the Governments in elementary education.
The Education Guarantee Scheme is an important endeavour in this direction.
Government ofMadhya Pradesh initiated alternate schools under the Education
Guarantee Scheme (EGS) in 1997. Habitations not having a primary school within
one kilometer radius, with 40 children (25 to 30 in tribal areas) will be entitled to
have an EGS type school. The poor local community needs to identify teachers
(Guruji) who would be then trained by the Education Department. The scheme
presumes that a full formal school with all the required basic facilities is not necessary,
and hence qualified trained teachers are dispensable. The community to provide
land/ space for schools, manage mid-day meal through the Panchayat and participate
through Village Education Committees and Parents TeacherAssociation. The premise
ofEGS is that a community must demand a school facility, rather than receive as an
entitlement/ a right from the govemment, implies shiftingthe responsibility of opening
schools from the government to those of people and community themselves. In
.1999-2000, it became the national strategy to provide universal physical access to
children livingin small habitation.
9.4.5 Fees
..
At the school level, the issue of mobilisation of resourc.es through fees is of a very
limited nature. At the primary and upper primary levels, since education is to be
provided free, the tuition fee has no role. at all in mobilizing resources for
education. However, in some states, aided private schools are allowed to charge
the tuition fee, and many schools charge fees other than the tuition fee. In higher
secondary schools, the tuition and other fees are paid by students. On the whole,
fee-fmancing of education at the school level is very limited.
87
Management of Financial . But in the fast changing scenario of higher education, if universities are to keep pace
Resources with development, they have to enlarge their resources base and make efforts to
enlarge their internal resources by mobilizing participation of society in higher
_~ education. A.CQ!}1lTIonly suggested revenue generating method in higher education is
to increase fee rates. Therellre two basic categories of charging fees one on
the basis of cost of education is a mere ec{ino~iple and another on
the basis of'equity and economic principles that oluniv.e.tl!!l fee or
discriminatoryfee. On the basis of economic principle, four major ways In which
fees (or price of education) can be charged. They are:
• Token Fee: It can be a nominal fee which can be uniform fees or varying
across different courses and also across graduate and postgraduate levels.
This can be less than 5 per cent of the total cost of higher education. The
purpose here is not to mobilize resources from students.
•.
• Minimal Fee: Unlike the token fee, the minimal fee is a method of mobilizing
some additional resources from students. It can be either uniform fees or varying
v
across different courses and.also across graduate and postgraduate levels. The
total fee income in this case will be around 20 to 25 per cent of the total cost of
higher education.
• Full Cost fee: In this case, it is a full cost recovery, the actual cost of education
is recovered from students in the form offees. Here also, it can be a uniform
fee or a varying fee (with some cross subsidization).
• Above Full Cost Fee: In this case, the fees charged are higher than the actual
cost of education. Many of the private higher education institution charge such
fees. For example, the self financing unaided private educational institutions
are coming under this fee category.
The advantages of a discriminatory fee structure implies that fee will be charged
according to the paying capacity of the student, the fee to be levied based on the
cost of providing education for each faculty or subjects on the one hand and paying
capacity of individual students on the other. Needless to add, those belonging to the
highest socio-economic households will pay the most, close to the full pricing of
education. Students from the lowest social and economic households will pay the
least which indirectly helps target subsidies in favour of the poor. One can argue that
discriminatory pricing may lead to an increased income for higher education without
adversely affecting equity considerations in educational provisions.
9.4.6 Principles of Resource Mobilisation through Cost

Recovery
Three basic principles need to be considered in mobilising resources for education:
• Resources should be adequated to provide good quality education to the target

group of population.
• Mobilisation of resources should not affect the quantity of education, i.e. it
should not lead to reduction in overall enrollments.
• Mobilisation of resources should not adversely affect equity in education, i.e.
the demand for education ofthe weaker sections should not come down.
There are certain basic principles, could be noted as guidelines while increasing fees
or recovering the costs of higher education from students.
88
(i) Adequacy of resources is the most important criterion that should guide Resource Mobilisation in
Education
educational planners in mobilizing resources for education. Otherwise, with an
insufficient level of resources, both the quality and quantity of educational
activities is affected.
(ii) While attempting at the mobilisation of additional resources from any source, it
is necessary to look at the elasticity of demand, i.e. likely change in enrolments
for a unit change in the collection of resources (fees). For example, if students
are charged an increase in fee by Rs. 100/- per student, what is the likely
change in the demand for such education (in enrolment)? Elasticity of demand,
for a change in fees, is estimated as follows:
Per cent Change in enrolment

Elasticity= . .
Per cent Change In fees
If the coefficient of elasticity is equal to one, it means that I per cent change
(increase) in fees will result in 1percent change (decline) in enrolments. Ifit is
less than one, it is called ~less elastic' , i.e. a 1per cent change in fees will result
in less then 1 per cent change in enrolments. If the value of the coefficient is
more than one, it means that 1per cent increase in fees will result in more than
1per cent (more than proportionate) fall in enrolments.
The same ratio can be estimated conversely also to find out the revenue
elasticity to change in enrolment. This can be estimated as follows:
Per cent Change in fees

Elasticity = .
Per cent Change In enrolment
Such a coefficient helps in estimating how much revenue could be generated

with increase in enrolments. Given the objective of educational planners,
particularly in school education, i.e. increase in enrolments, it is important to
see that the introduction of increase in fees, and other methods of mobilisation
of resources will not result in fall in enrolments.
(iii) The third principle that should be considered while attempting the mobilisation
of additional resources is ensuring equity in education. Equity can be measured
in a variety of ways. Here we consider, for simplicity, enrolments belonging to
weaker sections as a proportion of total enrolments.It is possible that a particular
method of mobilisation of additional resources, say increase in tuition fee in
setondary schools,will not result in fall in overall enrolments.But it might reduce
the enrolments of weaker sections, say girls or children belonging to socially
deprived sections.
Check Your Progress
4) How non-governmental resources can be mobilised?
...
,
89
Management of Financial 5) Mentioned four major ways of fee on the basic of economic principles can be
Resources charged?
6) Mention the three basic principles in changing the fees from students.
9.4.7 Other Sources

Let us discuss some otlier resources that contribute to the development of higher
education: -
Higher education institutions may mobilize resources within the institutional level
such as income generating enterprises / activities, own income generation of the
institutions through Guest-house lettings, printing services, conference lettings, sports
facilities, sale of services/output, etc.
On similar lines, external resources can be mobilized through participation!
contribution! consultancy from individual Indians or non-resident Indians, Alumni
Associations, public and family trusts, industrial/ business houses, cooperatives,
professional associations, unions/association of employees, municipalities!panchayats,
MPIMLAI Counsellors' funds, MoU (Memorandum ofUnderstanding) with foreign
universities, consultancy, endowments / donations, instituting chairs, community
contributions, corporate sector donations, financial support from industrial and
commercial firms - in the form of grants or scholarships for specific academic or
professional programmes and inclusive children, NGOs etc.
The new partnership of education with industry and various income and profit
generating sectors will have to be developed to meet the resource constraint. Stress
has also to be laid on cost-effective designs of structures and methodologies of
education that can cater to the needs of the massive programmes of education. The
advances in information and communication technology, especially satellite-based
teleconferencing, have made it possible to use distance education for training in
virtual classrooms (e-Iearning). It is expected that technology, with appropriately
designed. software and quality inputs will at the same time bring down the costs and
increase the efficiency of the educational system.
9.4.8 New Approaches

New and unconventional approaches for resource mobilisation should be adopted.
Such illustrative approaches are:
• Examining and emulating statesin collectingresources from employers,industries!
local bodies, and big industrial enterprises.
• Every higher education institution to have a College / University Corpus fund
90
which could be operated by school or departmental head for standard purposes Resource! Mobilisation in
Education
like repairs up to a limit.
• Employees and industrialists using the products of higher technical institutions
should be called upon to bear part of the cost of such education.
• Employees should be encouraged to set up a fund which will enable any
employee to pursue any course of education which will be financed out of this
fund in the course ofhislher working like, tax rebates could be given for this
purpose.
• Every industry should set apart out of its profits a fund for taking care of
obsolescence in technology.
• In line with Industrial Finance Corporation, and such other banking and financial
institutions, educational fmancial corporation should be also established.
• Bank may be called upon to invest in education with long term recovery schemes
as is prevalent in agricultural and industrial loans.
• The sharing of academic and infrastructural resources.
• The Central Government may start duration linked Education Bonds with a
view to mopping up additional resources.
• A National Education Fund ofRs. 1000 crore should be created.
• Public Sector enterprises should allocate a percentage of their budget for
production and manpower development.
• A part of the cost of education should be realized from the professional institutions
employing the products of educational institutions.
• Private entrepreneurs may be encouraged to contribute for. educational
development, particularly in respect of vocational and professional streams, by
giving suitable tax rebates on their donations and by setting up oftraining
institutions in collaboration with them. It should be made obligatory of the
industries to provide for the education of their employees and the children.
Greater attention should be paid to the management of financial resources so that
these are used in the most optimum manner. Relationship between inputs and outputs
(efficiency indicators such as cost per graduate - the normal unit cost and the cost
per successful student or effective unit cost) needs to be examined in regular intervals.
There need to be generation of useful fmancial indicators such as modem financial
management systems - routine production of fmancial effectiveness and efficiency
indicators.
9.5 EXTERNAL RESOURCES FOR EDUCATION

External resources for education are mobilized through several international agencies.
They are either bilateral or multi-lateral. The bi-lateral organization include only
two countries only - the donor country(ies) and the receiving country. The examples
ofbi lateral organization include Swedish International Development Corporation
(SIDA), Development for International Development (DIFD), etc. while multi lateral
organizations include United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), World Bank,
etc. Both bilateral and multilateral organizations provide aid in forms of grant and
loans. Grants are purely aid and need not be repaid. But loans are to be repaid.
91
Management of Financial Again loans can be of either hard or soft loans. The hard loans are called hard
Resources loans because they are given to the hard sector like steel, power in addition
to harder terms and conditions such as with higher rates, shorter maturities
and with no grace periods. On the contrary, Soft loans are obviously for soft
sector like health, education, rural development, etc with low (or no) interest
rates, long maturities and with grace periods. Soft loans are offered for 50
years with no interest, only a service charge of 3/4 of 1 percent.
Since the mid 1980s, when the attention of the international agencies shifted in favour
of poverty alleviation, the role of primary education in poverty alleviation was
recognized. The share of primary education has become significant in total education
lending. A clear shift in favor of primary education can be noted after the Jomtien
Conference on Education for All. Generally the external resources that flow into
the education systems are expected to be additive to the domestic resources, and
that they would not substitute the national efforts. But it is not necessarily the case
always.
External assistancecan play an important catalyticrole in the development of education,
but relative to the countries' domestic education budgets, the external assistance for
education is generallyvery small. Externally aided projects should become sustainable
over time. Countries with low levels of income and educational development need
to be provided assistance in terms oftechnical assistance as well as physical (material
and direct monetary) inputs. Countries with low levels of income and reasonably
high levels of educational development do not require technical assistance; external
aid may be concentrated on direct money inputs, and material support. Countries
with high levels of income and low levels of educational development need to be
provided external aid in terms of technical assistance. Countries with high levels of
income and educational development obviously do not require any kind of external
assistance foreducation. The efforts of donor agencies in all categories of countries
should concentrate on building national capacities and long term development of
education in the country concerned.
Check Your Progress
7) What are the external resources for education?
8) Mention any two new approaches for resources mobilisation could be adopted
in any area for education.
92
,Qc
Resource Mobilisation in
9.6 POLICY OPTIONS IN RESOURCE MOBILISATION Education
A number of measures as policy options have been suggestedfor mobilizing resources

for education, which may be classified as short -term and cost control measures;
and, cost-effective and long-term measures. It is often suggested that the prospects
for cost reduction and increasing intensity of resource use through measures such as
raising student -teacher ratios and class size, encouraging double or multiple shifts in
an educational institutions, use of distance mode, school mapping, alternative modes
of delivery; declining average teacher costs through recruiting para teachers and
decliningthe unit costs by restructuring curriculum, limiting non-salarycosts, training
teachers to teach several subjects and reducing the length of secondary schooling.
All these measures would come under the first category - cost-control and short-
term measures, which will seriously affect the growth, balance and quality of not
only the secondary education system but also the entire education system ( Table
9.1).
Other set of policy options, which are cost-effective in nature consist of - increasing
teacher utilization; reducing repetition and drop-out rates; ensuring effective school
management and increasing school size to an optimum level.All these measures are
cost-effective measures and will certainly improve not only the resource availability
but also the quality,balance and growth ofthe education system. Education systems
with such improvements are the bonanza to the system as a whole. But, it would
require very strong governance and management.
Table 9.1 Various Policy Options on Mobilisation of Resources in
Education: Its Nature and Impact
Policy Options Nature of the Impact / Remarks

Option
Enhance overall allocations to Long-term Total resources available to the
the education sector education sector will augment
Shift resources from other Short-term Secondary education development at
levels of education the cost of other levels of education.
Decentralised financing Local governments should have the
power and revenue raising potential
Reduce the length of Short term Quality is at risk
secondary schooling and cost -
control
measure
Decline the unit costs by
restructuring curriculum
Increasing PTR and class size Cost - control Quality of the education system will
measure be at stake
Declining average teacher Cost-control Quality is at risk
costs - para teachers measure
Limiting non-salary costs Cost-control Share of non-salary costs is already
measure less m developing countries. But
important item like student welfare is
already less and will be nil
Increasing school size Cost-effective given that the school operates under
measure - the economies of scale (declining unit
cost and marginal costs)
Reducing repetition and drop- Cost - Quality will also improve
out rates effective
measure 93
Resources
Reducing capital costs Cost-control Share of capital costs is already less

measure in developing countries. This will
adversely affect the growth of the
system.
Alternatives modes of Cost - control Quality is at risk; creating inequities
delivery measure in the s stem \
Cost recovery and community Equity at Students from low-income families
contributions stake unless are affected.
-Tuition fee poor students
-Learning material fee are fully
-Subsidised loan scheme financially
-Food and boardin fee su orted
External assistance Short-term Can only lend a helping hand but can
.not sustain
~ PTR : Pupil Teacher Ratio.
Besides these cost-control and cost-effective measures, a number of policy options
are often suggested which seriously affects either quality and growth or equity and
balance of the system. Shifting resources from one to other levels of education or
reallocation of resources within the education sector is often opted for which is
tantamount to saying that growth of secondary education at the cost of other levels
of education. Interdependence between different levels of education is often ignored.
It is essential to note that primary education forms an organic link to secondary and
then secondary education forms a synergetic link to senior secondary and higher
levels of education.
Check Your Progress
9) Discuss the use of alternative modes of education in the context of nature and
impact in secondary education.
9.7 LET US SUM UP

We have described the various ways of mobilizing resources for education and
observed that the government is the most important source. Since most institutions
are financed by the government, mobilisation of resources from non-governmental
sources for education has not been a maj or task till 1990s. Since 1990s, the extent
of mobilizing resources from students in the form of fees, and a few contributions in
cash and kind from the rest of the community, including parent-teacher associations,
etc have been on the rise. However, given the world experience and desirability, the
education system cannot depend upon non-governmental sources to any significant
extent. Governments-Central, state and local layers of administration have to provide
94 adequate resources for education, mobilizing resources through general and special
;
taxes and other efficient methods. Non-governmental resources could be seen mainly Resource Mobilisation in
as supplementary resources for the supplementary activities. Education

Organize a discussion forum with your peer-students in your study centre and discuss
Various ways on the resource mobilisation in education sector in your state Idistrict.
Write a report.
9.9 REFERENCES
Benson, C. (1987) Educational financing, in Psacharopoulos, G.(Eds) Economics
of Education, Research & Studies, Pergamon Press, p.323
Blaug, M. (1970) An Introduction to the Economics of Education, Allen Lane,
The Penguin Press, p. 139.
Coombs, P.(1985) The world crises in education: The view form the eighties, New
York, Oxford, p. 137. .
Gaba, A. (2006) Economics of Vocational Education, New Delhi: Aravali Books
International (P) Ltd.
Tilak, J.B.G.(2003) Determinants of household expenditure on education in India in
Tilak, J.B.G. (Eds.) Financing Education in India, Current Issues and Changing
Perspectives, New Delhi: NIEPA& Ravi Books.
Tilak, J.B.G. (2003) Public expenditure on Education in India, A review of trends
and emerging Issues in Tilak, J.B.G. (Eds.) Financing Education in India, Current
Issues and Changing Perspectives, New Delhi: NIEPA& Ravi Books.
Darak G. Kishor, (2008) Community Participation as Resource in Elementary
Education, Paper presented at National Seminar on Community and School
Linkages: Principles and Practices (March 17-19, 2008), NUEPA, New Delhi.
Gaysu R.Arvind(2008) Locating Community in School Education: Emerging
Perspectives and Practices to Empowered Participatory Governance, Paper
presented atNational Seminar on Community and School Linkages: Principles and
Practices (March 17-19,2008), NUEPA, New Delhi.
Government of India(undated) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan- Framework for
Implementation. Ministry ofHRD, Department of Elementary Education and
Literacy, New Delhi.
Govinda. R & Diwan Rashmi (2003) Community Participation and

Empowerment in Primary Education, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Grant A. Carl (1979) Community Participation in Education, Allyn and Bacon,

USA
Kantha V.Vinay & Daisy Narain (2003) Dynamics of Community Mobilisation
in Govinda. R & Diwan Rashmi Community Participation and Empowerment in
Primary Education, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Mitsue Uemura(1999) Community Participation in Education: What do we
know? The World Bank.
Meenai Zubair(2008) Participatory Community Work, Concept Publishing

Company, New Delhi. 95
Resources 9.10 MODEL ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Internal and External resources.
2. The graduate tax in education specify tax levied on those who use educated
manpower. It is a tax on every graduate who is employed in an organisation.
3. The term cess generallymeans a tax. Educational cess is the cess or tax collected
specially for deployment in education.
4. Ref. section 9.4
5. a. Token fee
b. Minimal fee
c. Full cost fee

d. above full cost fee
6. Ref. section 9.4.6
7. External resources for education are mobiliged through several international

agencies. They are either bilateral or multi-lateral. The bi-lateral organization
include only two countries- the donor and receiving countries. Example - SIDA,
DIFD. And Multilateral organizations include UNICEF, UNESCO, WORLD
BANK, etc. Grants are purely aid and need not be repaid,
9. Ref. section 9.6
96
------~---------~----------------
Block-l Management of Curriculum
Unit-2 Curriculum Transaction
Unit-5 Management of Curricular & Co-curricular Programmes &

Activities
Unit-8 Accounting and Auditing
Unit-l 1 Management of Administrative Resources

-------------------------------------
Block-S Total Quality Management

-------------------------------------
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- Indira Gandhi
I
Ite~llndira Gandhi MES-044
Management
Block
..
3
MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN AND ADMINISTRATIVE
RESOURCES
UNIT 10
Management of Student Support System 5

UNIT 11
Management of Administrative Resources 25
UNIT 12
Management of Human Resources 49
.\
/
Expert Committee
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Prof. Snehaben Joshi ~ Lecturer (Selection Grade)
Prof. Vibha Joshi
SOE,IGNOU
ProL B.B. Khanna
Senior Fellow tr~oU
l+of S.K. Panda
'- TRIDE, IGNOU
New Delhi
..
Course- Contributors Or. S.K.Rout Proof Reading
Programme Officer, DEP-SSA Mr. Trilokes De
Dr. S.S. Jena
IGNOU Consultant
Chairman, NIOS
NOlDA, UP Mr. Trilokes De, Consultant SOE,IGNOU
SOE,IGNOU Content Editing
Dr. S.K. Triparti
R.D,IGNOU Unit Design and Editing Prof. M.B. Menon
RC Bhubaneswar Deptt. of Edu UNRWA
Prof. Vibha Joshi
Dr. Hema Pant SOE,IGNOU HQ(A), Jordon
Programme Officer, DEP-SSA
IGNOU
Production
Director Assistant Registrar (Pub.) S.O. (Pub.) .
School of Education
October, 2009
© Indira Gandhi National Open University. 2009
ISBN-978-81-266-4376-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in ar;JJorm. by mimeograph or any other
means. without permission inwriting from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l 10 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the lndira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Con tinuing Education, IGNOU.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers. Mayur Vihar; Phase-I. Delhi-91.
Printed At:- Kalyan Enterprises ,215/5 Ambadker Gali Moujpur,Delh! -53
I
BLOCK 3 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
AND ADMINISTRATIVE
RESOURCES
Introduction
Human resource is an increasingly broadening term that refers to managing' human

capital' ,the people of any organisation. It has moved from a traditionally administrative
function to a strategic one that recognises the link between talented and engaged
people and organisational success.
Human resource management is the function with in an organisation that focuses on
recruitment, management and providing directions for the people who work in the
organisation. It is the organisational function that deals with issues related to people
t such as compensation, hiring, performance, management, organisation, development,
.. safety, wellness, benefits, employee motivation, communication and training. This
block comprises three units. Let us briefly discuss them below:
Unit 10 deals with management of student support system. Student support is
a vital and important component in an education system. It aims at facilitating learners
as per their requirements by providing timely and appropriate academic support
and in turn facilitate learning.
The unit 11titles management of administrative resources. It discusses the need
for availability of the physica! resources required to carry out planned activities in
the institution. It also involves indentifying the requisite resources and planning their
uses effectively, efficiently and taking corrective action. It further discusses the
administrative setup and resources in the context of institutional management.
The title of the unit 12 is management of human resources. Its function includes
a variety of activities, and key among them is deciding what staffing needs to have
and whether to use independent or hire employees, ensuring their high performance,
dealing with performance issues and ensuring personnel and management practices
conform to various regulations. Further it also discusses importance and approaches
for management of human resources in institutions.
/
I

Unit-4 Management of Academic Res~)Urces
"
Activities
, . Unit-7 Cost and Budgeting

Unit-9 Resource Mobilisation
\
Unit-lO Management of Student Support System
Unit-13 Concept, Importance and Need oflnfrastructure

Management
Unit-15 Utilisation of Infra-structural Resources
Unit-t 6 Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators
Unit-I 8 . Strategies for Quality Improvement
Unit-I 9 Role of different Agencies
/
/
~ ....
UNIT 10 MANAGEMENT OF STUDENT
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Structure
10. 1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Student Support Services: The Concept
10.4 Student Support Services in the Higher Education Sector
10.5 Managing Student Support System

10.5.1 Pre-Course Information
10.5.2 Admission Related Information
10.5.3 Teaching Learning Strategy
10.6 Evaluation Methodology
10.7 Contextualising Student Support System

10.7.1 Support Service in Conventional System
10.7.2 Support Service in Open Education System
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 References
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is not acquiring information but the art of acquiring the right information .
and putting it to use wherever and whenever needed. It starts at the first breath
of an individual and continues till the last breath. Education is dissolving distance
between ignorance & knowledge, darkness & light. Narrowing the rifts and
bridging the distance is the essence of education. It is in this context, the higher
education institutions play a very crucial role for not only total development of the
citizen, but also build nation to meet its socio-cultural challenges. To make the
educational system more effective and operative, it is essentially to draw an
effective support system in the educational institutions, more specifically in the
context of higher education institutions, to not only build the confidence of its
learners but also give them desired direction for achieving the objectives of the .
institutions.
In the context of distance education, the student support services is more so

visualized from the stages of the course design to development and production of
instructional packages and till the delivery of the same is made to each individual
learners. As been observed the increased demand for distance education is due
to highly effective and personalised mode of teaching and making use of new
contemporary information and communication technologies. Just as the corporate
houses are customer oriented, the distance education institutions are leamer
oriented. As this is free from constraints of class room 'teaching' and giving
emphasis on 'learning', it is beyond the boundaries of time and place. Hence to
facilitate learning, distance education institutions give more emphasis on not only
I
ManageinentofHuinan and evolving multi-media approaches with multi channel delivery modes oflearning but
Administrative Resources also creating a sustainable support system to address to the varied needs of their
learners. An attempt is made through this unit to give you an overview on the
student support system in the higher education institutions.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
le
• explain the various facets of student support system in higher education

institutions;
• describe the need and strategy for effective management of the support
system;
• develop strategy plan for drawing effective academic Sliilp'Jrtsystem; and
• illustrate cases on academic support system of various higher education

.
, institutions.
10.3 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES: THE CONCEPT

The student support services in an educational institution provides opportunities
to the learners for basic inputs related to academic programmes offered and their
relevance in the contemporary socio-economic context, facilitating academic
development. It assists learners to meet the challenges related to course work,
serves to sustain and motivate learners towards the successful completion of the
course work, and thereby ensures greater retention rates in participation in the
coursework.
\ As been conceptualized in the context of higher education, the main aim

is to promote independent study habit with minimal support from the
institution. To concretize this, every institution extends support to its
learners, which comprises of a variety of facilities and activities that are
intended to make the teaching - learning process easier, flexible and more
interesting for the learners. As one observes in the context of open and
distance education system, all these activities are beyond the production
and delivery of course material and assist in the progress of students in
terms of learning, interacting and effective communication (Simpson, 2000)
and, therefore, the support system may range from study centre counselling!
tutorial support to administrative problem solving (Rumble, 1992). Lewis
(1984) had emphasized on the kind of support services the distance learners need
at various stages of their study linking to various forms of support services one
requires to successfully complete the coursework. Hence due to the physical
distance between the provider institution and learners effective student support
services is considered to be very crucial in the distance education system.
In recent years, many ofthe institutions in the conventional system (face-to-face

. mode) have also created credible system of student support service for guiding
the learners from the stage of pre-course counseling to off-course advice. This
has gained importance not only due to the competition among the institutions to
attract serious learners but also establish the credibility of the institutions before
the general public.
/
/
Management of Student
10.4 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES IN THE HIGHER
Support System
EDUCATION SECTOR
Educational institutions are mandated to impart instruction. For this they have to
decide programmes and courses of study, design and develop curricula, .decide
the learning outcomes, evolve suitable teaching -learning strategies, and formulate
the criteria of assessment and certification. The instructional system of the institution
has to be in conformity with its mission and goals. An important aspect of the
programmes offered by the institution, particularly at the higher education level, is
the extent of flexibility and autonomy exercised while deciding the programmes
and content. This varies from one institution to the other and each decides on the
programmes to be offered and their content. However programmes from various
institutions, have to be at a comparable level by way of depth of content, standards,
of assessment and achievement so that equivalence of qualification may be
ascertained.
The instructional system should integrate all possible channels of learning like,
classroom, teachers, laboratory work, group work, projects, self study etc, instead
of relying only on classroom engagement. This multiple media approach to instruction
will optimize learning outcomes.
Effective management of student support in higher education is also dependent on

assessment of the learning component. Since teaching-learning is affected over a
long period oftime, educationists vouch for a system of continuous evaluation of
the learning outcome rather than a terminal assessment system.
The important considerations in this regard are:
i) Content, structure and provision of flexibility in the choice of content.
ii) Instructional procedures clearly spelt out.
ill) Well defined assessment procedure.
These premises determine the learning contract between the student and the
institution and should therefore be conveyed to the student clearly and objectively,
before the student makes a choice.
Along with the details of the number and type of programmes offered by the
educational institution, the students will be keen to know the different types of
support services provided by the institution. These student support services will
facilitate smooth progress of learning throughout the duration of study. The level
of learner achievement will depend largely on the quality of support service
provided to the learner.
The student support services normally provided by higher education institutions

can be categorized as follows:
• provision of information about programmes and courses, teachers and their

qualifications, admission procedure, teaching learning methods, assessment
procedures, criteria of assessment, awarding grades, procedures for setting
disputes about assessments, admissions, etc. about the teacher schedules,
library work, laboratory work, tutorial, examination schedules etc. This will
help them to gauge the academic rigour of any particular programme.
• Provision for other curricular activities like sports and games, cultural and
social activities, community activities, group works, travels and competitions.
7
I
•
Management of Human and • Residential facilities and participation in their management. •
.Administrative Resources
• Participation in student association activities.
• Financial support provision like loans, scholarship, part-time employment
opportunities.
• Guidance and counseling services, including provision for placement of
successful students.
Management of student support services poses a big challenge for the administrators
and faculty of the educational institution. Student satisfaction and achievement will
depend primarily on the adequacy and quality of these services (IGNOU, 2001).
Check Your Progress

b) Check your answer with one given at the end of this unit.
1) Emimerate a few types of services that an educational institution needs to
provide for student support .
...................................................................................................................
•
10.5 MANAGING STUDENT SUPPORT SYSTEM
The effective management of student support services is a challenge for all
educational institutions.While in open and distance education system it is considered
to be the heart of the learning system, but in the conventional mode it reflects not
only the academic credibility of the organisation but also significantly contributes
to its social responsibilities. Many factors are to be considered before placing an
effective student support system in an institution of higher learning. As been
operationally observed, the support services begin even before the student is
enrolled to the institution/programme.The services provided to the students generally
includes access to information regarding the institution, its status related to
recognition/affiliation,information about the academic programmes/courses offered,
the admission procedure, the teaching-learning methodologies adopted, access to
the institutional resources, evaluation system, placement facilities and so on. The
basic objectives of ,these services are to create better learning environment and
choosing a right career for the students. Thus support systems basically linked to
the following services in an educational institution. '
10.5.1 Pre-Course Information

Every student expects the right kind of information before choosing the career to
be pursued after higher edocation. As there is a transition takes place from school
to college before a student is placed at any institution of higher learning, there are
many socio-psychological factors crops up into the mind of the learners as the
learners are facilitated based on guided principle at the former context, but more
of independent decision are expected from the learner at the later stage. Hence,
dissemination of right kind of information as pre-admission counseling like the
8 social credibilityof the institution,prospect of students on the academic programmes
/
I
offered, registration procedure, teaching-learning strategies, institutional resources, Management of Student
linkages of institution on the job-market etc. This helps the learners precisely to Support System
take an independent view on the choice of right career at this stage.
In the context of open and distance education, similar kind of expectation ~sthere
from the learners, but the context on seeking the information seems to be different
resulting in change of methodology in disseminating the information. However,
irrespective of the modes of learning, the dissemination strategy requires careful
planning, effective publicity and the quality of information supplied to the learners
influences his/her choice of course as a large number of unemployed manpower
without proper vision about their career enter into the tertiary education system.
10.5.2 Admission Related Information

The institutionsuse various means to disseminate informationrelatedto the admission
procedure. Many institutions use the well designed admission brochures for the
• purpose. In recent years, a good number of institutions provide the detailed
information on their websites. No-doubt placing the information on the website
helps the student to have quick access to the information, and thereby saving a
great deal of time and resources of students, but many gray areas remain un-
answered due to the diversified nature of the information and every student has
his/her unique problem to be addressed. The help-line available in many of the
institutions address to this issue to a great extent, but lack of such facilities in a
large number of them in the context of small town! rural areas keep the students
in a disadvantaged position. Freeman (1997) explaining the issues related to
managing enrolment information in the context of distance education categorized
the purpose in four folds viz. :
• create the contact between the organisation and learners,
• collect information that the organisation requires to meet the learner's need,
• provide learners with the information that they need between the time of
enrolment and starting the course, and
• collect information needed for management and funding purpose.
As you may agree, by and large most of the students aspiring for enrolment
expect similar information irrespective of the modes of study they choose.
Accordingly, the institutions also solicit through the admission brochure desired
information to meet the expectations of the learners, which could be at two levels
I.e.
• information of basic nature, and
• course and career related information.
While the basic information pertains to personal details, contact address,
programme/course to be pursued, educational background, identificationinformation
etc., the course! career related information are basically provided to the learner
through the admission prospectus! brochure such as programme objectives, advice
on course details,teaching learning strategies,evaluation system etc. The information
flow on both ways helps to facilitate understanding the learner requirement as well
as institutional obligations.
10.5.3 Teaching Learning Strategy

The teaching learning strategy adopted by an educational institution is an integral
and crucial part of the support services being provided to the learners. A well
defined teaching learning strategy contributes significantly to the success and
9
attainment of learning outcomes by the student.
/
/
Managementofl-Iuman and Every institution must have a teaching learning plan. This will facilitate the
Administrative Resources management of the teaching leaming process, strategies, activities and relaled
processes. The plan should be regularly reviewed and updated against the set
tergets and analysed for the factors which affect the provisions of teaching learning
within the higher education institution.
For example, the University of Melbourne, develops an Annual Teaching and
Learning Management Plan. This document 'contains the student support profile
and detailed structure of the provision for effective teaching and learning process.
The plan is focused on the attainment of long term goals of the University and acts
as a stepping stone for facilitating high quality teaching and learning. The work
plan for teaching and learning provide practical guidelines to the faculty and
administrators for achieving the institutional goals.
The aspects of management plan focuses on:
•. High priority to attainment of intended attributes of the graduates .
..
• Exercises a positive influence on the perceptions and experiences of students
during their stay in the university.
• Identifying strategies and initiatives for effective teaching and learning.
• Emphasis on the university conunitrnent to high quality teaching and learning
through a comprehensive statement.of the plan
• Foster development of good practice in teaching and the sliaringof information
about these practices.
• Set measures and outcomes which will enable the university to assess rigorously
how well the teaching and learning objectives are being achieved and
• Encourage innovation in teaching particularly in relation to the application of
new technologies to the teaching environment.
(University of Melbourne, Teaching and Learning Management Plan, 2005).
The University of Western Australia is also committed to values which characterise
a leading institution of higher learning. The university has prepared a planning
framework for teaching and learning which embodies the primary goal statement.
There are nine objectives with clearly defined strategies for attaining this goal. For
example, one of the objectives is, "to provide courses that are responsive to
student, community and professional needs and demands". The strategies identified
for achieving this are:
• "Provide means for effective program review and design (e.g. use of outside
advisory bodies in professional areas, external including overseas evaluations).
• Ensure degree course structures as responsive to emerging community needs.
• Incorporate work/professional experience component into University courses.
• Use expertise in other leading universities worldwide to set Honours and
Masters Dissertation standards.
• Seek (and use feedback) from the 'consumers' of the University's courses.
• Use expertise in other leading universities to assist in curriculum design.
• Work with professional groups in developing continuing education and
10 nrofessional devel('1t'1mf'nt
•...
1'()O1""l..,....~ "
/
I
We could examine another objective in the plan framework which deals with Management of Student
provision of teaching-learning infrastructure. The objective is, "to provide high Support System
quality teaching facilities, e.g. libraries, laboratories, lecture halls and other teaching
infrastructure". The strategies envisaged to achieve this are:
• Allocate resources to give a high priority to excellent teaching infrastructure.
• Avoid enrolling students beyond funded enrolment levels.
• Utilise fee income, from overseas and Australian post graduate students, to
improve teaching facilities."
(http://www.admin.uwa.edu.aulreglstratplan.html)
The plan document has well defmed strategies which focus on providing excellent
teaching and learning support services to the registered students.
• The managementof teaching and learning of educationalinstitutionsshould primarily
.
, focus on access, equity and quality that keep them at par with the global higher
education system.
10.6 .EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
Evaluation is a comprehensive term that includes assessment of both scholastic

and non-scholastic characteristics of students. It is concerned with assessment of
all three domains of behaviour : cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Therefore,
the evaluation procedure! methodology will entail assessment of intellectual,
emotional, physical and personality attributes of the learner.
Evaluation techniques depend to a large extent upon the instructional objectives
to be attained through a particular content transaction. In higher education, mostly
evaluation is geared to an assessment of the cognitive abilities of the learner, which
is done through a conventional term-end examination. However, the learning
situations which aim to bring about changes in psychomotor domain i.e. focus on
acquisition of skills and competencies require a different set of testing procedures.
For example, these instructional situations could be, laboratory work, project
work, seminar etc., which are more process oriented. The evaluation procedure
thus deperids on the instructional situation and the objective that the function is set
to achieve. The evaluation procedure thus depends on the instructional situation
and the objective that the function is set to achieve. In conventional Indian
Universities and colleges two types of assessment procedures are followed:
i) Continuous Assessment (Internal Assessment)
ii) Term -end Assessment.
The continuous assessment is a formative evaluation procedure, which is undertaken
when the instruction is going on. This provides feedback to both teachers and
students about their strengths and weakness and also the nature and types of
difficulties they encounter as they progress through the course. Learners are able
to identify their needs and potential traits and characteristics, which motivates
them to pursue the instructional goals with greater zeal and enthusiasm, as much
as it promotes regularity and good study habits. Continuous evaluation is generally
performed in the following ways:
Oral exercise - debates, discussions, quizzes, dramatisations

Written exercises - preparing charts, writing assignments, bulletins etc
11
/
I
\ \
Management of Human and Periodical test- can be both oral and written of shorter duration based on subject
Administrative Resources matter taught.
The term-end assessment is a summative evaluation process, where the main
objective is to assess the students' performance for the entire duration of study
i.e. semester/ term. Based.on
~ the results of the term-end assessment the student
moves to the next level. Hence, a learner's achievement in the term-end examination
is crucial and place tremendous responsibility on the evaluators and the procedures
they adopt. The conventional colleges and universities have adopted a central
evaluation system where the assessment is centralised at one location and is to be
completed within a stipulated time frame. The other system adopted is dispatch
of answer sheets to evaluators which is practiced by conventional as well as
almost all ODL Universities. However both systems have their own advantages'
and are fraught with disadvantages too. Both procedures are complementary to
each other and not mutually exclusive.
The head of the Institution has to evolve a suitable policy to ensure selection of
.. a suitable assessment procedure. The norms and procedures should be
communicated to the members undertaking th.~evaluation task, so that each can
fulfill their role and responsibilities as evaluators.
According to Rumble (1986), evaluation is important as it helps one to:
Understand one's operation better, thus improving one's decision making,
Monitor one's performance.
Learn about one's operation with a view to improving it,
Satisfy oneself and external agencies that one is effective in achieving one's
aims and objectives, and
Satisfy oneself and external agencies that one is cost efficient.
Approaches to evaluation are different in a distance education institution. In this
situation a student and teachers are separated, whereas a conventional set up
teachers and students are in direct contact. The latter situation provides direct
feedback to teachers from a student. A teacher can modify the teaching-learning
methodology accordingly, In a distance education the course-designs have to rely
heavily on the results of the evaluation procedure adopted to get a feedback on
the instructional methodology adopted. The evaluators in this case, is most likely
to be intermediaries between the teachers, i.e course designers, and the students.
This imparts a greater responsibility on evaluation managers to ensure efficiency
and efficacy of assessment procedures. Moreover distance education system
cater to very large number of learners, belonging to heterogeneous backgrounds,
registered for a diverse range of COlU"Ses.
The programmes range from the traditional
ones to non-traditional courses at different levels of certification-degree, diploma,
awareness, etc. Considering the heterogeneity of the clientele in terms of types of
courses, language, level of course, the institutions have to evolve a reliable
examination procedure. The evaluation strategy adopted by the institution focusing
on institutional reforms as suggested by University Grants Commission include the
following: .
Reliability of setting of question papers and providing model.answers

Centralized evaluation.of answer scripts
12 Creation of question banks
I
Internal assessment with a focus on making it a regular feature of eonventional Management of Student
higher education colleges. This could be done with in a broad framework Support System
evolved at the central level at Association of Indian Universities (AIU).

Identification of rational criteria of students attainments
Evolving an accurate marking system which reports the~resultsof internal and
external assessments
Setting up a National Testing Service.
'.
This idea ofNTS was put forth by the National Policy on Education (1986).
The policy envisaged to conduct test on a voluntary basis, to ascertain the
suitability of candidates for a particular job, even though without formal
qualifications. The policy laid emphasis on vocationally trained manpower.
Check Your Progress
2) Give two reasons to explain the difference in management of evaluation
system in conventional and distance education systems .
•••• • ••• • •• ••••• , ••••••••••••••••••• t ••••••••••••••• ~•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '0_
10.7 CONTEXTUALISING STUDENT SUPPORT

SYSTEM
You read in section 10.4 that provision and management of student support
service poses many challenges to the educational institution on the one hand and
on the other hand, it gives opportunities of the beneficiaries, i.e., students. All
institutions of higher learning have to gear their efforts to fulfill the daunting task
of managing provision of adequate support services to the students without
compromising on the quality dimension. You also learnt that education is for
public cause and is organised as a social system, which serves the people. The
educational institution has to therefore function within the parameters of national
policies formulated by the government, and has to operate in the purview of their
laws and policies. The student support services of the institution will be informed
by the broad guidelines and policies of the government, under whose jurisdiction
it operates.
In this context the management and governance of student support service will
vary depending on its structure and organisational pattern. We will study the
management of student support services in the following two types of higher
education institutions in the context of: -
~ Student support services in the conventional system.
ii) Student support services in open educational systems.
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Management orHuman and 10.7.1 Support Services in Conventional System
Administrative Resources
All universities and colleges operate within a framework of rules and regulations
laid down by the Central or State Governments or the regulatory bodies like
University Grants Commission, AICTE, and NCTE in the context of India. They
• grant them recognition, ensure provision of infrastructural resources and also put
in financial and political cbnstraints. The services provided by the institutions have
to be geared to emerging needs in the social and global contexts, considering the
increase in knowledge resources and student enrollments. The onus of providing
appropriate and well organised student support depends on how well the support
services are managed by the institution. The conventional institution has to manage
with increasing numbers, diverse learner abilities, cognitive skills, motivational
levels and a heterogeneous multi-cultural background. This requires effective
management of all activities by the head of the institution and the teachers. They
should be able to work in teams, organise activities, delegate and plan at macro
and micro levels, so as to achieve the institutional goals.
'. In order to execute teaching-learning activities, a teacher has to organise academic
and non-academic work. A teacher has to conduct tutorials, eo-curricular activities,
departmental meetings, extension activities for which team work is also required.
For the sucoess of this endeavour the work has to be delegated to the team
members further for achieving goals in an effective manner. The delivery of student
services has to be planned at the macro and micro levels, within a stipulated
timeframe. Macro level planning of activities will span over a larger time frame like
- years/months/weeks. Micro-planning will cater to organisation of activities for
a particular day or some hours. ~
Let us discuss the activities which a conventional college or university will pl~ at
both levels for providing effective student support to their learners.
Macro level: at this level the whole years' academic and non-academic work is
chalked out. As per the current practice it involves, designing the timetable, i.e.,
deciding the number of teaching periods to be assigned per course/ paper for the
entire year, considering the subject specialisatinns and workload of teachers. In
a broader sense, the curriculum planning is also done by the college. A curriculum
involves all the learning experiences - direct or indirect to be provided to the
students to achieve the instructional goals. The curriculum comprises course content,
eo-curricular content, teaching-learning strategy/processes and evaluation.
Planning the Syllabus is at macro level. Year wise/semester wise scheduling the
content with specifications ofthe timeframe and mode of delivering the content,
constitutes a syllabus.
The criteria adopted for planning syllabus by the institution can be summarised as
number of days available per term/semester for teaching-learning. This is obtained
in two steps: .
1) Adding the number of days for assessment, for eo-curricular work and
holidays.
2) Subtract the total at 1 from the number of working days. This gives the
number of days available exclusively for teaching-learning.
The content has to be distributed on the above format along with number of hours
per topic and the methodology to be used for that topic. For example, let us
examine the syllabus for Educational Psychology, in a teacher training college.
14
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Month Week No Unit I.Topic Methodology Material I Management of Student
visits Support System
December 1 Educational Group Reference
Research: discussion on books, websites
Meaning and . meaning of
Concept research and
types of ~
research. •
Library work for
concept of
research.
Inductive/
deductive
approaches
In this manner all topics in each course are distributed within the semester/year.
.
'
Time-table is prepared by the principal of the college in consultation with the
teachers and departmental heads. The heads have to ensure equitable distribution
.. of workload among the faculty members. The workload involves administrative
duties as per need and eo-curricular activities, in addition to classroom teaching.
Micro planning: At the macro level, the curriculum, syllabus and time-table,
provide abroad frame work to the teachers to plan their teaching, The teaching-
learning strategy to be adopted in the classroom for delivering the content as per
the time- schedule is the decision of the individual teacher. However, the teacher
has to operate and impart instruction bearing in mind the long term institutional
. goals and the immediate instructional objectives. For the latter micro planning is
essential. .
Some other activities to be performed by the college teacher, could include non
teaching work like:
• counselling students
• meeting their parents
• advocacy of the institution to other people
• research activities
An important aspect of support services is the organisation and management of
administrative activities of the institution. The head/principal/vice chancellor may
have to delegate some administrative duties to the teachers for smooth provision
of these services. These student support activities pertain to:
•. admissions,
• conduct of examinations and
• evaluation of student performance.
Let us understand how these activities are organised by a conventional college/
university.
. I) Admissions: At the beginning of each session, students are admitted to
different programines( courses) of study. Activities involved are:
• determination of admission criteria,
•. announcement of dates of admissions, notifying the admission dates and
giving it wide publicity - through mass media, local dailies, etc.,
,
• checking and screening of applications as per eligibility criteria,
• informing. the students as per merit list and
15
• adPl:i!!ingstudents in the respective departments of ~()l!~Ji~!
_university.
/
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Management of Human and Il) Conduct of examinations: All institutions are involved in the process of
Administrative Resources conducting continuous and terminal examinations. Examinations are a method of
assessing the student's achievement in a course of study, ability to apply the
knowledge to new situations and also to diagnose the learners' strengths and
weaknesses. The various tasks and activities to be undertaken are manifold,
hence need to be systematically organised. The activities to be managed for the
smooth conduct of examinations in a college are as follows:
• Registration of eligible students for the course.
• Checking eligibility of the students to write the exam (attendance proof in
each course/paper).
• Preparing list of students registering for private examinations or external
examinations.
• Preparing a list of qualified candidates.
• Question paper setting and moderation.
• Proper arrangements at the identical exams centres, which is Ithe college
I
premises itself.
• Dispatch of answer sheets ( and other stationary)maintaining the confidentiality.
• Safe custody of question papers ensuring confidentiality, proper sealing, etc.
• Dispatching answer sheets for evaluation with proper confidentiality.
• Getting answer sheets evaluated.
• Ensuring retum of evaluated answer sheets - manually or through computer.
• Proper reporting of unfair means cases and follow up action.
• Declaration of results.
In most colleges and universities there is an examination cellldivisionlbranch which
ensures smooth execution of the evaluation activities.It is the collectiveresponsibility
of administrative and academic staff to conduct examination in a free and fair
manner. However, teachers of colleges, particularly in the Indian context undertake
most examination related activities, such as question paper setting, supervising
conduct of examination. evaluation of papers, preparing results and so on. Hence
they owe greater responsibility to the learners. The administrative activities are the
responsibility of the functionaries in the examination cell.
10.7.2 Support Services in Open Education System (IGNOU,

NIOS SOUs)
Distance education at the tertiary level can be pedagogically operationalised in
broadly three ways;
• Single mode: The institution is designed and developed exclusively for
distance education.
• Dual mode: Distance teaching is provided in addition to face to face teaching
by a traditional university.
• Mixed Mode: Learners have the option to choose the mode of study from
the several forms provided by the institution, depending on their needs and
requirements.
Single Mode Institutions
Let us examine the management of student support services in a single mode

institution, with particular reference to the Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), India. The vision and mission ofIGNOU emphasizes aspects of access
16 and equity with a view to democratize and bring in more equity in higher education.
/
/
IGNOU is the apex body, entrusted with the task of funding, maintaining and Management of Stud eat
Support System
coordinating standards of open and distance education at the tertiary level. To
fulfill its mandate of access and equity to all those desirous of seeking higher
education, its student support services are organised through a countrywide network.
The student support services are managed through the length and breadth of the
country by the regional services division (RSD) at the~IGNOU headquarter in
New Delhi. The university has extended its outreach to learners outside the
country,the support services for which it manages through the international division
at the IGNOU headquarter. The RSD operates through a network of over 60
regional centres, 1500 learner support centres spread in all the 35 states and
union territories of the country. The learner support centres cater to the diverse
needs and requirements of the heterogeneous learner groups. The RSD plans and
monitors the activities of study centres and also develops necessary delivery
mechanisms for the launching and coordination of academic programme by the
university over the years, the university developed a diversified delivery mechanism,
based on the growing demand for different kinds of progr~es. At the inception
.. the university had only one type of study centres, but over the years it has evolved
by establishing different types of study centres like: - Programme study centres,
special study centres, Partner Institutions, Recognized study centres etc. This
diversified approach addresses the needs of all sections of learners and extends
its provisions and services to the learners in disadvantaged and difficult areas. The
diversified strategies and delivery mechanisms are operationalized on the basis of
a flexible policy framework that ensures an extended outreach the learners and
provision of better services to them.
Table 10.1 illustrates the support services offered by the Regional Centres and
Study Centres, coordinated and monitored by the RSD.
Table 10.1 : Support Services offered at IGNOU for its learners

Study Centres Regional Centres Headquarters
• General information • General • Material production
• Sale of application information and distribution to
forms • Students guidance Regional centre
• Organizing academic • Students admission • Students admission
counseling • Fee collection • Computerisation of
• Organization of audio • Answering student admissions
video programme querries • Guidelines for
• Providing library • Distribution of evaluation
facilities study materials • Evaluation of CMAs
• Arranging teaching • Maintenance of • Term end
facilities for student records examinations
teleconferencing • Training • Overall grading
• Providing computer programmes/ semin • Declaration of
terminals ars/ conferences results
• Handling of • Teleconference • Awarding Degrees
assignments • Teaching facilities •- Organising
• Continuous • Administration and Training/
evaluation of TMAs finance Orientation
• Conduct Term-end • Advertisement and Programme
examination promotion of • Seminars and
• Attending student IGNOU's activities conferences
quenes and programmes
• Training programmes
17
I
Management of Human and IGNOU adopts a multi media mode of instruction for delivery of its academic
Ad i lstrative Resources
programmes. This instructional strategy leads to the specialized nature of the
organisation and management of the student support services.
Fig. 10.1 depicts the various components of the instructional system at IGNOU
Identify Educational/
Printed Media
Training needs & learner
Group
Counseling
face -io- face
Plan and Design the
Curriculum
Lab
Production of practical/training
multimedia
Evaluation
Instructi onal Audio
materials Cassettes
Radio
Delivery
Broadcasting learners I
System
Video cassettes
IntemetlCD -
ROM integrated
voice and data
Tele-counselling /
Tele - conferencing
Fig. 10.1: Instructional System
(Source: ES-314, Block-4, page 83)
The IGNOU has now acquired the stand of a mega university and caters to the
needs of over 1.5 million students enrolled in the system. The academic programmes
launched by the university are around 300 and are delivered to the learners
through a well managed support services network. With the development of
satellite communication in the country, the university is using this facility for its
programmes, by organising teleconferencing. It also has the FM radio stations and
Gyan Darshan TV channels for the broadcast and telecast of its programmes. The
university has also made extensive use of EDUSAT network for programme
delivery. It has also operationalised a single window schemes for defense and
paramilitary personnel.
The major problem confronting the management of such an extensive support

service network is that of easy and ready access to its instructional system by
learners.
18
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Check Your Progress Management oCStudent
Support System
b) Check your answers with those given atthe end ofthis unit.
3) Explain diversified student support services in the context ofIGNOU.

t
4) Explain Single mode institution .
.
....................................................................................................................
5) Explain Dual Mode Institutions
Dual Mode Institutions Let us examine the management of student support

services in a dual mode institution, for e.g. University of Delhi, India or University
of Southern Queensland, (USQ) Australia.
The USQ was established in 1967, offering campus higher education to the
people of Darling Downs Region of South Queensla.id. In 1977, it was converted
to a dual mode institution and was granted university status in 1989. As a dual
mode university it provided instruction to off campus learner spread over 40
countries (lGNOU, 2000). It has expanded since its inception as one of the
country's largest higher education institute and designated as the country's distance
education centre. Instruction is imparted through a variety of media like print,
audio tapes, video tapes, telephone, teleconference (audio, audio graphic video),
computer managed learning! computer based exercise, CD-ROM, multimedia,
computer mediated conferencing, internet based learning etc.
The student support services are coordinated through a regional network comprising
of Regional Liaison Officers (RLOs) in various Regions through out Eastern
Australia, and work as part time staff. The learners seek redressal of their problems
and grievances through the RLO network, telephone, fax, e-mail etc. The l~arners'
inquiries are entered into a database. The inquiries which are mostly administrative
in nature are answered by the outreach services staff. The academic units are
residential schools which are a voluntary component are also managed by the
outreach sections. The distance learners have the option to visit the campus for
face-to-face teaching -learning and peer interaction on available other services
provided.
19
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Management of Human and The provisions at the USQ centres consist of resource materials like audio, video
programmes, telephone facilitiesfor tutorials, facilitiesfor computer assisted learning.
. These services supplement the USQ teaching package, which consists of study
books and books for extra reading, audio cassettes studies, computer managed
learning booklets, administrative packages, study charts in accordance with
objectives of the unit. USQ has also established study centers in many countries
across the world. (lGNOU, 2000)
USQ has a flexible learning agenda which seeks to establish a sustainable range
of learning opportunities that incorporate technology enhanced learning for all
students.
The flexibility in teaching learning basically includes following flexibilities:
• Curriculum design, assessment procedures, negotiated curricula, assessment

and teaching based on different learning styles.
• Delivery through distance and on line mode, on-campus study, intensive

mode or any other delivery mechanism that can take on current challenges
faced by students.
• Can also apply to other aspects of university process which affect the student
learning progress like admission, equity issues and faculty organisations.
(http://www.usq.edu.aullearnteach/topicslflex)
There are many factors that hinder the effective provision and efficient management
of support services in dual mode institutions. This is particularly true where distance
education system has been instituted within a traditional face setup. Some of these
factors could be are:
Resistance from academic staff due to additional work load, comparison of

status' of distance and conventional learners, desire to offer individualized
learning as opposed to standardized learning offered though self instructional
material, and also compounded by the inability to cope with a new
methodology, placing demands on their expertise in curriculum and advanced
technology/Hope, A, 2005).
This has a fallout on support services to be provided to the enrolled learners,

as was witnessed in the case of University of West Indies(Hope, A, 2005).
Corrective action, that could provide some solutions and better of delivery
and management of student support systems could be (Koul, 2000; 235, in
Hope, A 2005).
Establishment of a quality assurance system.
Bolstering major operations that are instrumental for the success of DE

enterprise:
a. student support services
b. course development
c. study material distribution
d. training and orientation of academic tutors
e. proper investment in DE
20 f training in technology
I
A good example of dual mode institution in South Asia, is the School of Management of'Student
Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education (SCCE) of the University of Support System
Delhi. The SCCE was established on a pilot basis in 1962, to offer correspondence
courses. The enrolment of students for its undergraduate degree programmes has
increased over the years, particularly those who fail to secure admission in the
· formal system. The SCCE, now termed as the Campus for Qpen and Distance
. Learning has almost75,000 students enrolled with it. Efforts are ~n by the university
; to further improve and update its provisions through the campus of open learning
· ,as much as through the traditional mode. Quality of outcomes, whether from
single or dual mode or mixed mode, can be maintained only if there is consistency
in the provision of educational experiences to the learner. Learners should have
the freedom to choose the mode of study, and institutions must ensure an feel
responsible to communicate the parity of esteem and certifications obtained from
,either modes.
Mixed Mode Institutions .A comparison of the conventional and open education
•
institutions at the tertiary level reveals that although these institutions continue to
.
,
thrive yet the fine demarcation between their categories has disintegrated. This
can be largely attributed to invasion of internet technologies which have made the
provision oflearning support services more flexible and accessible to the learners.
Several terminologies are being used to describe the lCT-enabled instructional
•
system, which has enhanced flexibility. These terms are, 'virtual education', 'on-
.iue leaming', 'e-learning' and 'm-learning'. Both on-campus and off-campus
students can have access to the blended and flexible approach which is a mix of
"unor-mediated and self-directed, resource based online learning" (Hope Andrea,
2005).
A university can offer a range of program delivery options as depicted in Table ,
10.2.
Table 10.2: Typical range of delivery options 'in US campus university
in 2002
·.
..
(Source:
. . .
.'
(Alkm and Seaman, 2003;6)
. • .
Alien and Seaman,. 2003: 6, reproduced form "FaC!brS for success in Dual Mode
Institutions, Hope Andrea,2005)
Providing support servi~es to learners, particularly i;:l distance education institutions

is a.challenging task, primarily because of the large n~mbers of learners to be
catered to. According to Bates (2<105aibid :64), there were 9 million distance
. .~
/
I \ \
Me gementofHumanand learners all over the world, of which 5 million were in print and broadcast based
Aat.inistrative Resources DE programs. The Commonwealth alone accounted for 3 million in 2003 and this
number increased to 6 million by 2005 (Hope, A. 2005).
The UK Quality Assurance Agency's (QAA's) Code of Practice describes distance
education as flexible and distributed learning (FDL) which is a definite shift from
the conventional face to face paradigm. The FDL necessitates a structure of
learner support embracing a continuum of pedagogical opportunities. The QAA
has provided, " a three dimensional model in which a student's learning experiences
can be represented as a function of the size of the group of learners, the location
oflearning and the mode oflearning." (QAA, 2004).
Predominately FDL
.. &eooi1Uodels
predominately fa.;;e-·
to-face models
cohon learners
Off-sile Ieamuig
Lone learner
On-site learning
Fig: 10.!: Student Learning Experiences: A three-Dimensional Model
(Source: Reproduced from, "Factors for success in Dual Mode Institutions" Hope, A,
2005)
Hence earlier paradigms have to be redesigned so as to suit the complex technology

enabled teaching- learning environments which have now emerged (Hope A.,200S).
10.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you studied about the management of student support~t.ems, in the
context of conventional and distance education set ~urfit dealt with the
components of student support in higher educatloii and the services which are
provided to the learners through the tertiary level institution. Effective management
of student support services, still poses a big challenges for educational institutions.
Factors affecting the smooth delivery of support services and the types of services
provided were also discussed. The.management of instructional system, i.e the
teaching learning strategy and the evaluation methodology are crucial in determining
the success of educational enterprise management of support services, was discussed
in the context of conventional universities and colleges, especially with reference
to India. The delivery of student services effectively was discussed in the context
of distance education institutions at the tertiary level was both through single
mode, dual mode and mixed mode systems.
22
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Management of Student
10.9 UNIT END ACTIVITIES Support System
1. Prepare a model format for appraisal of the conduct of term/semester end

examination in the college where you teach/have taught/have studied.
2. Prepare a list of managerial duties that you will need to undertake as the
Principal of a College to ensure smooth provision of student SUppOltservices.
10.10 REFERENCES
1. Freeman, Richard (1997): "Managing Open Systems", Kogan 'Page, London
2. Rumble, Greville (1986): "The Planning and Management of Distance

Education". "Croom Helm, Sydney, London
3. The University of Melbourne (2005): Teaching and Learning Management

Plan
4. The University of WesternAustralia (2002): Teaching and Learning: Planning,

Management 'and Quality Assurance (Teaching and Learning Management
Plan)
5. IGNOU (2003): Planning and Management of Higher Education; Management

of an Institution of Higher Learning (MES-I04, Block -2)
6. Hope, Andrea (2005): "Factors for Success in Dual Mode Institutions',

Hong Kong
7. IGNOU (2003): Instruction in Higher Education; Evaluation Perspectives in

Higher Education (MES-I02, Block -3)
8.. IGNOU (2003): Planning and Management of Higher Education; Teacher

and Organisation (MES.; 104, BI'Ock-2)
9. IGNOU (2001): Management of Distance Education; Educational Systems

Management ( ES-314).

1) a) There should be provision of information about programmes and
courses, teachers and their qualifications, admission procedure, teaching
learning methods, assessment procedures, assessments, admissions etc
b) There should be provision for other curricular activities like sports and
games, cultural and social activities, co~unity activities, group works,
travels and competitions.
c) Residential facilities and participation in their management.
d) Participation in student association activitie.
e) Financial support provision like loans, scholarship, part-time employment

opportunities.
t) Guidance and counseling services, including provision for placement of

successful students .
2) i) Management of education is different in a distance education institution.

In this situation a student and teachers are separated, whereas a
conventional set up teachers and students are in direct contact. The 23
/
/
Management of Human and latter situation provides direct feedback to teachers from A teacher can
Administrative Resources modify the teaching-learning methodology accordingly.
iI) In a distance education the course-designs have to rely heavily on the

results of the evaluation procedure adopted to get a feedback on the
instructional methodology adopted Moreover distance education system
cater to very large numbers of learners, belonging to heterogeneous
backgrounds, registered for a diverse range of courses.
3) "Diversifiedstudent support services in the context ofIGNOU can be explained
in the following ways-
• Single mode: The institution is designed and developed exclusively for
distance education.
• Dual mode: Distance teaching is provided in addition to face to face
teaching by a traditional university,
Mixed Mode: Learners have the option to choose the mode of study from the
" several forms provided by the institution, depending on their needs and
requirements.
4) The institution is designed and developed exclusively for distance education.
IGNOU is the apex body, entrusted with the task of funding, maintaining and
coordinating standards of open and distance education at the tertiary level.
The student support services are managed through the length and breadth of
the/country by the regional services division (RSD) at the IGNOU headquarter
in/New Delhi. The university has extended its outreach to learners outside
the country, the support services,for which it manages through the international
division at the IGNOU headquarter. IGNOU adopts a multi media mode of
instruction for delivery of its academic programmes. This instructional strategy
leads to the specialized nature of the organisation and management of the
student support services.
5) A dual mode university it provides instruction to off campus learner spread
over different countries. Instruction is imparted through a variety of media
like print, audio tapes, video tapes, telephone, teleconference (audio, audio
graphic video), computer management managed learning! computer based
exercise, CD-ROM, multimedia, computer mediated conferencing, internet
based learning etc. The student support services are coordinated through a
regional network comprising of Regional Liaison Officers (RLOs) in various
Regions. The learners seek redressal of their problems and grievances through
the RLO network, telephone, fax, e-mail etc. the learners' inquiries are
entered into a database .. The distance learners have the option to visit the
campus for face-to-face leaching -Iearning and peer interaction on avail
other services provided .
•
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I
UNIT 11 MANAGEMENT OF
ADMINISTRATIVE RESOURCES
Structure
11.1 Introduction ~
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Concept of Management
,
11.4 Management Process
11.5 Administration and Management
11.6 Educational Administration and Management
• 11.7 Educational Administration in India
11.8 Administrative setup for education
11.9 Scientific Management and its implication for education
11.10 Administrative Resources

11.10.1 Human Resources
11.102 Communication Resourcef
11.10.3 SWOT Analysis as a Resources
11.10.4 Qual ity Resources
11.10.5 Financial Resources
11.10.6 Infrastructural Facilities as a Resources
11.10.7 Management Information Systetl1(MIS) as a Resources
11.10.8 Material Resources
11.10.9 Information Technology and Communication as a Resources
11.11 Let Us Sum up
11.13 References
11.14 Answers to Check your Progress
11.1 INTRODUCTION
It is good to talk that everybody should do ones own tasks. It does not talk about
rights. It stresses responsibilities. Its focus is on performance. Ours has become
a society of institutions in which every major social task has been entrusted to
large organisations from producing economic goods and services to health care,
from social security and welfare to education, from the search for new and
sustainable knowledge to the protection of the natural environment. But it is
managers and management that makes institutions/organisations perform.
Management is work, and as such it has its own skills, tools, and techniques. A
good many administrative skills, tools, and techniques are discussed in this unit,
a few in some detail. But the stress is not on skills, tools, and techniques. It is
on the tasks. The tasks of managing the administrative resources in a best possible
manner for achieving the common goal.
25
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IllulagementofHuman and
11.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to:
• classify various types of systems and processes involved in managing an

organisation.
• discuss the concept of a system and analyse the management information

system.
• identify the major elements of each managerial process.
• differentiate the terms administration and management
• list the administrative resources.
• identify and discuss the various administrative resources available at the

disposal of the manager.
• identify and discuss the main sources of educational finance in India.
• examine how industry-university linkage will be promoted.
• identify other method of mobilizing additional resources.
11.3 CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
While management is a discipline- that is, an organised body of knowledge and

as such applicable every where- it is also "culture". Management is a social
function and embedded in a culture - a society- a tradition of values, customs,
and beliefs and in governmental and political systems. Management is- and should
be- culture conditioned; but, in turn, management and managers shape culture
and society.
Management is tasks. Management is a discipline. But management is also people.

Every achievement of management is the achievement of a manager. Every failure
is a failure of a manager. The vision, dedication, and integrityof managers determine
whether there is management or mismanagement.
Management is practice. Its essence is not knowing but doing. Its test is not logic
but results. Its only authority is performance. In the next decades managers will
have to meet far greater performance demands than most of them can envisage,
and in all areas. The word "management" is a singularly difficult one. It denotes
a function but also the people who discharge it. It denotes a social position and
rank but also a discipline and field of study. Management is not adequate a term,
for institutions other than business do not speak of management or managers, as
a rule. Universities or government agencies have administrators, as have hospitals.
Armed services have commanders. Other institutions speak of executives, and so
on. Yet all these institutions have in common the management function, the
management task, and the management work. All of them require management.
And in all of them, management is the effective, the active organ. Management is
the specific organ of the modem institution. It is the organ on the performance of
which the performance and the survival of the institution depend.
According to traditional view, management is the art of getting things done through
others. "Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in
formally organised groups." Harold Koontz (1962)
26
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/
Henry Fayol (1916) defined management as follows:-"To manage is to forecast Management or
and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate, and to control." Administrative Resources
According to George R Terry (1991), "Management is a distinct process

consisting of activities of planning, organising, activating and controlling, performed
to determine and accomplish stated objectives with the use of human beings and
other resources." ~
Management is defined differently by various authors. They have emphasized

different aspects of management. Management is now viewed as an effort
undertaken collectively for achieving organisational goals by using the resources
efficiently and economically. An analysis of various definitions reveals the following
characteristics of management.
1) Management is a group activity. Management makes the people realize the

objectives of the group and directs their efforts towards the achievement of
these objectives .
.. 2) Management is goal oriented. It exists to achieve some definite goals or
objectives.
3) Management is a factor of production. Just as land, labour and capital,

management is a factor of production that is required to coordinate the oilier I
factors of production for the accomplishment of predetermined goals.
4) Management is universal in character. Management is applicable in all types

of organisations. Where there are human activities there is management.
5) Management is needed at all levels of the organisation that is in the top level,
middle level; and also in the supervisory level.
6) Management is a distinct process performed to determine and accomplish

stated objectives by the use of human beings and other resources.
7) Management is a social process and it has a social obligation to make

optimum use of scarce resources for the benefit of the community as a
whole.
8) Management is a system of authority and there cannot be an efficient

management without well-defined lines of command or superior subordinate
relationships at various levels of decision making.
9) Management is a dynamic function and it has to be performed continuously.
11.4 MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Management.is a process which brings the scarce human and material resources
together and motivates people for the achievement of objectives of the organisation.
It consists of a set of interrelated operations or functions necessary to achieve
desired organisational goals. A process is a systematic way of doing things. The
management process will enable us to know the various functions which managers
pe.r+.Aorm. "".
.
The management process consists of planning, controlling, organising and leading.

Luther Guliick used the word POSDCORB to describe the functions such as
Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Controlling, Reporting, and Budgeting
All managers have to be concerned with these processes. However the following
comprehensive classification can be "";ven of various management functions.
27
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• Management of Human and Planning
Planning is the most important process of management. It means deciding in
advance what actions to take and when and how to take them. It is needed for
allocating the resources towards achieving the objectives of the institution in the
best possible manner. It is also helpful for anticipating the future problems and
opportunities. Planning is to put down the course of action, which a manager
desires to adopt. Each manager is involved in planning though the scope and
character may vary. The top level management thinks and plans for the entire
organisation while the middle level management plans for the implementation of
the policies framed by the top management while the lower level managerial staff '.
carries out the plans in a systematic manner. In a broader sense planning implies
the following:-
•
Making choices:- There can be any number of diversification opportunities to
choose from the alternatives. It is up to the management to choose the alternative,
which offers maximum potential for growth and profitability.
Committing resources:- The resources available are taken in to account. The

management will commit the available scarce resources, which then are not available
for any other use.
Time horizon:- Planning always refers to a specific time limit within which it must
be completed. The total time available may be further subdivided and action plans
should be made for the timely completion or the part completion of the task.
Planning implies not simply reacting to events but anticipating and preparing for
them. Irrespective of the activity or level at which plans may be drawn, the critical
factor is that they focus on objectives and are directed towards their achievement.
Planning ensures the most efficient use of the scarce resources. It is the only way
by which an organisation can exercise control to check that it is on the desired
course of action.
The process of planning involves a number of steps as follows:
• Gathering information.
• Laying down the objectives.
• Developing the planning premises.
• Examining the alternative courses of action.
• Evaluation of action patterns.
• Reviewing the limitations if any.
• Implementation of the plan.
To ensure that a plan i~effective and succeed~ in achieving its objectives, it must
have the following components:
• It must start from the top.
• It must be flexible.
• Short term planning must be integrated with long range planning.
• The people down the line should properly implement it.
28 Despite all the above, plans sometimes fail because of environmental and internal
/
limitations. There are also external factors. Government policies, regulations, laws, Management of
statutory obligations, and rapid social and technological changes pose external Administrative Resources
. limitations on the institution's planning effort.
Organising
In the words ofKoontz and O'Donnel, "Organising is that part of managing that
involves establishing and intentional structure of roles for people in an enterprise
to fill." Organisation provides the necessary framework within which people
associate for the attainment of business objectives. The functions of organising is
.. to arrange, guide, co-ordinate, direct and control the activities of other factors of
production that is men, material and machines so as to accomplish the objectives
of the enterprise. The process of organisation involves the following steps.
1) Identify the work to bo performed.
2) Classify or group the work.
3) Assign these groups of activities or work to individuals;
'.
4) Delegate authority and fix responsibility and
5) Co-ordinate these authority-responsibility relationships of various activities.
Staffing
The function involves manning the positions created by organisation process. It is

concerned with human resources of an organisatiori. In the words of Koontz
O'Donnel staffingis filling, and keeping filled, positions in the organisation structure
through defining work force requirements, appraising, selecting, compensating and
training. Thus staffing consists of the following.
1) Manpower planning that is assessing manpower requirements in terms of
quantity and quality.
2) Recruitment, selection and training.
3) Placement of Manpower.
4) Development, promotion, transfer and appraisal.
5) Determination of employee remuneration and compensation.
Directing
Direction is called management in action. In the words of George R Terry,
"Direction is moving to action and supplying simulative power to the group."
According to Massie, "Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager
influences the actions of subordinates". It is the final action of a manager in getting
others to act after all preparations have been completed. Directing is a continuous
function and is performed at all levels of management. The main activities involved
in direction are as follows.
1) Leaderships- Leadership is the process by which an executive or a manager
or one administrator imaginatively directs or guides and influences the work
of others in choosing and attaining specified goals by mediating between the
individual and organisation in such a manner that both will get maximum
satisfaction.
•
2) Communication:- Communication means sharing of ideas in common. The
essence of communication is getting the receiver and the sender together for
a particular massage. 29
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Management of Human and 3) Motivation:- Motivation is the psychological process of creating urge among
Administrative Resources the subordinates to do certain things or behave in the desired manner. A
sound motivational system must be productive, competitive, comprehensive,
and flexible and it must consider the psychological, social, safety, ego and
economic needs of the workers.
4) Supervision:- It refers.to the job of overseeing subordinates at work to

ensure maximum utilization of resources, to get the required and directed
work done and to correct the subordinates whenever they go wrong.
Coordination
Dalton Mc Farland defines coordination as the "process whereby an executive

develops an orderly pattern of group effort among his subordinates and secures
unity of action in the pursuit of common purposes. Coordination can be classified
under two categories such as vertical and horizontal coordination and internal
and external coordination. Whereas vertical coordination is the coordination
between different levels of management, the horizontal coordination is used
.. when coordination has to be achieved between departments of the same level of
authority. Co ordination is internal when it is between different sections of the
same concern and external when it is required with persons outside the
organisation.
Controlling
Controlling can be defined as "determining what is being accomplished, that is

evaluating the performance, if necessary, applying corrective measures so that the
performance takes place according to plans." Control is the process which enables
the management to get its policies implemented and take corrective actions if
performance is not according to the pre-determined standards. A control system,
to be effective, must confirm to the nature of activity, report deviations promptly,
reflect organisation structure, assure corrective action and economical. Control is
essential for achieving objectives of the business. Ifplanning is the beginning of
the management process controlling is regarded as the final stage of the business.
The process of controlling involves the following steps:
1) Establishing standards of performance.
2) Measuring actual performance.
3) Comparing actual performance with the standard.
4) Finding variances or deviations if any.
5) Taking corrective action or measures.
Decision Making
Every manager makes decisions, no matter what hislher area of management

responsibility may be. Decision-making implies making a choice between
alternatives. The choice is made rationally after due consideration of all the pros
and cons. The rational approach implies that it is a carefully thought out, deliberate
and well-weighed choice, guided only by the consideration of the organisational
objectives to be achieved.
Decision-making is so important because it implies commitment of resources, the

desired outcome of which is never certain. Decisions are made under conditions
of uncertainty and risk. Decisions made today have implications reaching in to the
30
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future. The risk arises out of the fact that the manager never have complete facts " ManagemeDtol
and knowledge about the implications of his decision and there is always the Administrative Resources
chance that the wrong decision may be taken.
Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below forwriting your answers. ~
1) Mention any three characteristics of management.
........................ , .
p.
2) What are the various functions of management given by Luther Gullick?
3) What are the steps involves in Planning.
11.5 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

There appears to be a great controversy in the use of the two terms administration
and management, because they have been used in different senses by different
writers.Administration is concerned with policy making. Management is concerned
with policy implementing. Administration concerns itself with the overall
determination of the major policies and objectives of business. Management is the
executive function that concerns itself with the carrying out of the policy laid down
by administration and it is concerned with planning, coordinating and controlling
of business activities for attaining the enterprise objectives. In other words,
management carries out the decisions of the administration. The functions of
administration are legislative and largely determinative and those of management
are executive and largely governing. As per this view administration is a higher
level activity while management is a lower level activity.
Some other authors like Oliver Sheldon, Florance, Lansberg, and Haiman are
also of the view that administration involves decision-makingand policy formulation
while management deals with executive and supervisory work. According to them
administration is the process and agency which is responsible for the determination
of the aims for which an organisation and management are to operate, and which
gives general oversight to the continuing effectiveness of the total operation in
31
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Management offluman and reaching the objectives sought. Management is the process and agency which
Administrative Resources directs and guides the operations of an organisation in the realizing of established
auns.
Another view IS that administration and organisation are a part of management.

Brech has advocated this view. In his words, "Management is the generic term
for the total process of executive control involving responsibility for effective
planning and guidance of the operations of an enterprise. Administration i; that
part of management which is concerned with the installation and carrying out of
the procedures by which the programme is laid down and communicated and the
progress of activities is regulated and checked against plans." The European
school of thought considered administration as a part of management.
Some authors are of the view that administration and management are us·ed
interchangeably and there is no distinction between the two. In the words of
Newman, "Management or administration is the guidance, leadership and control
of the efforts of a group of individuals towards some common goods." Other
p.
authors such as George Terry, AlIen, Koontz and O'Donnell ,!lso feel that both
the terms mean the same thing. In general practice administration is used more in
government or other public organisations while management is used in the business
world.
The above discussion reveal that there is no separate staff to perform these
functions. All managers, regardless of their level perform the same functions. The
higher up in the hierarchy, however, the more time will be spent on administrative
activity and the less in management activity in the manager's daily routine ..
Administration is done at top level by deciding policies and execution is done at
lower level which is management. It can be said that these are the two activities
which are performed at different levels of management.
Check Your Progress

4) What are the steps involves in controlling?
...................................................................................................................
5) What is management and administration? Briefly discuss their interrelationship

in a modem organisation .
...................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
32
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Management of
11.6 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND Administrative Resources
MANAGEMENT
Educational management is a field of study concerned with the operation of

educational organisation. As per the management principles discussed earlier it
implies that an educational organisation should coordinate ijs different functions
•
and utilize the resources in fulfilling the roles of the organisation such that the
organisation serves the purpose of achieving the educational goals in the most
efficientmanner.
Educational administration on the other hand deals with the practices and actual
functions of an organisation - such as schools, colleges, administrative units at
blocks, districts and state levels. The educational management is concerned with
the principles of an organisation where as administration is concerned with the
practices of an organisation
• Under educational management, functions of any educational organisation are
.
,
taken in to account at the level of principles and theories. At the level of abstraction,
school will be treated as any organisational unit and the sub-concepts of
management such as leadership, channels of communication, personal management
etc. will be taken in to account. Under educational administration the specific
functions of the state directorate of education or district level administration or the
functions of the school, college, and university will be considered. For example,
.the' Act' that led to establishment and defining the functions of a university,
various 'bodies' created under the executive orders of the government, policy and
the guiding frame work of rules and regulations, constitutional provisions guiding
the involvement of community in schools are the issues covered under educational
administration.
To sum up, educational management at the conceptual level describes the principles
that an organisationought to carry out. Educational administrationof an organisation,
at the level of practices, understands the functioning of an organisation that is
rules, decision-making, policies, levels of hierarchy, etc.
11.7 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA
The history of educational administration in India is as old as the history of the

development of education itself. It can be divided in to two phases- pre
independence phase and the post independence phase. In the post independence
phase various educational committees and commissions have been dealt with at
length with the issues of educational administration in India. For example the
report of Secondary Education Commission (October 1952, June 1953), popularly
known as Mudaliar Commission has referred to 'problems of administration' in
chapter xiii. Similarly the report of the Education Commission (1964-66), known
as "Kothari Commission",in part three on implementation has devoted chapters
on Educational Planning and Administration and Educational Finance(Chapters •
xviii and xix respectively). It may be mentioned; however, that educational
administration as a branch of study in India has become an area of relative
importance only recently. Besides, schools and colleges and universities in India
. have relied on traditional practices for managing the affairs of the institutions.
Thus, historically, there has been a lack of professionalisation of management of
education both at the national/state level administration of education departments
and the professional management of schools or colleges. In view of the importance
of professional management, it is now increasingly recognized that educational
33
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M • IIent of Human and administration should receive its due place not only at the level of training of
Ad •• btrative Resources educational personnel but also at level of research.
\
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11.8 ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP FOR EDUCATION

The present administrative set-up of education is that in each state, there is a
Directorate of Education working under the direct control of a Minister who has
a Secretary to assist him at the secretariat level and a Director of Education as
the Executive Head of the Department responsible for offering technical advice to
the Minister about all educational matters and in carrying out policy of the
Department. In most states, given the expansion of the education at different
levels of education, there has been the bifurcation of education ministry in to
elementary education, secondary education, higher education and technical
education. '
Similarly the agencies at the national level concerned with the development of
education are the Ministry of Human Resources Development, the University
Grants Commission (UGC), the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
and the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). The
Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD) is the principal administrative
instrument with the government of India to pursue its educational objectives.
11.9 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND ITS

IMPLICATION FOR EDUCATION
One of the earliest strands of thought in management is the scientific management
approach. Friederick Winslow Taylor is considered to be the originator of this
approach. He derived the knowledge from his experience in working in industrial
organisations.
First of all, he believed in the principle that every person in an organisation should
have a clearly defined task. He advocated that for every day's task we engage
a person for the day and utilize himlher to his maximum working ability.
Secondly, he also advanced the idea that a workman should be given standardized
conditions and appliances to complete his task effectively.
Thirdly, the wages given to a workman should be related to successful completion
of the task.
He also emphasized the need for staff training to develop an individual's capabilities
and to help himlher work most effectively. The time and motion study submitted
by Taylor looked for a human being's physical limits and described the fastest
method for performing a given job or task.
One point of view is that applied to any educational organisation, the principle of
scientific management may not stand the test of time. In an educational set up,
efficiency is not measured quantitatively in terms of hours of teaching, research or
any other services. Quality of services produced is most important. Besides,
psychological or sociological dimensions of a person's ability to work are also
very important. For example, a principal's appreciation of a teacher's work may
provide encouragement to a teacher, who will feel motivated to work efficiently.
However, some elements of scientific management such as specialization of
administrative functions, tall hierarchical organisation, close supervision and a high
degree of centralized control may be worth applying in a certain condition, such
34 as when teacher's productivity is low and the organisation is very large. There is
/
also no way that a teacher's remuneration could be related to his /her work in Management of
a school setting, as it is difficult to measure it quantitatively. The influence of Administrative Resources
Taylor's Scientific Management in education was seen in terms of measurements
such as 'intelligence testing', 'instructional efficiency', 'standardization of the work
of teachers' ,etc. similarly the idea that standard tools and appliances should be
provided to the teachers and the administrators is also important. No teacher
without good equipment, library, laboratory, text books, and teaching resources
can work with the maximum efficiency. The above stated concepts at a general
level that are applicable to the school as well as to the education department.
Check Your Progress
5) What is management and administration? Briefly discuss their interrelationship
in a modern organisation.
6) Who was the originator of Scientific Management. Describe its implication

on education.
11.10 ADMINISTRATIVE RESOURCES

Administrative resources are the tools in the hands of the administrator for the
proper running of the administration. Before knowing the administrative resources
it is prudent to know what makes an administrator.
What makes an Administrator?
Early in the history of administration an administrator was defined as someone
who is responsible for the work of other people. It made clear that administering
was a specific kind of work which could be analysed, studied, and improved
systematically. To be an administrator requires more than a title, a big office, and
other outward symbols of rank. It requires competence and performance of a
high order.This task requires the administrator to make effective whatever strength
there is in his resources - above all, in the human resources- and neutralize
whatever there is of weakness.
There are five basic operations in the work of the administrator. Together they
result in the integration of administrative resources in to a viable growing
organism.
35
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Management of Human and • In the first place he sets objectives. He determines what the objectives
Administrative Resources should be. He determines what the goals in each area of objectives should
be. He decides what has to be done to reach these objectives. He makes
these objectives effective by communicating them to the people whose
performance is needed to attain them.
• Next he organises. lie analyzes the activities, decisions and relations needed.
He classifies the work. He divides it in to manageable activities and further
divides the activities in to manageable jobs. He units these groups and jobs
in to an organisation structure. He selects people for the administration of
these units and for the jobs to be done.
• Next he motivates and communicates. He makes a team out of the people
that are responsible for various jobs. He does it through constant
communication, to and from his subordinates, and to and from his superior,
and to and from his colleagues.
• The fourth is measurement. He establishes yardsticks to the performance of
p. the organisation and of every man in it. He analyzes, appraises, and interprets
performance. He communicates the meaning of the measurements and their
findings to his subordinates and to colleagues.
• Finally he develops people including himself.
Administrative resources are classified in numerous ways. For the purpose of the
present topic the classification is discussed below.
11.1 0.1 Human Resources

Administration is more a social process rather than a mechanical manipulation .
.The importance of an informal group with in the formal organisational structure
was recognized in an educational context. With in the formal structure of the
school, informal inter group relation between principal, teacher, students and
support staff help to attain the objectives of an organisation. It is because of the
emphasis on human interactionsthat sociologist and psychologistsbecame interested
in understanding the organisational behavior. It shifted the emphasis from efficiency
to cooperation among employees. The human relations approach emphasizes the
following features of an organisation or institution.
Leadership:- The concept of human relations in the administration places great
emphasis on the leadership. The cooperation among members of an organisation
is considered the most important element in achieving the goals of an organisation.
The principal of the school or college, as a leader of an organisation can plan,
organise and direct effectively only when he/she is able to get cooperation from
the students, teachers and other personnel.
The principal is supposed to be the leader.It also assumes that all others, subordinate
to the principal, are the followers. The principal of a school is a leader by virtue
ofhis/her position. But he/she is at the same time a follower as well. As a follower,
he/she may have to work under another leader. For example under the
administrative head of the district or the state there is a person who is called as
the district education officer or the director of education. The concept of hierarchical
positions limits the autonomy of the leader in his/her own setting. Sometimes a
leader may be obsessed with the tight string that may be imposed from above.
It, therefore, demands that leaders should be able to transcend the formal chains
of command and perform the role of a motivator and team builder. This is the
essence of leadership that every administrative head of an organisation should
36
carefully maintain him! her while taking institutions forward.
/
/
Sensitivity to Human Factor:- Th- human relations approach places due 'Management of
emphasis of the human factor in an organisation. The organisation is supported Administrative Resources
and carried through the cooperation of employees; and, therefore, it is important

that the human factor be given due attention. In educational organisations, it is all
the more necessary to be sensitive to teachers and others in the school system
as, unlike production enterprise, teachers have to nurse'the tender minds of the
child and the youth. •
Importance to Informal Organisatione- Formal structure of an organisation is
important and exists as a legal entity. As the organisations are manned by people
who have their own social, cultural and economic backgrounds, they tend to
create informal structures which support them in:times of need and provide them
the needed security. Informal organisation should not be declared as illegal; rather
the chief executive of an organisation should support these informal social and
cultural structures and processes to derive full support ~f the people with in an
organisation.
Free Interplay of Ideas:- Administration should not be taken to be the authority
of a few. Decision making should not be the monopoly of a few individuals. There
should be free flow of ideas and interplay of actions. This allows organisations to
take shared responsibility and take decisions supported by every one. It ensures
easy implementation of decisions.
Motivation:- Motivation is not the function of economic incentives, Various non-
economic incentives motivate the individuals with in an organisation. Giving a due
status to the teachers in a school will motivate the teachers and motivate them to
work with commitment.
Maslow has given that motives exist in a hierarchical order in the form of needs
such as organic needs, safety/ security needs, love/affection needs, esteem needs
and self actualization needs. In the educational institution setting, it is important to
know why some children are highly motivated to learn, while some others are less
motivated to learn. Moreover, some teachers, too, may be motivated to work,
while some may not. Motivation may consists of tangible gains such as increases
in salary, bonus, etc as well as intangible gains such as better working conditions,
recognition, prestige, power, etc. in an organisation, an administrator should know
what kind of tangible and intangible gains can be appropriately mixed to induce
teachers to achieve the goals of the organisation. Without effective motivation, the
directions can not be followed. Even if directions are followed, goals may not be
effectively met. '
Another important point is the effect of punishment, as quite often 'administrators
use the tool of punishment on the teachers for achieving desired results. As
punishment may be a negative motivation, it would quite often harm the interests
of an organisation. Therefore, both teachers as well as students should not be
punished. In stead of punishment, efforts must be made to provide correct
motivation.
Real versus Nominal Leader: The principal of a school is a leader in nominal,
terms', Ifhe has to win the support of the organisation, he has to be' a real leader.
It means he should not only command administrative power by virtue of the
authority given but also command the academic structure, respect and recognition
of the person in an educational organisation.
Men/women as Active Human Beings: The human relations approach also
supports the view that n"~"" iWf'- ill active azent. He/she is not a mere
/
/
M8agementofHuman *nd passive doer of things. This shifts the perspective from mechanistic conception of
Achninistrative Resourc~ "
an ind}vidual to active 'agent of the changed process. ",
'
Cooperation Enlarging the Span ,0/ Control: Span of control is the number
of persons subordinate to an individual in an organisation. Sometimes.a mechanistic
rule is followed to define the span of control. If the span of control is large, it is
said that function can hot be'perforrned efficiently. The human relations approach
breaks this myth as span of control is influenced by the cooperation. Given the
higher the degree of cooperation, an individual can efficiently function even with
higher span of control.
The approach thus places great emphasis on motivation, social recognition and
self esteem.
Behavioral Resource Approach in Administration

Behavioral resource approach in administration tends to understand the work
behavior of a person in its entire dimension drawing ideas from sociology,
psychology, economics, anthropology, political science etc. the admicistrator needs
to know why people behave the way they d}>.It might be due to their cultural
pattern, their special physical makeup or to their natural desire for power, wealth
and influence, all of which affect their attitudes to work. The organisation is acting'
as an exchange system in which rewards are exchanged for work. For example,
in a school, teachers get salaries in exchange for work. Thus the teacher remains
in the school as long as he/she thinks the inducements are larger than his/her
contributions. The concept of inducement is psychological, economic and
sociological in nature. It implies the interdisciplinary nature of administration.
Administration is process where the behavior of employees in an organisation is
rational but influence by various other factors. '
11.10.2 Communication Resources

•
Another key resource in the educational administration is the communication. It _
has been.noted that coordination is one of the important functions of administration.
Coordination needs effective communication. It, is desired for conveying
informations, advices, feelings, opinions and facts correctly from one person to
another person or group of people. In an educational institution setting, it is
important how effectively a teacher is communicating to the students during the
•
teaching learning process. It is something that needs to be learnt. The teacher
speaks, writes and makes various' gestures to convey a message to the students.
Students are also encouraged to observe carefully, listen attentively and express
themselves effectively.
Similarly communication also takes place between the-principal and the teachers,
the principal and the support staff and among teachers and support staff. Effective
communication enables the school principal to effectively carry out the decisions.
It enables the principal to keep the focus on the tasks of individual personnel. The'
basic requirements for good communication are as f0110ws.
• Meaningful and clear messages should be used for communication. For

example, the policies of the school, instruction to the students, progr~mes
undertaken in a school etc. should be communicated properly. '
• The message communicated should not be interpreted in different ways by

different individuals. It means interpretation of information should also be
carried out in communication.
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• The purpose and intent of communication should be clearly spelt out. If a Management of
student is being expelled due to indiscipline, the message should be clear to Administrative Resources
the students after communication .

..
• The timing of communication should also be determined by the administrator.
Sometimes an environment has to be created befere communication.
• The language used in communication should be simple. Brevity, clarity and
relevance are essential ingredients of good communication.
Check Your Progress '
, ' b) Check your answers with those, given at the end of this unit.
7) What are the i~portance of leadership in an organisation?
•.............................................. : ~ .
.................... :....•.......................................................•.................................
•
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•
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8) Enumerate the basic require~ent for good communication

............................................................. o_ ~ °0 •••••••••••••••
.......................................................................................................................
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.............................................................. •. . .
.. .
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• . .
11.10.3 SWOT Analysis as a Resources
. .
The application of' Strength, Weakness; Opportunities and Threat; (SWOT) •
model of analysis to the education.al system will work' for further improvement of
the system. The SWOT analysis can be' further explained as follows.
• When a Principal/Head who knows the situation hirqself / herself and a
situation is known to every members of the organisation, then it obviously is
a situation of strength, • •
• fustitutional blindness results when situations are unknown to both to the

principal and other members of the organisation and that is a situation of
threat.
• Something known to the principal but unknowri to others may be classified

as the principal's secret. It is considered as the weakness of the organisation.
• The principal's blindness consists of the fact that he is not aware of the
. . ...•.
situation where as others' known the situation very well. '
This is an opportunity that leader of an organisation should explore to minimize

institutional blindness and move towards the region of strength. This dynamic
process with in an organisation will advance the organisation towards the situation
of strength. '10
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•
Management of Human and Detail Component~ of SWOT are given below:'

Admir,i~t"~!i"2 Recources
STRENGTH
• A strong enrolment.
• Enthusiastic management team
o Excellent examination results
• Strong Curricular and eo-curricular activities.
• Strong parental support
• Good staff morale
• Supportive gov.emors
WEAKNESS
• Insufficient infrastructure such as Class rooms, Play Ground,

Laboratory,Campus
• High average age of staff .

• Inadequate budget
•. Inadequate sports facilities
OPPORTUNITIE~
• Merger with local institution with an excellent site but mediocre reputation.
• Develop reputation in Sports and Games.
• The excitement of establishing a new institution.
• The opportunity to enlarge staff expertise in order to increase the range-of
offerings.
• The merged institution may attract additional funding.

THREATS
• . Loss of identity, strengths and reputation of the Institution.

• Risk of losing experienced teachers wao may take early retirement.
• The ethos of the other institution may become dominant.
• Possible loss of some supportive gOVE;i!1OfS.
After identifying the SWOT in a group, strategies for an organisation should be
developed to exploit the strengths and minimize the weaknesses. Wherever
opportunities exist, institutions may also develop strategies to exploit the
opportunities and minimise the threats.
11.10.4 Quality Resources

Quality is an important dimension of product or service. The supplier of the
products or services has an obligation to satisfy the consumer with products and
services of the best quality. In the context of educational institution too, the learner
desires to derive quality education. For this the quality circle is created. It may
hp ""pfi.1 tn imnrnvp. tp.~r.her'<;nerformance in th» "l::j"s room as it exposes
teachers towards greater creativity and will help to improve the efficiency of the Management of
employees in schools or colleges. Proper Training of teachers and orientation of
other support staff is essential for improvement of quality services in the institution.
In addition to that all other resources need to be revitalised for quality products.
11.10.5 Financial Resources

Due to burgeoning need of finances for the maintenance and development of
education, it is not possible for the government alone to invest adequate resources
for education, at least in foreseeable future. Further, the preoccupation of the
governments- both at the centre and the states,- with the gigantic programme of
universalizing elementary education, would make them difficult to look after the
financial needs of secondary and higher education sectors. There is therefore the
need for harnessing alternative sources of finance. This could take the form of
institutionsattempting to generate additional resources through the traditional means
that is increasing the quantum of cost recoveries from students particularly at the
secondary and higher education stages. Further attempts may also be made to
.. encourage community participation in financing and management of education,
particularly in the secondary and higher education level.
Self Financing Courses
Introduction of self financing course may be another step to wards mobilization

of private contributions. These courses are market driven, which may help the
students to enter into gainful employment. ;::'C"'1eof the courses could be in
professionalareas like medicine, engineering,business administration,bio-technology
etc. the self finance course can generate some additional financial resources for
the educational institutions as they are very much cost effecti ye.
Private Participation
Private participation in the financing and management of higher education (rather
than full privatisation) should be promoted. The side benefits of this move are that
it will bring about efficiency in the system and make it more effective and relevant.
It is expected to promote excellence. It will also enable the universities to come
out of the stifling confines of academic exclusiveness and become a part of the
wider social'milieu. •
Distance Mode of Education

Another step is to provide facilities for education at the secondary and post
• levels through alternative modes of education such as the distance
secondary
mode. Besides being cost effective, it will also be possible to provide educational
facilities to those groups of the student population who are not in a position to
take benefit from education at these stages because of weak economic situations
or some other problems. Of course it should be remembered that the distance
mode of education should in no way be utilized as a means of collecting revenues
with a motive of commercialization regardless of facilities provided to the students.
Industry University Interrelationship
Industry has vital stake in higher education, not only because of the fact that the
institutions of higher education provide trained manpower for jobs in the industry,
but also because they, through research and development, open up new vistas of
scientific and technological development. It is therefore essential that there should
be a closer relationship between industry and universities in order to involve in the
financing and management of the higher education. 41
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Management of Human and Grant in Aid from the Government
Presently the government grants are generally given keeping in view the financial
needs ofthe institutions as also the income accruing to them from various sources
like recoveries from the students, donations from the community etc. the rules and
regulations governing government grants in inost of the states do not encourage
the generation of internal resources by the institutions because any extra income
generated by them is counted towards their income and deducted from the grant
to be given by the government.
Tuition Fees '.
Tuition fees levied on students at the higher education and secondary education
levels have not kept pace with the ever-escalating costs of education. In the
process there is at the post-elementary level huge subsidy built in to the present
fee structure. This subsidy is given indiscriminately to each and every student
regardless of his/her capacity to pay for education. There is a very strong case
for raising tuition fees at secondary and higher education stages. The best method'
of levying fees is to relate them uniformly to cost of education. But this step could
be construed as a regressive form of taxation. In the circumstances, a sort of
differential fee system should be considered (Azad, 1976). Under the system, the
economically well off should pay enhanced fees (meeting at least 20 % of the
recurring costs) while weaker sections will pay subsidized fees or even be given
fee-remissions. Further, foreign students may be charged at the international rate.
It is also suggested that, as far as possible, full cost may be recovered for other
services like hostel rental, mess charges, examination fees, library fees etc. there
is no point in subsidising these facilities provided to the students. They should be
charged on the cost of service principle.
Educational Loan
A scheme of educational loan to students, who are in need of financial assistance,

has been recently introduced in India. Under this scheme, students are entitled to
get loans for various university courses in India and abroad. The students are
charged at the prevailing rates of interest. These scheme as worked out as present,
dose not seem to be in a position to meet the requirements of the needy students.
It is based on the same principles which govern other loan schemes like car loans
or housing loans, Education being an investment in human capital should not be
treated like any other consumer good.
Waste Management
While making a case for mobilizing additional financial resources, we have also
to guard against the mind-boggling wastages of resources that occurs in the form
of irrelevant courses and failures and dropouts at the various stages of education.
The drop pout rate at the primary and upper primary stage is 40 % and 57%
respectively. At secondary and higher education stages (in Humanities and Social
Science) about 50 % students fail to come out with a reasonably good grade.
Steps need to be taken to avoid this huge waste of scarce resources. Educational
wastage can be checked by introducing interesting and up- to- date curriculum.
Many welfare measures are also being taken by the authorities: such as mid day
meal, free books, free dresses etc.
Optimal Utilisation of Available Resources.
It is necessary to ensure that the physical and academic infrastructure available

42 with the educational institutions is utilised to the utmost extent. It is a common
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sight that the facilities available with institutions are utilized for a very short period Management of
during the academic season. This leads to wastages of resources which are in no Administrative Resources
way adequate. It would be wise to make full use of these resources. For this
purpose, it would be useful to meet the vast expanding requirements of educational
facilities by introducing shift system in schools and colleges, wherever it is feasible
by way of availability of students. In order to use the ~cademic and physical
infrastructure fully, the institutions may also start short- erm diploma course in
subjects, which have ready employment possibilities.
11.10.6 Infrastructural Facilities as a Resources

Infrastructural facilities are to play a greater role in educational sphere in the
modem days. Infrastructural facilities, in the context of education, generally mean
the physical facilities essential to ensure teaching-learning process. These facilities
are necessary for effective teaching-learning to take place, and hence advance
allocation of resources for them becomes essential. A substantial number of schools
and colleges are without facilities such as adequate number of classrooms; play
grounds, clean and hygienic toilets, safe drinking water supply, science laboratories
and their equipments, adequate library facilities, computer and modem scientific
instruments, teaching aids like audio visual equipments like LeO projectors, good
black/white boards etc.
The infrastructural development depends on:-
• The expected students' intake of the institution.
• The expected number of departments.
• The expected number of teaching and support staff.
• The expected distribution of students and teachers by faculties and
departments.
Total available space is one of the greatest resources. Space becomes the most
importantconsiderationin the initialphase- space for variousactivitieslike instruction,
administration, laboratory, library, staff rooms, sports and games, students activity
rooms- like students union offices, students welfare activities etc; staff quarters,
students hostels, space for the cultural activities etc. these are the resources in the
hands of the administrator for the smooth functioning of the institution.
11.10.7 Management Information System (MIS) as a

Resource
The quality of administration and decision making can be improved only by
objective information about the employees on their qualifications, qualities, annual
performance, place of work, accomplishments, training programmes attended,
awards received, potential appraisal reports etc. maintaining a good data bank
helps the institutional heads to improve the quality of hisiher decision. In this
context, the computer can be useful for the storage of information for quick
accessibility.Every university or college or educational institution needs to develop
an efficient Management Information System (MIS) to be used as a resource.
11.10.8 Mat€i';til rcesources

The material facilities as a resources has been given considerable attention in the
overall management of the institution of higher learning. Material facilities as a
whole, play an important role in undertaking of both curricular and extra-curricular
43
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Management of Human ane activities in an educational institution. The material resources are in the form of the
Administrative Resources following categories:
Teaching aids,
Laboratory equipment,
Cultural aids,
Sports and game equipment, and also
Other office equipments.
There are other types of material facilities which are identified as consumable
articles used in laboratories such as furniture etc. the overall management of these
material facilities is based on the following considerations.
• Determination of the material facilities required.
.. • Specification of the facilities according to the requirements .

• Quality of the material required.
• Quantities required.
• Development of per capita requirement.
• Utilization process.
• Optimum utilization.
• Saving material facilities by avoiding wastages and under utilization.
• Maintenance or inventory control of material resources.
• Maintenance of materials, consumable and other related physical facilities.
Laboratory as a Recourse
In teaching-learning process, practical work occupies an important position,
particularly, in the teaching of science, technology and subjects like medicines etc.
H is impossible to imagine teaching natural science without practical work.
Experimental work must reinforce itself as the basic method of science and
therefore, it should not restrict itself only to verifying certain rules or laws; it
should also teach the essential design, execution, observation and collection of
date and its interpretation.The excitement and motivation in conducting experiments
in science has to be built in to the laboratory curriculum, rather than being limited
to mechanical and repetitive procedural operations. Laboratory experiments not
only help to develop the cognitive and psycho-motor domains of knowledge and
skills, but also foster a student's behaviour and attitudes towards the material, and
also towards other fellow beings. There fore material resources is a powerful tool
in the hands of the management for smooth functioning of the institution.
Library as a Resourse
The history of the development of the library is synonymous with the development
of education and educational institutions. Accumulation of knowledge and
information has been possible because of invention and innovation of library by
mankind. In fact, libraries, for centuries, have served as the most important
depositories of human knowledge and information. The whole educationalendeavor
in terms of knowledge of the past and present is deposited in library, a concept
44
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whose meaning could only be understood, if it is seen in the context of human Management of
civilisation. Libraries have rightly been considered as the temples of knowledge. Administrative Resources
Though not directlyinvolved in imparting education, their potential role as custodian

. and disseminators of knowledge is immense. In an institution of higher learning,
library plays an important role to develop the spirit of enquiry, initiative, scientific
temper, conceptual clarity and linguistic skill for effective speaking and Writing
.• amongst students. As libraries have been considered an irJportant component of
instructional system, it is necessary to see how these have been organised and
managed for the effective teaching learning process with special reference to our
higher education system. A good and well equipped library therefore is regarded
as powerful resources in the hands of the administration.
Check Your Progress
9) What are the meaning of SWOT?
.....................................................................................................................
10) Mention the' form of material resources.

...................................................................................................................
. .
...... .. ...... .... ~ ~ .
11.10.9 Information Technology and Communication as a·

Resources
,
It is increasingly realised that information technology leads to socio-economic
development provided one is well versed in the art of utilisation. India is very
much ahead in this area and it is hoped that India would emerge as a major player
at global IT hardware and soft ware makers.
Computers are already meaningfully employed in the fields of railways and air
reservation, banking, insurance, billing for telephone and electricity, etc, thereby,
reducing the drudgery of work and increasing the productivity and efficiency.
They are also being used in the areas of weather forecasting, radio astronomy,
molecular biology, aerodynamics, etc., for achieving faster results, better accuracy
and more precision. Other areas where IT can make greater impact are electronic
governance,modemisatiosn of office environment,crime detectionand telemedicine.
Technology helped in making communication a more effective tool for betterment
of standard of living. Technology has emerged as the vehicle of rapid change in
the way mankind communicates in this century and India has been no exception
to this phenomenon. Whether in the field of telecommunications, roads, ports or
• air travel, the hall mark has been more efficient and cost effective technology.
45
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Management of Human and The hastening of globalisation, capital flows across borders, rise of global cities
Administrative Resources would not have been possible without the space warping and space bridging
electronic net work: Internet, that spans the planet. Technology has now made
possible seamless integration of voice, data, and video with anytime, anywhere
availability of information through innovations in the field of communication and
electronics. Another important characteristic of information intensive societies is
the development of an information sector. Identification and collection of data are
only the first steps in the provision of information. The collected data then be
verified, classified, organised, aggregated, stored, retrieved and communicated.
The role of IT in governance of higher institution of learning such as schools,
colleges and universities are increasingly growing. The electronic administration
can provide secure, reliable and controlled interface between the government,
principal and between the principal and teachers and students. Therefore the
reach is wider and instant and the contents are more appealing.
11.11 LET US SUMUP

..
In this unit we explained the theory relating to management principles and the
processes of management in detail. The difference between educational
management and administration has been explained with the help of examples.
Every organisation including an educational institution has to perform all important
management functions, namely- planning, coordination, delegation of authority,
inspection and supervision and financial management, which are dealt with in this
unit. The concept of scientific management as conceptualised by Taylor has been
discussed. Its usefulness to educational institutions with two other important
approaches that is human relations and behavioral approach is also taken care of.
The key resources like motivation, communication, and leadership were also
explained. The application of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
(SWOT) model of analysis to the educational system has been explained.
Education was always given a place of honour in ancient India as also in medieval
times. The government, both at the centre and in the states, assumed responsibility
for providing resources for education. The participation from non government
sources declined perceptibly during the post-independence period. It has been
felt that there is need for devising ways and means for mobilizing resources from
sources other than government sources. For these purpose, the community has to
assume a much greater role. There is also a need for encouraging active participation
of the industrial and commercial houses in providing resources for education
particularly at the secondary and tertiary levels. Further, the quantum of tuition
fees, as at present levied, contains a substantial amount of subsidy, which is given
indiscriminately to all students regardless of their capacity to pay for education.
In view of this a differential system of tuition fees has been suggested for mobilising
resources. It is also necessary to cut down wasteful expenditure and to ensure the
optimum utilisation of the academic and physical infrastructure.

1) What are the instruments of control for the principal of a college?
2) Write in your own words whether the new education policy -1986 is the
,~. J
product of administration .
.i ,
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46
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Management of
J1.13 REFERENCES Administrative Resources
l. Bush, Tony p.llU Les, Bell (2002). The Principle and Practice of Educational
Management. London, Paul Chapman Publishing.
2. Bush, Tony (1986) Theories of Educational Management. London. Harper

/
.. and Row Publishers. ~
3. Musaazi, J.C.S. (l982).The Theory and Practice of Educational

Administration.London. The Mac Millan Press.
4. Ronald, Campbell F., et al. (1987) A history of thought and practice in

educational administration. New York. Techers College Press.
5, Shing Amrik (2004). Fifty years of higher education in India- The role of the
university grants commission; Sage Publications.
,6. Bhagia, N .M. Briggs,Dora and Bhagia, Shusama (1990) Educational

'.
Administration in India and other developing countries. New Delhi.
Commonwealth Publishers.
7. Ansari M.M. [1999] Financial support to education by industry. Paper

submitted to National Seminar on Financing for Education. New Delhi;NIEPA
8. Azad. lL. [1975] Financing of Higher Education in India; Sterling,New

Delhi.
1) Answer refer to sub section 11.3
2) According to Luther Gullick :
a) planning
b) orgarusmg
c) staffing
d) directing
e) coordinating
f) controlling
g) decision making
3) The steps involved in planning are :
0 gathering information
it) laying down the objectives
ill) developing the planning premises
iv) examining the alternative courses of action

/"
v) evaluation of action patterns
vi) reviewing the limitations if any
vii) implementation of the plan

47
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Management of Human and 4) 0 Establishing standards of performance
ii) Measuring actual performance
ill) Comparing actual performance with the standard
iv) Finding variances or deviations if ariy

t
v) Taking corrective action or measures
5) Ref. to section 11.6
6) Ref. to sub-section 11.9.9 '-
7) The human relations, in the administration places great emphasis on the

leadership. The cooperation among members of an origanisation is considered
the most important element in achieving the goals of an organisation. The
principal of the school or college, as a leader of an organisation can plan,
organise and direct effectively only when he/she is able to get cooperation
.. from the students, teachers and other personnel.
8) 0 Meaningful and clear messages should be used for communication
ii) The message communicated should be interpreted in different ways by

different individuals. It means interpretation of information should also
be carried out in communication.
ill) The purpose and intent of communication should be clearly spell out
iv) The trainingof communication should be determined by the administrative.
v) The language used in communication should be simple. Brevity, clarity

and relevance are essential ingredients of good communication.
9) Details components of SWOT
S= Strength
W= Weakness
0= Opportunities
T= Threats
10) a) Teaching aids
b) Laboratory equipments
c) Cultural aids
d) Sports and games
e) Other office equipments.
48
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UNIT 12 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Human Resource: The Concept
12.4 What Constitute Human Resources?
12.5 Importance of Human Resources
12.6 Management of Human Resources: The Need

12.6.1 Organisational Level
12:6.2 Professional Level
'.
12.6.3 Social Level
12.6.4 National ~evel
12.7 Approaches for Management of Human Resources

12.7.1 Human Resources Planning
12.7.2 Job Analysis
12.7.3 Staffing
12.7.4 Staff Training and Development
12.7.5 Staff Motivation and Reward Management
12.7.6 Staff Supervision and Discipline
12.7.7 Performance Appraisal •
12.7.8 Potential Appraisal
12.7.9 Self Renewal System
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.10 References
12.1 INTRODUCTION
As we all understand the management of Human Resource is essential for any

organisation that would like to be dynamic and growth oriented. It is a fact that
the progress of organisation is interrelated with the growth of its personnel. People
in organisation are most important assets, which hardly could be neglected. Unlike •
other resource, human resource have rather unlimited capabilities to contribute to
the system. The effectiveness of an educational organisation greatly depend on the
quality of human resources it possesses. As one notice the standard of educational
organisation squarely rest on the quality staffs and students as well as their efficient
management. As we know, in educational institutions, an average of 80 percent
of the budget is spent on salary and benefits for its personnel. Further, it is also
very difficult to measure per cent of investment return in a tangible form like other
corporate business organisations. Of late there are some emerging issues and
challenges like development of information and communication technologies,
globalization, responsiveness and spread of corporate culture etc. are also
49
continuously affecting the functioning process of educational organisations and
/
Management of Human and their human resources. In this situation, the Head of the Organisation need to
Administrative Resources shoulder multiple responsibilities for proper management ofhwnan res~urces (HRM)
which in turn leads to healthy growth and development of the organisation. A
number of HRM techniques such as human resources planning, job analysis,
recruitment and selection, staff development, staff motivation and reward
management, performance.appraisal, potential appraisal and self renewal system
have been developed in recent years to perform (he: above task. This unit provides
an understanding of the concept and importance of human resource management
and its various approaches for effective management.
The aim of this unit is to assist you, to manage your human resource in such a
manner that it will ensure the accomplishment of goals and objectives of the
organisation efficiently.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
.. After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• define the meaning of human resources;
• identify the constituents of human resources;
• explain the importance of human resources in organisational set up;
• appreciate the need of human resources management:
• describe various approaches of human resources management; and
• apply the knowledge of human resources management in your organisation.
12.3 HUMAN RESOURCE: THE CONCEPT
As we often know, the human resources of an organisation are normally refers to

its people who operate it. This, thereby, implies that people have capabilities that
drive organisation's performance along with other rescirces such as money,
materials and information. As one observes, human resources have at least two
related interpretations depending on context:
The original usage derives from political economy and economics, where it was
traditionally called 'labour'. The more common usage within corporations and
business organisation refers to the individuals within the firm and to the portion of
the firm's organisation that deals with hiring, firing, training and other personnel
Issues.
Modern analysis emphasises that human beiJ1Q:Sare not 'commodities' or

'resources', but are creative and social beings in an educational or business
organisation. It acknowledges that human beings do contribute much more to an
organisation's development than just 'work'. They bring their character, their
ethics, their creativity and their social connections (••http://www.articIesbase.com).
This emphasis can also be partly attributed due to new emerging values ofhumanisrc
and humanisation. Moreover, with the increased emphasis on creativity and
autonomy, which people are increasingly acquiring and enjoying in the society.
However, this generic term covers the potential of people in an organisation.
50
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Management of Human
12.4 WHAT CONSTITUTE HUMAN RESOURCES? Resources
As often we come across, what exactly constitutes human resources is a is an

area of concern especially in regard to the particular characteristics in employee's
skills that provide value to hirnJher. You may agree with us that the term human
resources refers to the sum total of accumulated ~tock of knowledge, skills,
creative abilities, talents aptitude, value and belief etc. of an organisation's work
force i.e. people which the organisation has built up over a period of time into an
identifiable expertise. The more important aspects of human resources are aptitude,
values and belief on which one operates.
KNOWLEDGE
SKILLS
I COMPETENCIES
CAPABILITIES
CONCIOUSNESS
CREA T1VITY . I
CARING TO OTHERS
I ACCOUNTABILITY
LEADERSHIP
I AUTONOMY
SELF-MANAGEMENT
OPTIMUM STRESS BEARER
Fig. 12.1: Inculcating HRM Value
Human resources in educational organisations include several functionaries namely

Teacher and Headmasters, Principals, Vice Chancellors, Heads of Institutions,
Heads ofDeptts., Heads/Directors of Research units, DeanlDirectors of Schools I
Department, Heads of Training Institutions, local and regional Administrators,
EducationalPlanners and Administrators at national level. Each of these functionaries
requires different kinds of knowledge, skills and aptitudes to discharge their duties
well //
51
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Management of Human and You may find on the qualities mentioned in Figure 12.1 above needs to be
Administrative Resources inculcated more or less in each and every individual to be effec~ivehunian resources
of any organisation.
12.5 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RESOURCES
We all are aware that health' progress and smooth functioning of an organisation
squarely rest on two important systems i.e. (i) sound financial system (2) efficient
and effective human system. As organisations of today are encountered with many
challenges suci. as transformation of economic environment, information explosion
advances in information and communication technologies and the intensely
competitive global and domestic market, which have created a lot of pressure on
organisations to change accordingly or to perish. In order to meet these challenges,
every organisation should have sound financial resources in one hand as well as
have committed work force on the other hand.
It is an established truth that the organisations to be dynamic, growth oriented and
" fast changing requires human resource that can achieve the goals of the organisation
in strategic manner. The human resources are the lifeblood of an organisation and
hence it is absolutely necessary to have the better-qualified, trained and managed
personnel for more effective and profitable system for the organisation. Early in
the present century, Likert and Bell observed that all activities of any enterprise
are initiated and determined by the people who make up that institution. Plants,
officers, computers, automated equipments and all else that a modem firm uses
are unproductive except for human efforts and direction (Likert and Bell, 1984).
Human resources of an organisation in fact is the yardstick of everything that
happens in the organisation. Human resource in any organisation join and work
together to accomplish the objective of that organisation in an effective and efficient
manner. Education is a social system where human resources is increasingly viewed
as vital because it supports the guiding goal and objectives of the organisation as
whole.
Realising the importance of human resources to an organisation, a new core of .
human resource management practices and philosophy is emerging and assuming
significance in modem organisations which plays significant role in making the
human resources vital, useful and purposeful.
Check Your Progress
I) How do you interpret the meaning of human resources in your organisational
set up?
•
....................................................................................................................
,
2) Mention the two important system of human resources management.
52 ........................................................................
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Management of Human
12.6 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES: THE Resources
NEED
As we know the human resource management is a strategic approach of selection,
deployment, motivation, development and management of the organisation's.human
resources which ensures the achievement of goals and objectives of the organisation.
Human resources management is a process of proactive change which is always
linked to the enhancement of the capacity of each individual in an organisational
set up. It emphasises on looking forward to what needs to be done to take the
advantages of targeted opportunities than waiting to be told what to do about
recruiting, paying or training people as they have already affected organisation's
performance. Educational administrators/ managers in business organisations,
therefore, usually apply many familiar techniques such as manpower planning,
selection and recruitment, staff development and motivation, performance appraisal,
etc. for management of human resources.
Broadly speaking there is three meaning on which the concept ofHRM revolves
around
i) People employed in an organisation are considered as valuable assets, it
indicates that time and effort needs to spare for their professional growth and
development. •
ii) People working in the organisation art; 2"man resources because of their
special qualities and characteristics. Therefore, they cannot be treated like·
material resources. Hence there is a need to introduce humanistic values and
human approach to the organisational life.
fu) People working in the organisation should not be accepted as single individual
unit, rather they are working in interrelated, interdependent and socialistic
environment. Each of them is members of the total organisation. It includes
the role of person in the organisation, his superior and various in teams in
which shelhe works.
e
In its essence as we may conclude, HRM is the qualitative improvement of
human being who is considered the most valuable assets of an organisation - the
sources, resources and end-users of all products and services. It is a scientific
process of continuously enabling the employees to improve and up-to-date their
present and future expected roles. So that goals of the organisation are achieved
in cost effective manner as well as needs of the employees are also met to an
• adequate extent.
We often observe that management of human resource occupies a central sub-
system of an organisation. Being the central sub system, HRM interacts closely
and continuously with all other sub system of an organisation. the functional
ability and efficiency of people in all sub system of an organisation heavily rely"on
the policies, programmes and practices of the HRM sub-system as depicted in •
the following figure:
•
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Management of Human and
Technical
Sub-System
Material Marketing
Snb-System Sub-System
Fig. 12.2: HRM is central sub system
Source: Human Resources Management. S. Chand & Sons: New Delhi

.. Gupta (1997) discusses the need for management of human resources at four
levels:
12.6.1 Organisation Level

Management of human resource to an organisation is necessary to achieve its
desired goals successfully in the following ways:
i) . To select and retain qualified talent through effective human resource planning
i.e. recruitment, selection, placement, compensation and promotion policies.
it) To develop and build required skill competency and capabilities through
training, orientation and performance appraisal, etc.
ill) To secure support and cooperation of employees through motivation,

participation, grievance handling, etc.
iv) To ensure that the organisation will have in future a team of competent and
dedicated employees.
12.6.2 Professional Level

Management of human resources is equally indispensable for professional
growth of employees in the following ways:
i) To promote a healthy team work among employees by providing healthy

working environment, this in other way leads to professional growth.
it) To provide maximum opportunities for personal development of each

employee.
ill) To maintain healthy relationship among and between individuals and different
.work groups.
iv) To place right person at right place.
12.6.3 Social Level

Sound management of human resource in an organisation is required for the
society. It helps to enhance the dignity of labour in the following ways:
•
54
I
i) Providing suitable employment that provides social and psychological Management of Human
Resources
satisfaction to the people.
ii) To maintain balance between the job available and the jobseekers in terms
of numbers, qualification.
ill) To minimise wasting of human resources through conservation of physical
and mental health.
12.6.4 National Level

i) To create conducive conditions for development of nation.
ii) To provide suitable means for exploitation and utilisation of a nation's natural,
physical and financial resources require for efficient and committed manpower.
ill) To facilitate in generating high standard of living through inculcating such
skills, attitudes and values of its human resources for speeding up the process
.. of economic and educational growth .
Check Your Progress
3) There are four levels of need for management of human resources, mention
all the four levels.
4) What do you mean by human resources management? .
12.7 APPROACHES FOR MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN

RESOURCES
As we have by now understood that the growth and prosperity of any educational
organisation squarely rests on the skills, competence and capabilities of the people
who are delivering various educational services. The most important among these
resources is the teachers. It is the teacher who directly or indirectly inculcates
knowledge skill, competence, values, aptitudes and beliefs in the students.
Therefore, teachers' community need to be competent, creative, curious and
capable for healthy functioning of an educational environment. Unless and until
'teachers are competent and understand their roles and responsibilities well, the
educational organisation cannot function and grow well. Even in self-learning,
teachers play an important role. Apart from providing guidance, they help in
strengthening the learner's motivation to learn. 55
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Management of Human and Besides teachers, there are several other functionaries as mentioned earlier,
Administrative Resources headmasters, college principals and other teaching staffs, supervisor, vice-
chancellors of university and directors of the institutions, principals of colleges,
heads of research units, heads of training institutions and educationallanners and
administrators at the national and state levels. Each of these functionaries require
different kinds of skills, knowledge and conceptual understanding to perform their
functions meticulously. t
Therefore, educational administrators at various level (school, college, university,

other higher education institutions and research units) is to plan, develop and
administer policies, practices and programmes designed to make expeditious use
of its human resources. It is that part of management which is concerned with
people at work and \'"ith their relationship within the organisation. Its objective
are:
1) Effective utilisation of manpower;
2) Promoting desirable working relationship among all the members of the

organisation; and
3) Optimum professional development of the individual.
The following functions may ensure for effective management of'human resources
in educational organisations i.e. School, College and other Higher Education
Institution at national level.
12.7.1 Human Resources Planning

This sub system ensures the supply of the right kind of human resources at the
required times. The supply of right kind of manpower is decided through annual
plan in the beginning of the financial year at institutional, regional and at national
level. Developmental plans at national'level estimates the requirements of manpower
at different sector [.e, health, education, administration and industry etc. The
quantity of skilled manpower requirement for developmental activities helps in
estimating the number of new educational institutions (schools, colleges, technical
training institution) to be opened or existing institutions need to be expanded
(increasing the intake capacity). This.ultimately helps in estiIffatingthe requirement
of manpower.
There are three major process involved in human r~sources planning:
i) Forecasting: It estimates the number and type of people needed to
accomplish organisational goals. Research is an important part of this function
because planning requires the collection ~d analysis of information in order
-to forecast human resoarces supplies and to predict future human resources
•
needs. .
ii) Supply analysis: It determines whether sufficient employees.are availabl

within the organisation to meet demand and also whether potential employees
• are available in the job market.
.
Ofu) Balancing supply and demand: It requires a host of activities, including
infernal and external recruitme~t. .••
Human Resources Planning (HRP) i;l educational sector Is a matter of simple

exercise and does not require any sophisticated technology This is because in
most states in India fairly reliable population statistics and projects available and
56 fun~ allocations were decided on political and economic consideration in advance,
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Exercise on manpower requirement can be done rather easily in a states or region Management of Human
once it decides:- Resources
• the number of schools, colleges or other higher educational institutions are to

be opened in a given period;
• the number of classes to be added in this institution and the number of
children to be brought in a formal education system;
• the teacher student ratio desired;
• the education level at which subject matter specialist only should teach the
respective subjects (e.g. science teacher teaching science only); and
• the knowledge and skill levels required for teaching each class etc.
However, human resources planning in the field of education usually affected by
faulty norms and standards; untested assumptions and bureaucratic rigidities ..For
r •
example there are only 646 teacher training colleges at secondary level leading to
B.Ed degree all over the country by 1998. Within a short period time by 2008,
the number of training colleges reached to 8,856 which in turn demanded 56,000
teacher educators to run these colleges. To handle this crisis National Council for
Teacher Education (NCTE) frequently brought slackness in norms for appointment
of teacher educators which in turn encouraged half baked persons to work as
teacher educator in one hand and in other hand it has created mass unemployment
graduate and post graduate trained teachers all over the country. The permission
for opening large number of training colleges here and there stated with the
assumption of shortage of teacher at secondary level if the universalisation of
secondary education policies will be implemented in near future. Neither governing
bodies at national level nor at regional level have any demand and supply data of
teacher requirement at secondary level. Now ~CTE has appointed a special task •
force to close down these colleges before implementation of forecasted policies
i.e. universalisation of secondary education.
12.7.2 Job-Analysis
Job analysis is the process of describing the nature ofa job and specifying the
human requirements such as knowledge, skills, aptitudes and experiences needed
to perform it. The end product of the job analysis process is the job description.
Job descriptions are the list of job titles, qualifications needed by the persons for
a particular job, salary range, work duties and responsibilities of employees. Job
descriptions are an important source of information to employee~.
i) Need of Job Analysis
There are four major purpose of job analysis such as training, compensation,
selection and performance appraisal review which are described briefly in below:-
• Determining training needs: It helps in identifying training content, methods,
material and evaluation techniques to be used.
• Compensation: It used in determining the required level of education, specific
skills, work tllvircII,ment, responsibilities.
• Selection procedures: It can be used for job descriptions in advertisements

of vacant positions, for screening applications,preparing questions for interview,
developing evaluation Performa and orientation materials.
57
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Management of Human and • Performance review: Job analysis can be used in performance review to
Administrative Resources identify goals and objectives; performance standards; evaluation criteria; and
length of probationary periods and duties to be evaluated.
(ii) Methods of Job Analysis

The job analysis process starts with job data which specifies tasks, performance
standards, responsibilities etc required for particular job. To prepare job data, the
head of the organisation or employer collects information from existing staffs or
supervisors through various techniques such as observation, individual interview,
recording of the job activities, employee records, questionnaire, check list, task
inventories etc. Possible agents to do the collecting are professional job analyst
or some times supervisor or even a camera in the work place. After collection of
information, the head of the organisation work out two important parameters i.e.
job descriptions which describes the type of task, duties and responsibilities
required for the job and job specificationsclarifies the requirement of the specific
knowledge,.skills, aptitudes and physical fitness on part of the employees. The
.. above exercise enables the head of organisation to come out with clear functions
and requirement manpower.
Fig. 12.3: The Process of Job
Source: Snell, S & Bohlander, G. (2007). Human Resources Management, Cengage
Learning India Pvt. Ltd: New Delhi

(Hi)Techniques. for collection information for job analysis
The Head of the educational institution can used several tools and techniques for
collection of both quantitative and qualitative information for the purpose of job
58 analvsis. The most frequently u~f'rltools are such as:
/
• Expert panels discussion Management of Human
Resources
• Use of structured and unstructured questionnaires
• Task inventories
• Check lists t
• Observation of performance
• Teacher's diaries
A typical method of job analysis would be to give the employees a simple
questionnaire to identify job duties, responsibilities, aids and equipment used,
work relationships, and work environment. The completed questionnaire would
then be used to prepare ajob description and/or job specifications. The method
that you may use injob analysis will depend on practical concerns such as type
of job, number of jobs, number of incumbents, and location of jobs.
.. Check Your Progress
b) . Check your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
5) Mention the three major process involved in human resources planning .
..........................•........................................................................................
6) What are the techniques for collection information for job analysis?
12.7.3 Staffing
Once the human resource requirements are known for a region or for an 11l,Jtit •..•.ion,
the next step is to recruit them. Recruitment of quality staff in educational
organisation is a vital step in ensuring a quality education for students. In the past
there used to be very few interested in teaching profession. With opening of
several teacher training institutions, large number of young graduates and post
graduates entering in teaching profession. Some of them have not genuine interest.
Being forced by parents and to avoid unemployment problem, they are pursuing
teacher education programme. After completion of their training course they are
fighting for other fat salary job. When they failed to get such type of jobs they
are adopting teaching v. '.• .....;a disinterestedjob. This situation has both advantages
and disadvantages to the education system. The advantage is that there is a wide
choice available for the education manager to select his teachers. The disadvantage
is that most of the teachers he selects may have least interest in teaching profession
as they may have chosen it for employment reasons. This throws challenges on
th., f".,,,r•••tf1'lt':nt =vstem to en<:" t\... •.•t •.;,....ht 1,;•.• "f' t"nn\..."~" 'lr., ('h'"'~en. In. far+
r"" rI 59
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Management of Human and the purpose of evolving a good recruitment system is to ensure the identification
Administrative Resources of right kind ofo people to man different positions. If a mathematics teacher is
.
recruited to teach social science or if a social science teacher has to teach
physical science it is wastage of human resources. The students suffer in this
process'. One wrongly placed or frustrated teacher can spoil the learning
opportunities of students and may also affect the health of the institution.
Steps of Recruitment and Selection Process
An effective selection process is a planned, organised and controlled process.

There are six specific steps involved in selection process: (1) job descriptions, (2) "
advertisement of the job, (3) screening ofthe application, (4) defining behavioural
characteristics, (5) identifying and applying mechanism for selection, (~ assessing
selection results.
1) Job descriptions: Ajob description is a written description ofajob and the

types of duties and responsibilities it requires. Thus, it is necessary to prepare
.. a exhaustive list of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values required to
perform that job. The job description enables employees to learn their job
duties and remind them about expected results they are supposed to achieve.
2) Giving advertisement: One of the common methods of attracting applicants

is through advertisements. There are various modes available for advertisement
such as newspapers, employment news (weekly), professional journals, radio,
television, web sites and e-mail etc. The selection of a mode for advertisement
depends on the urgency of the employer and accessibility of mode to the
applicants.
3) Screening of the applications: Once the applications are received, the

employer appoints a screening committee who prepares the screening criteria
by matching with the job descriptions as well as by looking into the specific
degrees, diploma, and additional training programme attended performance
appraisal records of the candidate which indicates the capabilities of the
candidate.
4) Defining behavioural characteristics: The fourth step is to define the

behavioural characteristics to be measured. Subsequently, questions to be
answered by the candidates are identified and included in the appraisal
instruments, which will be used in selection process.
5) Identifying and applying mechanism for selection: The fifth step is to

identify mechanisms of testing to know whether the individual possesses the
required knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, wherever the indicators are
not easily available, Interviews and tests can be used for such selection
purposes. Knowledge can be assessed through written tests, while skills,
attitudes, values etc. can be assessed through simulation tests, interviews and
such other mechanisms. It is desirable to collect data from several sources
to ensure pr?per selection.
6) Assessing the selection results: The final step in the recruitment and
selection process is to assess its success in terms of accomplished purpose
and benefits received. For example what per cent of the recruitment pool
became active candidates and what are the performance ratings of the active
candidates? Has the quality of the people improved as a result of the selection
procedures used? For example, if all of the newly recruited teachers received
high performance ratings for the first year, the result provides evidence that
60 ",-~ .•.. --~-"'''''''''''~!lnr1r1nJ - ....
"''"''''''''.~~.-;4"F."""!,I·
.... • -,-
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12.7.4 Staff Training and Development Management of Human
Resources
Staff development is defined as the process of providing opportunities for employees
to improve their knowledge, skills and performance in line with the goals, values
and beliefs of the organisations and in accordance withthe needs and interest of
the employees. Staff development in education has come to be viewed as
indispensable as this process encourage teachers and ether functionaries at school,
college and university level to enhance their pedagogical knowledge, skills, and
competencies in subject matter through advanced academic courses. Staff
development in education are going on in many forms namely in-service education,
continuing education, recurrent education, on-the job staff training. In addition to
providing training for new or inexperienced teachers, schools, colleges and university
often provide training programmes for experienced employees whose jobs are
undergoing change or to whom organisation wants to promote from lower post
to higher post after a short of orientation or training programme. Big educational
organisation like National Council Educational Research and Training (NCERT),
National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA), National
.
,
Institute Open School (NIOS), Academic Staff Training Colleges (ASTC) of on-
campus Universities Distance Education Programme- Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (
DEP-SSA,IGNOU) etc. at national level, State Council Educational-Research
and Training (SCERTs) at regional level, District Institute of Educational Training
(DIE1) at district level and Block Resources Centre (BRCs) and Cluster Resources
Centre (CRCs) at block level have been undertaking various types of staff
training and capacity building programmes.
i) Purpose of Staff Development
The major purposes of staff development can be summarised as follows:

a) To identify the felt needs of the teachers for development among the teachers.
b) To plan the needed training programme with the help of subject experts in
that area.
c) To serve the educational organisations primary goals i.e. enhancing and
achieving quality teaching learning for students.
d) To provide a climate that fosters opportunity for personal self-fulfilment and

institutional effectiveness.
e) To establish viable and meaningful programmes that enable system personnel

to work cooperatively towards achieving organisation's goal as well as their
own goals.
f) To save money. It is costly to appoint and then dismiss the employees who
do not perform. It is equally costly to lose good employees because they are
frustrated by lack of opportunity for professional growth.
ii) Process of Staff Development
The operational procedures for the staff development process progress through
a series of five steps: (1) formulating a guiding policy for staff development, (2)
Defining program goals and objectives, (3) planning the program activities, (4)
implementing programme activities, (5) evaluating the staff development process
and implement appropriate changes.
61
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Management of Human and
Formulating
Guiding policy
Evaluating Defining
staff programme
Development goals and
objectives
Implementing
Programme
. Activities
Fig. 12.4: Process of Staff Development
Each of these steps is described briefly in below:

i) Formulating a guiding policy for staff development
The guiding policy for staff development is adopted as an official order/circular
of educational organisation that establishes the goals of the programme. Policy
is used by the HeadlEducational Administrators to determine specific procedures
to implement the programme. This policy sets the guidelines for the administrative
discretion necessary for its implementation.
ii) Defining programme goals and objectives
•
The operational 'procedure includes creating goals and objectives for staff
development as per the needs and interests of employees. In-service programmes
that focus on the immediate, realistic and personal needs are likely to be more
effective than others. Further, programmes that consider both the interests and
needs of the organisation's people and the needs of the organisations provide an
important organisational balance in staff development.
ill) Planning the programme activities
Programme activities and delivery systems must be planned by keeping in view
the individual employee in.mind. Both organisation and individual responsibilities
must be determined. Ideally, Head of the educational organisations decides
various types of training and orientation activities for staff development. In other
instances, individual staff might assume the responsibility for their own professional
development. In any case, the need for close cooperation and mutual sharing of
programme activities and responsibilities is important for programme success.
iv) Implementing programme activities
The activities, experiences, learning programmes, and personal initiatives are made
available and implemented. Staff development activities are both formal and informal.
They include workshops, conferences, peer teaching, mentoring, independent study
activities, assessment methodology, internships, job rotation, college courses, e-
62 learning technology etc.
/ I
v) Evaluating the staff development process Management of Human
Resources
Evaluation of the staff development process focuses on the assessments necessary
to judge the extent to which the stated goals for the programme are being met.
It is a process to see return on investment. That is, what hard data will be
gathered that demonstrate the contribution of the 'staff development programme.
For example to know, what extent did a specific ~taff development programme
improved the instructional methodology in the classroom? Did the programme
result in improved student achievement outcomes? '
Check Your Progress
Note : a) ,Space is given below for Writing your answers.
7) Mention the steps of recruitment and selection of process.
8) What are the process of staff developr.r=t?

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• t ••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ••
12.7.5 Staff Motivation and Reward Management

Motivation is one of the important determinants of a persons behaviour at
workplace. It includes all those factors which increases and decreases the active -
involvement of individual in hislher assigned activity. The health progress of the
organisations invariable related with the level of motivation of the employees. In
educational organisation, you will encounter two categories of people i.e.1) highly
devoted, hard working, committed to job; 2) lazy,evasive and superficial employees.
In that situation you need to think what to do with less motivated people or even
what sort of action you must take to reward the well motivated and efficient staff.
i) How to Maintain Staff Motivation?
The following techniques can be undertaken by the Head of the organisation to
sustain the motivation of the staff.
a) Delegation of authority
A democratically functioning system requires that you as a head of the institution
delegate some part of your authority to other capable and competent staffs in
your institution. This is one way in which you can make other staffs feel motivated,
empowered and help them develop efficaciously. As the authority will be delegated,
there will be more staffs available to make the necessary decisions. What should
be important for your, as a head teacher is to insist that the decisions are made
within the set guidelines. This will help all concerned in carrying out the work 63
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Management of Human and more efficiently without procedural delays and other administrative hassles. Staffs
Administrative Resources will enjoy what they are doing and will have a sense of pride as well.
b) Encourage for participation
Participation in the functioning of one's organisation is known to enhance one's
self-esteem. As a practice you should involve your staff in the process of decision-
making and in activities that are of direct concern to them and impact their
functioning. The more you get the staff involved the more you will find in them
a sense of ownership, responsibility, and enthusiasm about achieving the set goals;
This would not lessen however, your accountability in decisions, as the final
responsibility for decisions made will continue to rest on your shoulders as head
of the institution.
c) Communication
It has been observed in educational institutions that wherever the head keep their
staff Oinformed about the goals set, progress made, and the results achieved,
there is a greater cooperation shown by teachers, and they display a sense of
belonging in the group. On the other hand, if the staff is not kept informed they
show little interest and motivation, and gradually develop apathy and indifference.
Thus the head of the institutions should informed staff about results, changes and
progress and the future needs of the institution.
d) Recognition
The head institutions should give credit to the staff for their positive actions and
behaviours. It satisfies their need for recognition, and they feel encouraged to
work harder. One has to keep in mind that recognition of the person concerned
is necessary to give one a sense of identity.
e) Organise professional development programme
To sustain the motivation of the staffs, you need come out with different plans and
policies regarding professional development programmes of the staffs.
t) Introspection
It is important for you to,introspect and reflect to one's own attitude, behaviour,
and even personal problems that can affect the perception of staff needs and
problems, and work on them. These may be challenging to your own leadership
role and self-esteem, and ultimately reflect in your ability to develop your staff.
Reward Management is effective instruments for ensuring a high level of motivation
of staff and fostering desirable values and norms in any system. Unless desirable
behaviour is reinforced through recognition and other forms of rewards, the
behaviour may not be repeated (may tend to be forgotten) or people may not put
efforts to exhibit such behaviour. When a teacher puts extra efforts to develop a
curriculum relevant to the community in which he/she is teaching, he/she should
be rewarded for hislher innovativeness and the relevance he/she brought into
education at local level. When a science teacher develops a new set of audio-
visual aids to teach science, he/she needs to be rewarded so that he will continue
to innovate. A headmaster making hislher school play a very responsive role to
the community should also be rewarded.
Thus every person who does something unusual, or extraordinary or something
new and innovative should be encouraged through appropriate rewards. There
64 are several forms of rewarding people. Some of these include : increases in
/
salary, cash awards in appreciation, giving weightage to hislher contribution at the Management of Human
time of promotion decisions, giving him higher responsibilities in the same job (e.g. Resources
a scienceteacher who has done excellent work could be requested to co-ordinate
a science teachers forum in that region), making announcements about the
contributions in in-house journals, news papers etc. giving certificates, circulating
hislher contributions to others in the system, sponsoring for study tours in other
places, praising him before others, introducing him to higher authorities etc. Even
symbolic rewards and recognition goes a long way in maintaining motivation of
employees at high level. If a hard-working person or an innovative person is not
rewarded after some time, hislher motivations may be reduced as he/she starts
comparing with others. There may be uniform low level of performance in the
system.
Check Your Progress
9) As a Principal, how will you motivate the demoralized staffs in your
college?
10) Which forms of reward is better to sustain the motivation of lazy staffs in you
institution? Why
................................................................................................................ ...
~
12.7.6 Staff Supervision and Discipline

Supervision ensures the educational administrators/educational manager/Head of
the institutions etc to know whether the activities are going on as pre-planned.
Similarly, discipline conforms them that whether employees are working as per the
rules, regulation of the organisations and respecting instruction issued from-time
to time.
The role of supervisor is very important in educational institutions. Supervision

work of the head is not confined only to know whether goals of the institutions
have been achieved or not. Hence the developmental supervision emphasises on
accomplishment of both institutional and individual goal, building collaborative
culture in campus ann ensuring teamwork among the employee. As a leader or
head of the schoolk(\l1~~~lqOD-University, you are supposed to monitor teaching
work, administration, accounts, and other ancillary tasks. It may not be possible
to do all work simultaneously. Therefore, you can distribute these tasks to your
staff members. The after you need to ensure that assigned tasks are actually
carried out on stipulated time and in proper manner. To furnish the supervision
work, collect information through various wavs such as meeti.i; .vithadministrative
65 I
/
Management of Human and and academic faculty, visiting classes of teachers, talking to pupils, teachers, ana 1I
Administrative Resources parents. I
i) Process of Supervision
The process of supervision involves some specific exercises which are commonly
adopted by the head of tfie educational organisations such as 1) specifying goals, \
. 2) deciding time schedule, 3) setting norms, 4) assigning activities, 5) monitoring,
6) corrective actions.
Fig. 12.5: Process of supervision
The above mentioned steps are briefly discussed in below:

a) Specifying activities
The first in staff supervision is to decide goals and tasks to be achieved or
performed well in advance. The time frame may be daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly, half yearly or yearly depending upon the nature of tasks / goals. Goals
are normally seen in a longer time frame prospective. Tasks refer to prospective
activities to be carried out in order to achieve goals.
b) Deciding the time schedule
Once the goals are set and tasks are decided, next step is to decide on framing
the time schedule. The tasks are prioritised and time schedule prepared ego
Completion of syllabus, revision of course, examination, maintenance of school
etc. The time-frame within these activities or tasks are to be carried out has to
be decided in advance.
c) Setting down ~orms
Next step is to decide on manner, standards, resources etc. required to accomplish
the task or activities .. Making provision in the budget, teacher's time table,
availability of teaching and non-teaching staff, etc. are analysed and decided at
this stage.
d) Assigning the activities
Assigning the decided tasks/activities to the staff members is the next important
step. It is to be planned well in advance, which task will be performed by whom.
Of course, teaching has to be performed by the respective teachers of their
subjects in their respective classes. But in a school, there are several curricular
and extra curricular activities, sports, cultural fests/programmes, educational tours,
publishing of the school magazine, etc. All the tasks/activities are assigned well
/ I
•
before time. It is suggested that these activities are rotated amongst stdtf member ..... Management ofHuman
This promotes belongingness to the school, willingness to undertake tasks anJ a Resources
show of initiative etc.
e) Monitoring
~
Once the tasks/activities are-allocated. the time schedule. resources and action
plan finalized, your role in monitoring starts. Monitoring may be through:
1) observation (visits to classrooms. library, etc.)
2) interaction (discussing and talking with staff students, parents)
3) review of documentation (seeking periodical progress reports etc.)
It is suggested that combination of the above techniques he adopted in monitoring.

Monitoring should be used more of a diagnostic andreviewing tool rather than
as a checking device. Monitoring facilitates in anal: sing.
.
,
f) Corrective action
Corrective action is process of remediation based on monitoring report. It modifies

or omits the deviation occurred in any of the process of supervision.
. .
Discipline is also very vital components for smooth functioning of educational
organisation. The discipline amongst the staff students, parents. visitors is equally
important. Discipline in educational organisation. specify some code of conduct,
rules and regulations to protec~ the rights of students, teachers and all other
members.
The following process is adopted for maintaining discipline in' educational

organisations.
In most schools, a set of rules which act a code of conduct is drawn up for pupils
to confirm. These rules should be as few as possible and should be reasonable.
pupils should be involved in drawing up school rules. .
I~ the case of rules for teaching staff, they should be drawn up and agreed by
the staff as far as is possible. In doing this you well want to involve the teacher
unions so that there is wide acceptance and. full cooperation. Staff meeting can
include the agenda items designed to help teachers so as to find positive way to
deal with school matters.
12.7.7 Performance Appraisal

Once a person is recruited and allocated certa~ responsibilities, some mechanisms
need to be used to ensure that he/she is doing hislher job well. For this purpose
hislher performance should be monitored through periodic appraisals. Such
monitoring of the performance also helps in identifying developmental needs and
providing additional training or coaching to the candidate. Periodic appraisals also
make the employee feel that he/she is important, hislher contributions are valued
and there is someone who is interested in how well he/she is doing his/her job.
It also gives him/her an opportunity to express hislher difficulties and take the help
ofhislher supervi.iinz officers to solve hislher problems. Performance appraisal
also can give an opporrunity for the supervising officer to coach the candidate and
help hirnlher to develop in his/her role.
In order to improve and enhance performance, appraisal system must confirm to

the following criteria:
67
I
Management of Human and • It is developmental; being the diagnostic component of a structured and
Administrative Resources systematic approach to the management of training and development, 1
• It is formative as it is based on qualitative judgement which are the basis for
future action.
• It is negotiated i.e. a process of negotiating individual targets in order to
improve personal performance and so enhance the quality of educational
provision,
• It is continuous, since it is a long term strategy to enhance individual
performance in the context of organisational objectives ..
• It is hierarchical as it is the process by which the managerial relationship of
the institution are expressed and developed.
• It is internal, because it is concerned with the institutions performance and
the quality of its internal relationships.
.
,
i) Need of Performance Appraisal
If performance appraisal meets the criteria outlined above then has many uses for
the teacher, the head of institution and the institution itself such as :
• It enhances relationship between and among the staff and students.
• It provides opportunity for career development.
• More systematic identification of agendas for staff development.
• It enhances the communication process.
• It provides opportunity for self-analysis and self-awareness.
• It provides scope for self-management of learning and greater opportunities
for recognition and praise.
ii) Process of Performance Appraisal
There are some guidelines for performance appraisal described briefly in below:
a) Specify the role of each staff member: It may confirm each and every
staff members about their performance and expected role to play.
b) Set down evaluation criteria: outlining the yardstick on which performance
of the staff is to be rated or judged.
c) Develop an objective appraisal system: with discussion with the
representative of staff members, the type, nature and length of appraisal
proforma is to be finalised.
d) Finalise duration of appraisal: Duration of performance assessment of
staff usually done annually. In case new corner it can be quarterly or half
yearly depending on duration of probation period.
iii) Methods of Performance Appraisal
The educational administrator/Head of the organisation may use a range of task
and techniques to assess the performance as per the requirement of nature of
information they need.
68
• Assessing the performance of the students.
/
• Observation of teachers in the classroom Management of'Human
Resources
• Interview between teacher and appraiser
• Performance reports
• i\ttendancerecords
12.7.8 Potential Appraisal

While performance appraisal deals with performance of a person on the job
assigned to him/her, potential appraisal deals with the assessment capabilities of
a person to perform new roles and handle higher responsibilities. For example
all principal of higher secondary schools may not have the right capabilities to
become District Education officer or higher level education officers. Some may
have better aptitude for such roles than others. Therefore, there is a need to
assess the.suitability of employees for higher level jobs.
Potential appraisal starts again with the identification of knowledge, attitude, skills
.. and values required to perform the job for which the potential of any individual
has to be assessed. In most countries generally the practice is to promote
candidates internal to handle higher-level jobs. Wherever such systems exist it is
the responsibility of the education department to ensure that opportunities are
provided for people to develop their potential through in-service training.
The purposes of potential appraisal are:

• To place right kind of people in right position.
• To inform staff about their future prospects.
• . To update and revise the staff training and recruitment process.
• To promote internal staffs for higher post by building necessary knowledge,
skills and aptitudes.
i} Process of Potential Appraisal
The following steps needs to be followed while introducing potential appraisal

system in educational organisations:
a)" Role description: Roles and responsibilities associated with the different
higher posts in an organisation should be informed and clarified to subordinate
staffs. This requires extensive job descriptions for each job.
b) Qualities Required: Besides job descriptions, it is necessary to have a

detailed list of qualities required to perform each of these functions. These
qualities may be broadly divided into four categories - (l) technical knowledge
and skills (2) managerial capabilities and qualities, (3) behavioural capabilities
and (4) conceptual capabilities.
c) Indicators of Qualities: i\ good potential appraisal system besides listing

down the functions and qualities would also have various mechanisms for
judging these qualities are - (a) rating by others, (b) psychological test, (c)
simulation games and exercises, (d) performance appraisal records.
d) Organising the system: Once the functions, the qualities required to perform
these functions, indicators of these qualities, and mechanisms for generating
these indicators are clear, the organisations is in a sound position to establish
and operate the potential appraisal system. Such establishment requires clarity
in the organisational policies and systematisation of its efforts. 69
I
; lanagement of Human and e) Feedback: If the organisation believes in the development of human reso\}fCes
.:."ministrative Resources it should attempt to generate a climate of openness. Such a climate is required
for helping the employees to understand their strengths and weaknesses and
to create opportunities for development. A good potential appraisal system
should provide an opportunity for every employee to know the results of
assessment. He/She should be helped to understand the qualities actually
required. ~
12.7.9 Self Renewal System

~
Organisation Development (OD) as an approach to planned change in ogranisation
has been widely used. Several writers have defmed OD in different ways. Acoording
to Fordyce and Weil (1971) Organisation Development (OD) is a planned
effort, initiated by process specialists to help an organisation develop its
diagnostic skills, coping capabilities, linkage strategies in the form of
temporary and semi-permanent systems, and a culture of mutuality.
There are several important dimensions of OD contained in this definition. Some
elaboration of these dimensions may be useful such as:
a) A planned effort: OD is a planned effort and therefore, quires a great deal

of thinking and planning on the part of the OD expert.
b) Initiated by process specialists: The knowledge and skills of applied

behavioural science are used in OD. It can be properly initiated by an
expert who has both the knowledge of applied behavioural science and the
skill of applying this knowledge in the organisational situation.
c) Diagnostic skills: The emphasis of OD is not only on the diagnosis of the

current problems, but also on developing these skills in the organisation, so
that these skills be used to diagnose its problems as a part of its regular
fimctioning.
d) Coping capabilities: The main thrust of OD is on problem solving abilities

of the organisation. The organisation is helped to develop the ability to
confront and cope with the problems it faces.
e) Linkage strategies: OD emphasises building of linkage between the

individual goals and the organisational goals, amongst the individuals who
work in the various roles, and amongst various groups which function.in the
organisation.
f) Culture of mutuality: OD is based on certain values such as openness,

confrontation, trust, authenticity, proactiveness, autonomy, collaboration and
experimentation which are important for the development of organisations ..
OD can be undertaken by any organisation interested in developing its self-

renewing capabilities or instituting process that would encourage collaboration
and team work, openness and trust and developing process capabilities or its
members. By process capabilities is meant the capabilities to assess and
conceptualise the various processes that are occurring in the organisation while
the members perform various roles and the organisation attempts to achieve its
goals. For example an organisation where there is considerable degree of role-
conflicts and ambiguity of the functions to be performed by different people, can
undertake an OD programme to bring more role clarity and to help the employees
develop mechanisms to sort out conflicts whenever they arise. Similarly, a school
wanting to become more relevant to the community it serves may undertake an
70
OD programme and institute mechanisms to change its orientations.
/
i) Phases of Organisation Development Mar,agernent of H uman
Resources
The OD programme develops through certain phases. The purpose of discussing
these phase; IS to see how the OD programme flows. There may be some
variations or overlap as per the requirement of the organisation, generally OIl
goes through the following phases:
a) Entry in the organisation: The first phase of OD is the establishment of

rapport between the external consultant and the organisation. During this
phase, the external consultant enters an organisation and establishes both his
identity and understanding with the organisation regarding the purpose of
OD. A consultant may enter an organisation in several ways. He may either
be called by the organisation for a specific problem, or he may be called to
discuss the possibility of a general OD programme leading on to the various
kinds of OD activities.
b) Problem identification: The main purpose of the second phase is to

understand the main problems of the organisation. This understanding has to
be developed by working with several people in the organisation. In addition
to collecting preliminary data, the consultant gives more detailed attention to
OD strategy.
c) Specific intervention: After planning the strategy for change, specific

intervention should be designed/selected and implemented. An intervention
is a planned structural group of activities to achieve the goals of OD. Such
an intervention may be in the form of specific structural changes, working
on conflicts on some aspects. Each intervention requires a detailed plan.
d) Building collaborative culture: While the work on the intervention is going

on, it is necessary to build a collaborative culture in the organisation i.e
teamwork sharing of responsibilities common beliefs and mutual trust etc.
e) Development of internal resources: Although this has been mentioned as

the last phase, in fact, this runs throughout the four phases already mentioned.
The consultant identifies internal resources in the beginning and he/she works
with himlher in such a way that the internal resource person is strengthened
both in terms of his/her acceptability as a consultant in his/her skills to work
on various aspects of theOl) programmes.
Check Your Progress
11) Briefly describe the process of performance appraisal in your organisation.
12) What is need of performance appraisal in your organisation.
71
I I
.vlanagement of'Hurnan and
........................................................................................... ~ .
13) Organisation development is planned effort. Comment it
...................................................................................................................
~
12.8 LET US SUM UP
We have observed that human resources of an organisation are its people who
have sum total of accumulated stock of knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents
aptitude, value and belief etc. Human resources in our educational organisations
include several functionaries namely teacher and Headmasters, Principals, Vice
chancellors, Heads of Institutions, Heads of Deptts., HeadslDirectors of Research
units, Directors of Schools, Heads of Training Institutions, local and regional
Administrators, Educational planners and Administrators at national level.
We have also discussed that education is a social system where human resources
is increasingly viewed as vital because it supports the guiding goal and objectives
of the organisation as whole. Realising the importance of human resources to an
organisation, a new core of human resource management practices and philosophy
is emerging and assuming significance in modem organisations which plays significant
role in making the human resources vital, useful and purposeful.
We have also deliberated that the HRM is the qualitative improvement of human
being who is considered the most valuable assets of an organisation - the sources, .
resources and end-users of all products and services. Management of human
resource occupies a central sub-system of an organisation. Being the central sub
system, it interacts closely and continuously with all other sub system of an
organisation and ensures achievement of organisational goals and objectives.
Thus, we as educational administratorslheads at various levels (school, college,

university, other higher education institution and research unit) is to adopt various
approaches such as: i) human resources planning, ii) job analysis, iii) recruitment
and selection, iv) staff development, v) staff motivation and reward management,
vi) staff supervision and discipline vii) performance appraisal, viii) potential appraisal
and ix) self renewal system for effective management of human resources.
12.9. UNIT END ACTIVITIES
1. As a principal of the school, develop the detailed techniques and strategies

for training and performance appraisal of your staff. Collect feedback of
yours teaching faculties and staff members and write a report highlighting
their main features and analysis of the feedback.
2. Select anyone technique that could be used for performance appraisal of

teachers in your institutiion. Critically analyse its advantages and disadvantages.
and write a report.
72
/ I
.Management of Human
12.10 REFERENCES Resources
Snell, S & Bohlander, G. (2007). Human Resources Management, Cengage
Learning India Pvt. Ltd: New Delhi
Fodyce, J. K. & Weil, R. (1971). Managing with People: A Practical Hand
Book on Organisation Development, - ~
Norton, M.S. (2008). Human Resources Administration for Educational
Leaders, Sage Publication. Inc: California
. Gough, B. & Hewett, K. (1992). Staff Development Guidelines, TRIN,Camden.
Frase, L.E. (1992). Maximizing People power in Schools: Motivating Teachers
and Staff, Crown Press, Inc: Newbury Park, CA
Poster, C. & Poster, D. (1997). The Nature of Appraisal. In L. Kydd, M.
Crawford & C. Riches (Eds.) Professional Development for Educational
Management, Open University Press: Buckingham
Bush, T & Saran, R. (1996). Managing Teachers as Professional in Schools,
Kogan Page: Lodon
Gupta, C. B (1997). Human Resources Management, S. Chand & Sons: New
Delhi
Likert, W. L and Bell, C. H. (1984). Organisational Development: Behavioral
Science for Organisational Improvement, 3rd Ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
www.articlesbase.com!. ..lthe-modern-concept-of-human-resources-
811965.htmllast accessed on 16th July, 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titIe=Human resources&action=
edit&section=5 last accessed on 16th on July, 2009.
www.studyinaustralia.com!. ..lthe-modern-concept-of-human-resource last
accessed on 19th July, 2009.

1) Ref. Section 12.3 and 12.4
2) a) Sound financial system.
b) efficient and effective human system.
3) a) Organisational level
b) Professional level
c) Social level
d) National level :
4) Ref. Section 12.6

5) a) Forecasting
b) Supply analysis
c) Balancing supply and demand
6) The most frequently used tools are such as:
a) Expert panned discussion
b) Use of structural and unstructural questionnaires
73
/
ManagementofHuman and c) Task inventories
d) Check list
e) Observation ofperfonnance
f) Teacher diaries
'"1\
I) a) Job descriptiof
b) Advertisement of the job
c) Screening of the application
d) Defining behavioural characterise
e) Identifying and applying mechanism for selection
f) Assessing selection results
8) The operational proceeding for the staff development process program through
a series of five steps: they are
a) Formulating a guiding policy for staff development
b) Define goals and objectives
c) Planning the programme activities
d) Implementing programme activities
e) Evaluating the staff development process and implement appropriate
changes
9) There are so many techniques to motivate staffs
a) Delegation of authority
b) Encourage for participation
c) Communication
d) Recognition
e) Organise professional development programme
f) Introspection
10) Reward management in effective instruments for ensuring a high level of
motivation of staff and fostering desirable values and norms in any system.
When a person who does something unusual or extraordinary or some thing
new and innovative should be encouraged through appropriate rewards.
There are so many forms of rewarding - such as increase in salary, cash
awards in participation, giving weitghtage to his contribution at the time of
promotion decision, giving him higher responsibilities in the savejob, making
announcements about the contribution in-house journals, news papers etc.
giving certificates, circulating his contribution to others in the ..•... system,
sponsoring for study tour in other places, etc.
74
/
MES-044 Institutional Management·

Activities
Unit-9 Resource Mobilization ~1·.-
Unit-I 0 Management of Student Support System '"

.
Unit-l l ManagementofAdministrative Resources

&:r'.
:
"
Unit-17 1001sof Management

I
"fbm lJAq q;)- ~ ~ ~ ~ t 31'R' 3ITGf
et ~ "4 or ~ ct1ct>d?l ~ ~ Cf)T ~ ~
~r ~ OWT ~ ~ ~ ~ \ifTftr -qci ~
~t!lSidJ3I1 q;)- ~ m~~ q;)- ~. m
\J;tR ~ tr"

cutting across the harriers of caste and
hy hirth and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi
Management
Block
4
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE
UNIT 13
Concept, Importance and Need of Infrastructure Management 5
UNIT 14
Management of Physical Resources 28
UNIT 15
Utilisation of Infra-structural Resources 48
Expert Committee
Prof. Lokesh
, Koul Prof. S.L. Jena Prof. S.v.S. Choudhary
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
Prof. Vibha Joshi
SOE,IGNOU
Prof. B.B. Khanna
Senior Fellow IGNOU
Prof. S.K. Panda
STRIDE, IGNOU
New Delhi

Course Contributors Unit Design and Editing Chief Editor
Dr. Hema Pant Prof. Vibha Joshi Prof. M.B. Menon
SOE,IGNOU Deptt. of Edu UNRWA
Mr. Trilokes De
HQ(A), Jordon
Consultant Proof Reading
SOE,lGNOU Mr. Trilokes De
Consultant
SOE,IGNOU
Production
School of Education
October, 2009
© lndira Gandhi National Open University, 2009
ISBN-978-8l-266-4304-2
means, without permission in writing from the lndira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on lndira Gandhi National Open Universitv courses /11;1\' be obtained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-IIO 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the lndira Gandhi Nauou.il Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Continuing Education, lGNOU.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, Mavur viha); Phuse-I, Delhi-v l .
Printed At :- Kalyan Enterprises ,215!5 Ambadker Gali Moujpur,Oelhi -53
BLOCK 4 MANAGEMENT OF
INFRASTRUCTURE
Introduction
The course IV, an institutional management has a block on infrastructural management.
The term infrastructure will be included the basic built assets that provide a structural
foundation for any institution As we know that any institution provides the necessary
i'
support to the core activities which will lead to the attainment of the objectives set
by the institution, for an educational institution infrastructure comprises buildings,
classrooms, library, teaching staffs, funds and so on. Actually physical resources
facilitate the institution to attain pre-determined objecti ves by utilizing infrastructural
items to make way smoother. This block consists of three units. Let us go for brief
introduction of three units.
J
Unit 13 deals with Concept, Importance and Need of Management of Infrastructure.

As we know that management of infrastructure both human and physical, basically
is very significant in Indian context because, Indian education is expanding rapidly.
It is only for public consciousness regarding education. Apart from that financial
assistance may take important role for that purpose. For generating resources in
education through the governmental and non-governmental agencies are also discussed
sequentially. Some apex bodies in the country like UGC and AICTE etc. which
coordinating, monitoring and regulating the standards of higher education in the country
have been explained.
Unit 14 deals with Management of Physical Resources. For an educational institution

infrastructure such as capital. employers, raw materials at the right place at the right
time and planning, organ ising .lnd coordinating of different infrastructural can lead
the resources efficiency and effectiveness of an institution. Proper utilization of physical
resources and timely use of infrastructural materials are the keys of success of an
institution.
Unit 15 deals with Utilisation oflnfrastructural Resources. We shall discuss the

conventional patterns of utilisation of infrastructural resources, its approaches and
methods. Later the innovation oflCT globalisation and the other changes and their
impact on management shall also discuss in the unit. ..
Block-l Managementof Curriculum
Unit-1 Classroom Management (Instructional Management)

Activities

Unit-S
.

Unit-10 Management of Student Support System
Unit-l l Management of Administrative Resources
Block-4 ManagementofInfrastructure
Unit-13 Concept,Importance and Need ofInfrastructure
Management
Unit-IS Utilisation ofInfra-structural Resources
Block-S TotalQuality Management

UNIT 13 CONCEPT, IMPORTANCE AND
NEED OF INFRASTRUCTURE
MANAGEMENT
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
I3.3 Resources for Financing Higher Education

13.3.1 Financing Education in Pre-Independent India
13.3.2 Financing Education in Post Independent India
13.4 Role of Coordinating Bodies

13.4.1 University Grants commission (UGC)
13.4.2 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
13.5 Mechanism of Generating Grants
13.6 The Constraints Involved
13.7 Consideration for management of Resources
13.8 Approaches to Budgeting

13.8.l Incremental
13.8.2 Revenues
13.8.3 Zero-based Budgeting
13.8.4 Supplemental
13.9 Impact on Resource Generation Measures
13.lO Impact ofICT and ODL
13.11 Let Us Sum Up
13.12 References
D.I.) Unit End Activities
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The efficiency of any system depends on the efficient functioning of its constituents.
In the case of an educational system, the constituents- teachers, teaching material
and other infrastructural facilities - are crucial in determining its efficiency. Proper
planning for management of these constituents of an institution is required and is
essential for the effective achievement of the institutional goals. Hence management
of infrastructure both human and physical particularly in the context of Indian higher
education assumes tremendous significance. This is primarily because Indian higher
education has undergone expansion in terms of number of institutions, courses of
study, departments, teachers and students. Hence in this unit we shall discuss the
need and importance of infrastructure management in higher education.
5
Resources
13.2 OBJECTIVES
• identify the resources for fmancing higher education.
• describe the management structure prevalent in these organizations.
• understand the considerations for infrastructure planning.
• explain the process of budget preparation in the context of financial management
of an institution.
13.3 RESOURCES FOR FINANCING HIGHER

EDUCATION
All over the world demand for education is ever increasing. The number of school
going children is over one billion, which is one-fifth of the world's population. This
has put a pressure on the traditional system, particularly in the developing countries,
who have invested large sums in the expansion of primary, secondary and tertiary
edu~ation. Alongside, there is also an increase in the demand for continuing education.
Developed countries also strive to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of their
institutions through education and training to maintain the competitive edge. (Rumble,
1997).
Conventionally efficiency in educational systems is achieved through several sub-
systems which have evolved over a period of time. These according to Rumble
(1997) are-
• U se of written texts for imparting instruction.
• Development oflibraries where scholars and students can consult.
.. • Use of written examinations instead of oral ones, the scheme was first
implemented by the Chinese.
• Development of printing in Korea followed later in Europe to meet the rising
demand for reading.
• Development in the eighteenth and nineteenth century of the classroom as the
basic organizational unit of the school.
Hence with the advancement of technology the labour intensi ve activities were being
replaced by technological devices to improve efficiency of education. It is well
accepted that productivity of any organization or its output improves when human
effort is augmented by technology. We shall discuss about this at a later stage, how
open and distance education can prove to be more cost effective than conventional
teaching -learning systems.
We can also safely conclude that for an efficient functioning of an educational
institution, the financing system should also be efficient. For the success of an
educational enterprise and for efficient goal achievement it is important that agencies
providing the funding method adopted by them and time period taken for the process
will determine the efficiency of the institution. At this stage let us now look into some
resources of financing of higher education.
Higher Education
We all agree that educational institutions are non-profit making bodies i.e. they do
not sell their services to their clientele i.e. students. It implies that funds for the
management of educational system have to be raised from other sources than the
students. Also educational services have to be useful to the receivers and ultimately
6 the society. So the responsibility of financing higher education rests with the society.
The sources of financing higher education i 11 the developing economies in general Concept, Importance and
and in India in particular are: Need.of Infrastructure
Management
• Government (through grants)
• Students (fee income)
• Private donors (philanthropists, industry etc)
Before we discuss the individual sources of financing higher education it is important
to understand the planning and fmancing of higher education in India since the origin
of the modem system of higher education to the present times.
13.3.1 Financing Education in Pre-Independent India

Educational finance was very centralized till 1870. The process of decentralization
began in 1871 and continued till 1921 , when diarchy was introduced under Morley-
Minto Reforms and education became a provincial subject until 1937, when the
Indian Minster for Education got full controL However ti111947, the system suffered
because no fmancial assistance was given to the provincial government. The situation
improved only after independence.
Even in pre-independent financing in education operated at three levels:
1. The Central Government
2. The State or Provincial Governments
3. Local bodies/ private non-governmental sector (Kaur. K., 2003)
13.3.2 Financing Education in Post-Independent India

A policy for financing was developed after independence. The Central government
gave considerable financial assistance to the State Governments to implement their
plans.
The new constitution in 1950 included education under state list thereby giving
complete responsibility of education to the states. However in 1976, the 42nd
constitutional amendment put education in the concurrent list.
The details of financing of higher education are available mainly in the Five Year
Plans ..
An analysis of the first five year plan shows that the annual expenditure of the central
and state governments on education increased from Rs.65 crores in 1950-5 to
Rs.116 crares in 1955-56. During the same period, development expense on the
maintenance of institutions already established, increased from less than Rs.20 crores
in 1950-51 and 1951-52 to about Rs,47 crores in 1955-56. Expenditure on
education from other than government sources was estimated in 1955-56 to be
about Rs. 71 crores against about Rs,49 crores before the plan. The distribution of
expenditure between the Central and State Governments in the first five years plan
(1951- 56) is shown in table 13.1.
Table 13.1: Distribution of Expenditure
Central/State Govt. University Technical & Vocational

Education Education
Central Government 247.0 1155.0
State Government 925.1 990.4
Total (1954-56) 1172.1 (7.8%) 2145.4 (14.2%)
Development Expenditure 120.0 (6.2%) 265.6 (13.6%)
in 1950-51 7
Management of Financial Source: First Five Year Plan I SlSI-56, planning Commission, 1952; p.562 (Reproduced from
Resources Kaur, K. 2003)
A comparison of the First Five Year Plan with the Ninth Plan Expenditure and Tenth
Plan outlay shows a significant increase in allocation of financial resources for
education. The outlay for tenth five year plan is shown in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2: Ninth Plan expenditure and approved outlay of Tenth Plan
(2002-2007)
Sub Heads Ninth Plan Tenth approved outlay

Expenditure (Rs. In crores)
(Rs. In crores
University and Higher 2270.02 4176.50
Education
Technical Education 2109.54 4700.00
Source: Tenth Five Year Plan 2002-2007; Planning Commission 2002, Vol II,p.65.( Reproduced
from Kaur, K, 2003)
The outlay ofRs.4176.50 crores for tenth five year plan is 1.7 times the nineth plan
outlay of Rs.2270.02 crores (Kaur, K., 2003). Reliance on government sources
for funds has almost doubled from the first to the tenth five year plan. However only
government resources do not suffice to meet the increasing demand and consequent
increase in enrolment at the tertiary level of education. There is a need to experiment
with several other alternative resources like student fees, students loans, privatization
etc (Rani, Geetha P,.2002)
Several committees have been constituted to examine the issues of resource

mobilization for higher education. The consensus which emerged is that major source
of income is the student fees. They recommend a 15-25 percent hike in student
fees, so as to recover the annual and recurring cost per student (Rani, P., 2002).
However the government is finding it very difficult to manage with the existing funding
resources. The approach papers to the plan to the Ninth & Tenth Five Year Plans
have emphasized networking among institutions so that existing resources are shared
and optimally utilized. Non formal channels of education like Open and Distance
Learning can be adopted to supplement the formal systems with a focus on quality
and accountability. The plan documents recommend restructuring in tuition fees and
suggest generation of additional resources through non governmental agencies, like
industries and community contributions (Rani Geetha,P., 2002).
Check Your Progress
b) Check your answers with those gi venat the end of this unit.
1. What are the sources of financing Higher education in India?
2. Briet1y discuss two ways of supplementing the government resources to meet

the increasing expenditure on higher education.
8
Concept, Importance and
Need ofInfrastructure
Management
13.4 ROLE OF COORDINATING BODIES

Let us now examine the role of co-ordinating bodies at various levels in financing
higher education (IGNOU 2003).
The Constitution of India empowers the center to exercise overall power with regards
to higher and professional education. This has been very clearly mentioned in Entry
66 of the constitutional provision, which reads as:
Coordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher

education or research or scientific and technical institutions.
As a result of these provisions the UGC was established in 1956 and later the All
India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was set up as a statutory body in
1988. Some of the other coordinating bodies which deri ve their mandate from entry
66 of the constitution are-
• The Medical Council of India
• The Bar Council of India
• The Nursing Council of India

• The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
• The Pharmacy Council of India
• The Institute of Architects
• The Institute of Accountancy
• National Council for Teacher Education
The coordinating bodies listed above fall under two categories - (i) statutory bodies
- UGC and AICTE (ii) Bodies registered under the society registration act for ego
MCI and ICAR. Those grouped in category (ii) cannot regulate and coordinate
standards of education in their fields.
It will be pertinent at this point to examine the role of UGC and AICTE as funding
bodies in higher education institutions which has a direct bearing on infrastructure
management in these institutions. Let us go for discussing below:
13.4.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)

The genesis of the UGC can be traced to the recommendation of the report of
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in 1944, on the post war education
development in India, also known as the Sargeant Report. After much deliberation
through the university education commission, 1948, the UGC was eventually
established in 1956, as a statutory body. It was established through an Act of
Parliament for the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of
university education in the country.
• Funds of UGC
UGC provides funds to colleges and universities for the development of higher
education and research. It receives grants -.in aid from the Central Government
under both non-plan and plan heads. The non-plan grants are meant essentially to
meet the maintenance costs of the central universities, some deemed universities,
colleges of Delhi and some ongoing schemes of the UGC both in Central and State
9
Resources universities. The plan grants are used for general development of every university in
terms of creating infrastructural facilities - construction of buildings, purchase of
furniture equipment for laboratories development of libraries and other academic
and administrative needs. UGC also provides plan grants under special schemes
programmes for promotion of quality, excellence, teaching and research.
UGC Highest Decision

making body
Resource Chairman
Ministry of requirements
education & put up to
planning . ministry &
commission planning
comrrussron Vice-chairman
Resource
Secretary allocation
decision
Working Group
Secretariat
Standing Committee
Expert Committee L Resource

allocation to
Professional universities
Recommendation for
resources
Review Committee utilization
I I
Visiting Teams Demand for
I I Resources
Subject Panels
~
I I
f University and
Colleges
Fig. 13.1 : Scheme of UGC operations
10
Functions of UGC Concept, bnportance and
UGC is the only grant giving agency in the country vested with the twin responsibility Management
of providing funds and coordination, determination and maintaining standards in
institutions of higher education. Its main functions are :
• Promote and coordinate university and college education by fixing the standards
of teaching, examination and research in the universities.
• Enquire into the financial needs of universities and colleges.
• Allocate and disburse financial grants to universities and colleges.
• Allocate and disburse funds to deemed universities for maintenance and in

special cases for development.
• Give advice to any university for improvement of its educational standards.
• Advise the Central or State Governments on allocation of any financial grants

to the universities.
• Advise any authority on the establishment of a new university.
• Ask any university information related to its financial position or studies in different
branches of a subject or related to its teaching and examination system.
Current Challenges
The UGC has to gear up to confront radical challenges in a diversity of programmes,

its structure, its curricular and in the maximum use of information and communication
technology. For the Tenth Plan period it was mandated to give more emphasis to
improvement of academic and physical infrastructure of t~e higher education system,
particularly in view of the impact of globalization (Kaur, 2003).
Some Recent Initiatives (IGNOU 2003)
The UGC has taken some major initiatives to raise the quality and standards of
higher education.
These are: Setting up of centers of advanced study and research to improve the
standard and quality of teaching and research.
• Periodic review and renewal of curricular content of courses in various disciplines

and special schemes for introduction of emerging areas of education and training.
• Establishment of common facilities for research, networking of resources for

information and documentation.
• Induction of electronic media in higher education.
• Provision of fellowship and scholarship to students.
• Launching of special programmes for socially disadvantaged and weaker section

in higher education. Since the ninth plan period UGC has been providing financial
assistance to universities for bearing the cost of innovative programmes in some
emerging areas like environmental energy, biotechnology, electronic and financial
assistance to set up study center or cells for women studies, organize extension
work and training work in the areas of gender equity, girls' education, population
issues etc.
1I
Management of Financial Let us now discuss the role of another statutory body which regulates the higher
Resources education institutes for technical education.
Check Your Progress
3. Mention few coord iuating bodies which get their mandate from entry 66 of the
constitution.
...................................................................................................................
•
. 4. What are the functions of UGC?
...................................................................................................................
13.4.2 All India Council For Technical Education (AICTE)

Role of AICTE
An all India Council for Technical Education a was established in 1945 on the
recommendations of Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE). Entrusted only
with an advisory role in the initial stage, it was granted statutory status in 1988
through an Act of Parliament. This was based on recommendations of NPE - 1986.
The main functions of AICTE for the improvement of the technical education system
are: (Kaur. K. 2003)
• Survey the entire field of technical education in consultation with provincial

governments.
• Greater emphasis on design oriented teaching, teaching of design methodologies,

problem solving approach.
• Greater exposure to the industrial and manufacturing process.
• Exclusion of outmoded technologies and inclusion of new appropriate emerging

technologies.
• Greater input of management education and professional communication skills.
The main tasks of AICTE as envisaged in the IX and subsequent plans are:
(Kaur. K. 2003)
• Planning Growth and Resolution of Technical education;
• Human Resource Development;
• Quality Assurance and Excellence;
12
• Promotion of R&D linkages with industry, National Labs and Rand D Concept, bnportance and
institutions; Need of Infrastructure
~ Management
• Institutional Trust and upgradation;
• Rural Development Programmes;

AICTE has made efforts to improve the quality of technical education in the country.
In order to make Indian industries internationally competitive, there should be
convergence of educational institutions, industries and research institutions. The
engineering curricula should be suitably modified, periodically in keeping with the
emerging global developments in the technical education.
Let us exarnine the organizational structure of AICTE as an apex body for coordinating,
supporting and developing engineering and management education.
AIeTE
I
I I
Chairperson National Board of arreditatiOn
!
Vicrhairperson Chair person
Bureaus
+
Regional Committees •
Head office (N Delhi) Member Secretary
Bangalore
~
Bhopal Kolkata Technical

• •
Administration
Chandigarh Madras Mumbai Kanpur

+
1 +Finance
Administration
Y .I •.
S ectona Comrrutte
Fig.13.2: Organisational Structure of AICTE
Source: Kour, K. (2003)
The statutory body of the AICTE consists of the Council with 51 members. The
Executive Committee with 21 members, seven Regional Committees and ten All
India Boards of Studies. - -
It is also pertinent at this stage to examine the role ofanother apex body, in the area
of open and distance education, i.e. the Distance Education Council.
The Country has developed the open and distance learning system through the
establishment ofIndira Gandhi National Open University and State level Open
Universities, along with InstituteslDirectoratesl Departments of Open and Distance
Learning.
The IGNOU was set up in 1985 through an Act of Parliament and has established
the Distance Education Council (DEC). DEC is a statutory authority within the
IGNOU Act, which provides development funds placed at its disposal by the Central
Government. 13
Management of Financial You have now got an idea of the basic management structure of these apex bodies
Resources which regulate and coordinate standards of higher general and technical education
in the country. Now you should also familiarize yourself with the processes adopted
through these bodies to generate resources and funds, for efficient management of
these institutions.
13.5 MECHANISMS OF GENERATING GRANTS
Finances for Highest Education come from a number of sources. As discussed in the
earlier section, the sources are the statutory mechanisms of the Central and State
Governments, student fees etc.
In this section we shall discuss the mechanisms to generate grants in the context of
higher education. The mechanism for grants entails two sets of operations:
i) Maintenance Grants or Non - Plan or Non - Development grants and
ii) Plan or Development grants.
The Plan Grant provides for growth, diversification and innovations, while the non-
plan grants sustain the development activities. All recurring activities during the plan
period are taken up as maintenance activities after the plan is over. Hence the non-
plan budget grows in size after the completion of every plan.
The major part of the funding in higher education comes from the states. Only Central
Universities receive their maintenance grant from the UGC, rest are funded by State
Governments. The Central Government funds the agriculture universities, the technical
universities and engineering facilities of other universities receive development grant
from UGC while the Engineering colleges get such assistance from AICTE and
there is some coordination between UGC and AICTE in this respect (IGNOU,
2003). There are some 'Institutes of National Importance' like the lIT's which are
managed by the lIT Council presided over by Ministry of Human Resource
Development and have an independent status. IGNOU is the only central university
getting boththe non-plan and plan grants from the Ministry of Human Resources
Development. Medical colleges, however, have no satisfactory arrangement for
financial support and are associated with MCr.
Apart from this, all universities collect fees from students and in addition many
universities are funded by trusts, philanthropic groups and industry for specific
purposes. Government colleges receive funds from the respective governments in
the form of grants-in-aid for maintenance and development purposes. Because of
this most of the colleges and universities operate with tight budget and incur deficits.
13.6 THE CONSTRAINTS INVOLVED
The UGC is the main instrument of the government to coordinate and implement the
programmes of higher education and research. Yet it faces several constraints which
hamper the effectiveness of institutions. These are (P.Rani. Geetha, 2002):
• Role of UGC in relation to State governments not clearly defined.
• UGC has not deterred States from establishing institutions which are
economically unfeasible and are academically unviable.
• There is a dearth of resources due to which it cannot support the State run
Universities and bulk is spent on Central Universities.
14
• Ianovations and experimentation in universities not possible with existing Concept, Importance and
. Need of Infrastructure
resources.
Management
• Policies for assistance to state institutions do not encourage planned development
and many institutions have to wait for long periods to become eligible for
government assistance.
• Lack of specific guidelines about affiliation of institutions.
In view of these problems there is a need to evolve mechanisms which could reduce
the pressure of number on the university. One way could be by restructuring and
diversifying secondary education. The courses at +2 stage could be more vocational,
so that the rush for university level could be reduced thereby ensure an increase in
the percentage of students enrolling in higher education.
Check Your Progress
5. Highlight at least two main tasks of AICTE
6. Discuss three constraints which hamper the smooth and effective functioning of
UGc.
13.7 CONSIDERATION FOR MANAGEMENT OF

RESOURCES
Let us now examine some considerations for planning for fmancing of institutions of
higher education.
One of the crucial tasks confronting an educational institution is the efficient

management of its resources. In institutions where resources are plentiful, expansion
of its activities and programmes is feasible and s?metimes it goes unchecked.
However institutions with lirnitedresources, need to use them judiciously for attainment
of institutional goals.
The planning process entails the following steps:
• Long-term Planning: These are concerned with long term prospects and vision!
mission of an institution (broadly up to fifteen to twenty years).
• Strategic planning - Strategic planning looks five to ten years ahead. It charts a
definite course based on strong indicators of what the institutional environment
15
will be like in those years.
• Operational planning - Works within the timescale of two to five years during
Resources
which operational plans are made.
• The budget - Detailed plan for the immediate period i.e. one year (Rumble,
1986).
This has been shown in Fig.13. 3
Process Timescale Documented
Received Mission Long Term Charter/law of

creation elaborated
Revise Mission on in 'mission' statement
1
Set/revise Goals Upto 10 years Strategic plan
1
Set/revise Objectives Upto 3-5 yrs 3-5 year operational
1
Set/revise budgets Normally 1 yr
plan
Budget
1
Implement plans
1
Monitor/evaluate
Fig. 13.3: Levels of Planning and their Timescales
Source: Rumble, G( 1986) : The Planning and Management of Distance Education.
We can explain these levels of planning with the example of distance education
systems. As a specific case, The Indira Gandhi National Open University, has stated
as its mission inArtic1e 4 :
...... to advance and disseminate knowledge by a diversity of means, including

the use of any communication technology, to provide opportunities for higher
education to a larger segment of the population and to promote the educational
well being of the community generally;
Such mission statements help to formulate and define the goals, more rigorously,
and explicitly. The institution can be identified and differentiated from other educational
institutions at the same level (Rumble G: 2(06) on the basis of the mission statements.
More specific Strategic objectives derived out of the broader goals of the institution
become the focus of strategic planning.
According to Rumble (1986) mission statements can be liked to planning goals

through cascade structures as done in most American Colleges. This is also applicable
to IGNOU and is shown in Table 3.
16
Table 13. 3 : Cascade Structures of mission statements and goals Concept, Importance and
Mission: Management
• to provide education at university and professional levels.
• by distance means
• to meet the needs 0 non traditional students
• to contribute to the educational well being of the community in general.
Goals:
Academic Programs Students Communications and
Characteristics teaching strategy
1) To provide education 1) To provide courses 1) To teach by distance
in the liberal arts and for adults. means.
sciences at degree level.
2) To Provide education 2) To provide part time 2) To exhibit and
in the liberal arts and education develop new
sciences of interest to the communication
community. technologies for this
purpose.
3) To provide 3) To provide courses 3) To favour those
professional and to students unable to technologies best able
vocational education. attend conventional to support home based
educational institutions. learning and courses.
4) To provide in 4) To provide learning
company courses on a materials suitable for
contract basis. use by independent
learners and
community based
groups.
(Sources: Rumble, G 1986 : The Planning and Management of Distance Education, pp

145)
The mission of the institution established through a legal statement is translated into
specific goals, on which the long term planning is based. The strategicplan takes
into account specific objectives related to the type of academic programmes and
the nature of target group to be benefited by them and the academic and physical -
infrastructure required for the same.
However, it is agreed that the goals as well as objectives should be realistic and
realizable. But the fact is that the stated goals lack specificity in term ofthe time
period and the amount of work that needs to be put into the mentioned activity,
·while the objectives will have these specificities For example, consider the goal
statement: To develop need based programmes for the rural populace.
To make specific choices about the time period and method of achieving specific
objectives, operational planning and budgets have to be prepared. The
operational plans have to be consistent with the funds available, and have to specify
the activities and operations involved. For example.
• To develop an appreciation course on environment in the year A.
• To translate courses I, Il & III of the certificate Programme in Waste

Management in Hindi Language in the years X and X + 1
,17
Management of Financial Operational plans are thus concerned with specific programmes of action and
Resources timefrarne. Like developing programmes/courses, instructional kits, organizing
physical and academic infrastructure etc.
Operational plan according to Rumble (1986) "should make explicit the links
between planned volumes of activity and staffing levels, productive and
delivery capacities, and space and accommodation constraints." He further
adds, "The operational plan should be set within the context of the short to
medium term financial situation. The first year of the operational plan with
normally correspond to the immediate budget year."
Check Your Progress
7. What are the four stages involved in the planning process undertaken by a HE
institution?
8. Discuss two considerations for formulating a strategic plan by an institution?
13.8 APPROACHES TO BUDGETING

We shall deal with budgeting briefly to understand its significance for infrastructure
management. Let us first examine the approaches to budgeting for an educational
institution. Depending on the prevalent economic climate budgeting can be classified
as-
13.8.1 Incremental- Occurs when resources are plentiful, budgetary baselines

are adhered to and budgetary provisions are increased for development and expansion
activities.
13.8.2 Revenue - Occurs when resources are tight but not likely to fall below the
baseline and fmancial future of the organization is predictable.
13.8.3 Zero - based - Occurs when resources are scarce and the budget is
subject to review.
13.8.4 Supplemental- There is not even an agreed annual budget. The budget is
built up as and when items are agreed up on by a central authority. Such type of
budgeting is commonly seen in the third world countries. (Rumble, G 1986).
Budgeting has a direct bearing on the management of infrastructure of an institution.

Let us see in general, what a budget is ? A budget is a statement of the money that is
18
planned to be spent, it is followed by a financial analyses, which is or statement of Concept, Importance and
the money which has been spent. Need ofInfrastructure
Management
The expenditure incurred in educational institution is classified as (Rumble, G 1997}-
• human resources - staff 011 payroll
• premises and accommodation - purchase of building, rent, insurance
• Equipments and furniture - fixed assets ego-land, building, grounds, garden,

furniture etc.
• Stocks, supplies, consumables and expenses - or inventory of goods and raw

materials.
The details on each of the above heads varies depending on the needs and activities
of the institution concerned Institutions with scarce resources need prior
identification of activities and programmes so that proper means of costing can be
developed. Whereas in institution with abundant resources can work with even crude
financial forecasting models. Rumble (l9~6) gives the example of British Open
University in the latter case.
Hence planning for resources requires planners to assess the likely costs of activity
(depending on particular programmes) and also the time scales involved. Attention
should also be paid to the existing political climate and also ensure that those
governmental and non ~ governmental agencies that provide the resources always
focus on the needs of the institution (Rumble, G 1986).
13.9 IMPACT ON RESOURCE GENERATION

MEASURES
Let us now study the impact of some national and global development which impact
resource generation in higher education.
There is a worldwide crisis in the financing of higher education and the severity is
more in the developing countries. Developed countries have benefited by the impact
of globalization, whereas the developing countries are poorly equipped to adapt to
the changing scenario. In the latter case, the higher education system is not developed
adequately for the creation and use of knowledge.
In India the global reforms packages were introduced in 1991. There was a resultant
financial squeeze on the public exchequer on the education sector in general and
higher education in particular. Higher education system of a country is a mirror if it' s
academic excellence and an agent for its economic growth. However, the trend is
that priority accorded to tertiary education is on the decline (Rani. Geetha P).
There is a shift of government resources from the higher education sector to primary
education, for accomplishing the long cherished goal of universatisation of primary
education. Pointing out the need to supplement government resources for higher
education.
19
\
Management of Financial Table 13.4: Share of education expenditures in GDP and Revenue
Resources expenditure
1981-82 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 1999-00 2001-02
Total Education 2.49 3.00 3.59 3.60 4.22 4.18
Elementary 1.09 1.39 1.58 1.44 1.58 1.66
Secondary 0.81 0.92 1.10 0.98 0.94 0.98
Higher 0.38 0.42 0.36 0.37 0.47 0.43
% of Revenue Ex! enditure in
Total Education 9.09 11.11 9.23 13.34 17.01 14.46
Elementary 3.98 5.14 4.06 5.32 5.44 5.34
Secondary 2.94 3.42 2.82 3.61 3.80 3.40
Higher 1.39 1.59 0.94 1.35 1.88 1.49
Based on new series ofGDP with base 93-94 = 100

Source: Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education, various issues.
The approach paper to the Tenth Five Year Plan and Tenth.Plan document says,
"Since budget resources are limited, and such resources as are available, need to be
allocated to expanding primary education, it is important to recognize that the
universities must make greater efforts to supplement resources from the government"
(Govt. oflndia, 2001, 2002-2007 in Rani Geetha, P.).
The sources of income for higher education in India are mainly - government fee
from students and non-government sources like philanthropy, industries etc.
The dependence on government sources has increased and income from student
fees has decreased (Table 13.5). The decline in revenue generation from other sources
also shows a downward trend.
At this point let us examine, the actual grants released by the UGC to Colleges and
Universities and compare it with the actual expenditure incurred on education during
the IO'" plan period.
Table 13.5:Actual Expenditure on Education during the 10th Plan
Rupees in crore
Year Plan grants Non-plan grants Total grants
2002-03 1909.00 2704.00 4613.00
2003-04 1938.19 2802.11 4740.30
2004-05 '!I 87.03 2973.59 5160.62
2005-06 2561.38 3267.10 5828.48
2006-07 (Upto 31 st 2336.37 2500.30 4836.67
December (2U06)
Total 10,931.97 14,247.10 25,179.07
- -I
Table 13.6: Actual Grants relea d by the UGC to University and
Colleges during the th lan
Rupees in Crore
Year Plan 2rants Non-plan 2rants Total 2rants -
2002-03 559.64 1126.26 1685.90
2003-04 614.08 1133.89 1747.97
2004-05 751.33 1192.24 1943.57
2005-06 808.74 1389.82 2198.56 ,"~.,l
2006-07 1269.80 1460.70 2730.50
Total 4003.59 6302.91 10,306.50
(Source for Table 13.5 and 13.6: Ahmed. S (2008), "Ahmed. S (2008) : Funding to Universities
and Colleges by the University Grants Commission during the l O'" Plan, University News,
20
4(>((lm March 03-09 pp I0-11 "I
An analysis of the figures in Table 1~.5 & Table 13.6 reveal that during the IO" Plan Concept, bnportance and
period the total expenditure on education was Rs 25,179.07 crores of which Rs Need of Infrastructure
Management
10,931.97 crores was plan and Rs 14,247.10 crores was non-plan grants. Out of
the total expenditure on education Rs 10,306.50 crores (Rs 4003.59 crores under
plan grants and Rs 6302.91 crores under non-plan grants) were provided to institutions
of higher education in India. The trends reveal that funds provided to universities
and Colleges are insufficient. In order to achieve that target of becoming a developed
nation by 2020. Funding from the government resources should increase [Ahmed.
S., (2008)].
It is apparent that the public exchequer cannot meet the growing demands of higher
education. Hence the search for alternative sources is being intensified, particularly
in the recent years.
Table 13.7 : Sources of income from higher education
Government Fees Others Rs. in Crs.

1950-51 49.4 36.8 13.8 114.38
1960-61 53.5 34.8 11.7 344.38
1970-71 61.0 25.5 13.5 1118.28
1980-81 72.8 17.4 10.8 3766.71
1986-87 75.9 12.6 11.5 9011.98
Source: Education in India Vol II (S)
A comparison of the enrolment trends in higher education in India, with other

developed countries shows only 7% of the relevant age cohort in India. In other
countries 92% of the 17-24 age group are enrolled for higher education in the US,
52 percent in UK and 45 percent in Japan. The comparison is shown in Table 13.6
Table 13.8: Gross Enrolment Ratios in Higher Education in Developed

And Developing Countries
World Total (1997) 17.4 Developing countries (1997) 10.3

Developed countries 51.6 Asia (1997) 11.1
(1997)
USA (1995) 92 Korea (1997) 68
Canada (1995) 88 China (1997) 6
UK (1996) 52 India (1997) 7
Australia (1997) 80 Less developed countries 3.2
(1997)
Japan (2002) 45 * Africa (1997) 6.9
Source: UNESCO (1999) * Altbach and Ogawa (2002)
Inspite of the low enrclment trends in India, the government resources are not adequate
to fund higher education. Several policy measures and directives have been put
forth to augment government resources an? work towards equity and social justice,
for the aspirants of higher education in the country. According to the approach paper
to the Ninth Five Year Plan, "emphasis will be placed on consolidation and optimal
utilization of the existing infrastructure through institutional networking and through
open university system. Grants-in-aid will be linked to performance criteria to improve
quality and inject accountability. Fees will be restructured on unit cost criteria and
paying capacity of the beneficiaries. Additional resources will be generated by involving
industry and commerce and through contribution from community" (Govt. of India,
21
1997, pp.82, in Rani Geetha. P).
Management of Financial According to a world bank report, three areas of reforms have emerged to strengthen
Resources provision and management of resources in higher education namely: (Johnstone,
B.D., 1998)
• Supplementation of government revenues with non-governmental revenues.
• Reform of public sector financing.
• Radical change (restructuring) of the universities and other higher education
institutions.
Let us now understand through examples in each category, the implementation of
reforms.
1. Supplementing government with non-government revenues
Five agencies have been identified which can share the cost of higher education-
a. Substantial increase in tuition fees
b. Introduction of student grants and loans
c. . Privatisation of higher education
d. Encouragement of entrepreneurial activity by faculty
e. Encouragement of philanthropy
i) Increase in Thition and Fees
As has been the practice since many years in developed countries, several other
countries are also shifting the cost from the tax payers to parents and students through
increase in tuitionfees. Johnstone, has citedthe example of the following two countries:
i) Australia - US$ 3300 for social science, US $4700 for science and
US $ 6500 for health.
ii) New Zealand - The average tution fee in institutions is US $ 2300.
Chile is the only country in Latin America which recovers a large portion of its
student costs through student fees. Fees were introduced in Chilean higher education
institution as a result of financial reforms in 1981. However in Argentina, the 1995
higher educationlaw decrees thatthe decisionof chargingfees restswith the universities
(Johnstone, B.D., 1998). The government of India has set up various commissions
and committees on resource generation through fees. The issue of resource
mobilization for central universities was examined by the Punnayya Committee
set up UGc. Similar committee was set up for technical education under the
chairmanship of Dr.D.S warninadhan recommendations of Punnaya Committee to
look into the unit cost of higher education under Dr.M.VPylee, to review the norms
of maintenance grants for Delhi Colleges (Under the chairmanship of Dr.An anda
Krishnan).
All these commissions have recommended an upward revision of fees within

reasonable limits (Rani, Geetha P) various committees recommended that institutions
should raise the fee levels in such a way that at least 15 to 25 percent of the annual
recurring cost per student is recovered from the student in the form of fees and from
other sources at the end of ten years. Government should in course oftime shift the
funding of universities to a system of students funding (UGC, 1993; 1999; 2000).
ii) Student loans
Many countries in the developed and developing world have accepted the scheme
22 of student loans as a popular means of cost recovery. The student loan programme
in most countries provide a mechanism to meet the aspirations of poor students for Concept, bnportance and
upward mobility. In most of the student loan schemes, the students have to repay the Need of Infrastructure
Management
loan once they are employed. Loan systems are in place to facilitate students and
thereby shift the cost from government to the students. However, student loan systems
have not succeded in effectively shifting these costs. Several factors influence loan
recovery, for example, rate of interest, repayment period, rate of recovery etc.
The student loans project has been supported by the world bank in may countries.
It has signed students loan projects in Venezuela (1992), Jamaica (1996) and in
Mexico (1998). Improving the efficiency and viability of existing student loan
programmes while broadening their coverage is a major challenge for developing
countries. Despite the poor performance of many system, the positive experience of
countries like Columbia and the Dominica Republic for example, show that it is
possible to design and administer financially sustainable programmes if effective
collection programmes, appropriate interest rates, and income contingent schemes,
can be made operational (Johnstone, RD. 1998).
ill) Private initiatives

In recent years, the role of private sectors have played an important role at the level
of tertiary education, particularly in Asia, and Latin America, in former Soviet Republic
and Eastern Europe. A historic development of private higher education was seen in
Romania, after a law in 1990 made it possible for 70 non-governmental and private
mstitutions to be created. Almost all of them claimed university status and accounted
for one-third ofthe total enrollment in higher education (Johnstone, BD, 1998). A
world Bank report cities the example of several countries where the demand of
private initiatives has had an impact on tertiary level education.
"In Argentina the number of students in the private sector has increased 76% between
1985 and 1994. China and India are also allowing and / or encouraging private
educational institutions in order to meet the differentiated and growing demand for
higher education. In Kenya the function of private educational institutions is not so
much to absorb excess demand, as it is to enhance quality." (Johnstone, BD, 1998).
In India, a committee headed by M. Ambani and K. Birla and appointed by the

Government. strongly recommended to recover full costs from students even in
public higher education institutions through hike in fees and introduction of self
financing courses and seats. Another suggestion of the committee report was to shift
resources of the government from higher to primary and secondary education and
that higher education should be managed by the private sector alone. It recommended
the 'user pays principle' and provision ofloans and grants to economically and
socially backward sections of society (Ambani - Birla 2001).
iv) Entrepreneurial activities / Partnerships

The universities across the world are getting increasingly entrepreneurial in the recent
years. Institutions at the tertiary level of education are developing linkages with industry
and potential employees. This has led to technology transfer, apprenticeship schemes
etc. Let us elaborate with a few examples as discussed by Johnstone, RD. (1998).
• In Mexican Universities, there is a trend to augment government subsidies by

entrepreneurial schemes which earn' extra income and involve faculty and
students in it. Some of the departments are beginning to generate income on
their own through the sale of services, specialized courses etc. Departments
have an interest in this because they keep 80 percent of the locally generated
income.
23
Management of Financial • In Argentina also, between 1991 & 1996 , the resources generated by the
Resources Universities increased from 7% to 14% of the total budget. This is significant
because during that period state funds increased to 52%. This shows that
universities in Argentina have made an effort to increase their budget by generating
resources of their own.
• Due to reforms at the tertiary education level, universities in China have began
to generate their own resources. This is reflected in the substantial increase of
income 4% in 1978 to 14% in 1992. Shanghai recorded a business volume of
Y 1 billion, through 50% higher education institutions running 700 enterprises.
Peking university organised short term training courses in the law department
for imparting training to enterprening in newly adopted laws.
In India also has different types of private institutions thrive especially some engineering
and management institutions that are affiliated to conventional universities. For
example such universities are found in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. However there are some non - affiliating institutions also and are
geared to the needs and demands of the national and international corporate sector.
These private institutions in India fully depend upon student payments and fees are
exorbitant.
v) Encouragement of Philanthropy
Some philanthropic organisations and agencies contribute to meeting the government

expenditure on higher education. In some countries such organisation, have significant
share in augmenting the resources.
13.10 IMPACT OF ICT AND ODL

The developing countries all over the world are experiencing the impact of Information
and Communication Technology and Open and Distance Learning The positive
impact of these developments is that it will help to make higher education more cost
effective and more accessible to the hitherto unreached segments. The negative
impact is that it can deter developing nations from adopting it because of its high
initial investments although these are known to reduce unit cost in the long run.
In the last two decades ODL has rapidly expanded in Bangladesh, China, India,
Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand. For example,
China has set up a network of provincial universities and television university for
distance education. India has 3 million part-time students enrolled in correspondence
courses, in addition to the 4 million regular full-time students. Thailand has established
two open universities and several regional universities to augment Bangkok's four
prestigious national universities. Distance education and open learning programs
can be effective in increasing access at modest costs, especially for the underprivileged
groups that are usually poorly represented in university enrollments. They can also
be designed with a regional or multinational clientele. For example, UNISA, the
Open University of South Africa, draws 15,000 of it's 120,000 students from
neighboring countries(Johnstone.B.D., 1998).
Check Your Progress
9. What is zero based budget?

24
.........................•................................................................. , . Concept, Importance and
Need of Infrastructure
Management
1o. Mention three areas of reforms which have emerged to strengthen provision
and management of resources in higher education by world bank report.
11. Mention one positive and one negative impact oflCT and ODL in the developing
countries?
13.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you were introduced to the basic concepts underlying the need for
infrastructure management in institutions of higher education. You got an idea of the
organizational structure prevalent in the institutions that generate these resources.
The mechanisms for generating resources in higher education through governmental
and non-governmental agencies were discussed with reference to the developing
countries in general and India in particular. The role of some apex bodies in the
country, like UGC and AICTE, which coordinate, monitor and regulate standards
of higher education in the country was discussed. Resource allocation for tertiary
level education in the country through the five year plans was analyzed. Some I...., ---'/
considerations for management of resources through goal based planning and its
importance was explained with the help of case studies .Cost recovery measures
which supplement government mechanisms for resource generation were discussed
with examples and experiences of different countries across the world.
13.12 REFERENCES
1. Ahmed, S (2008) Funding the Universities and Colleges by the
University Grants Commision during the IO"
plan, Univesity News, 46 (09), March 03-
09
2. Castaldi, Basil (1994) Educational Facilities: Planning, Modernisation
And Management, Allyn & Bacon, Boston,
London.
3. Delors Jacques (1996) Learning: The Treasure within UNESCO

Publishing.
4. Geetha Rani, P. Economic Reforms and Financing Higher
Education in India (accessed on 10.,.2-08)
25
Management of Financial 5. IGNOU (1999) Higher Education: Its context and Linkages
Resources (MES-I0l), Block-2 Indian Higher
Education: Policies and Plans.
6. IGNOU (1999) Higher Education: Its context and Linkages
(MES-IOl), Block-3 Indian Higher
Education: Concerns and Developments.
7. IGNOU (2003) Planning and Management of Higher
Education: A Macro-Perspective MES-104,
Block-l
8. IGNOU (2003) Planning and Management of Higher
Education: Management of an Institution of
Higher LeamingMES-104, Block-2
9. Johnstone, Bruce. D (1998) The Financing and Management of Higher
Education: A Status Report on Worldwide
Reforms. (Accessed on 10-02-08 www.
worldbank.org)
10. Kaur, Kuldeep (2003) Higher Education in India (1781-2003)
UGC, New Delhi And CRRID, Chandigarh
11. Kulandai Swamy, V.C (2003): Higher Education in India Cirsis in
Management, Viva-Books Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi.
12. Powar K.B. (2000) Higher Education for Human Development
(ed),AIU, New Delhi.
13. Rumble, Greville (1997) The Cost and Economics of Open and
Distance Learning, Kogan Page, London.
14. Rumble, Greville (1996) The Planning and Management of Distance
Education, Croom Helm, London & Sydney.
15. Singh, Amrik and Sharma Resources and Productivity' by Amrik Singh
and G.D G.D.(eds) (1989) Sharma
pp340355 in Higher Education in India: The
Institutional Context, Konark Publishers
Delhi.
••
1) Visitto an educational institution and collect the information regarding resources
of finance. Make a point of view and analyzing your idea.

1) a) Government grants.
b) Students fees.
c) Private donors such as industries.
2) a) Restructuring tution fees towards the higher side
b) Augmenting non-governmental resources, like, industry,comrnerce and
26
community contributions Concept, Importance and
3) i) Medical Council of India. Management
ii) Bar Council of India.
iii) Nursing Council of India.
iv) Indian Council for Agriculture Research.
v) Pharmacy Council of India.
vi) Institute of Architects.
vii) Institute of Accountancy.
4) i) Give advice to any university for improvement of its educational standard
ii) Advise the central or state Governments on allocation of any financial

grants to the university.
iii) Advise any authority on the estaotishment of a new university.
5) a) survey the entire field of technical education in consultation with provincial

governments
b) Greater emphasis on deign oriented teaching , teaching of design

methodologies, problems solving approach.
6) a) Paucity of resources , due to which major chunk is spent on central

universities and state universities are not supported
b) Existing resources not sufficient to carry out innovations and

experimentations.
7) a) Long term planning (upto fifteen to twenty years)
b) Strategic planning (upto five to ten years)
c) Operational planning (upto two to five years)
d) Immediate plan or Budget (one year)
8) a) Specific objectives-based on type of programs to be offered by the

institution
b) Nature of target group to be benefitted
9) When resources are limited and the budget is subject to review.
10) i) supplementation of government revenue with non-governmental revenues.
ii) Reform of public sector fmancing
iii) Radical change of universities and higher education institution
11). Positive impact- Higher education becomes more cost effective and is
accessible to larger numbers
• Negative impact--High initial costs of investment can act as deterrents

for the developing nations
UNIT 14 MANAGEMENT OF PHYSICAL
RESOURCES
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Physical Infrastructure Planning

14.3.1 Concepts Underlying Planning of Physical Infrastructure
14.3.2 Process of Planning for Physical Facilities
14.4 Need and Importance of Physical Facilities

14.4.1 Need for Buildings
14.4.2 Multidisciplinary Task
14.4.3 Increasing Numbers
14.4.4 Addressing Quality Concerns
14.4.5 Functional Specifications
14.4.6 Physical Comfort
14.4.7 Deciding the Size of Furniture, Rooms and School Sites
14.4.8 Determining the Quality of Construction
14.4.9 Ensuring Safety
14.5 Role of Technology
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.8 References
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you studied about the importance and need of infrastructure
management in educational ir.,,'titutions. The infrastructural resources from various
institutions and the general management structure prevalent in them were discussed.
The budget preparation for financial management was outlined in the institutional
context. You also understood how the expenditure on infrastructural resources is
categorized in budgets and also about the impact of global developments, information
technology revolutions on the provisions for and management of infrastructural
resources.
In this unit we will classify the infrastructural resources in educational institutions and
focus primarily on management of physical resources. You will learn about the nature
of physical resources generally used in institutions and basic concepts underlying the
management of these resources.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
• describe the concepts of management of physical infrastructure;
28
• explain the basic consideration in managing material resources of an educational
• explain the need of physical facilities for education; Management of Physical
Resources
• list the basic elements of material resources in an educational institution;
• list out basic data required for creating physical facilities in an educational
institution; and
• elaborate the impact of technology in planning physical facilities.
14.3 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING

It was only after the early twentieth century that educators began to give serious
thought to a relationship between learning and instructional spaces within a building.
Prior to this, educational institutions were rudimentary structures providing a covered
space to teachers and learners. Several studies of that era have revealed that educators
arrived at a relationship between the teaching spaces and the quality of instruction
provided. This resulted in the beginnings of planning for educational facilities. After
World War II, large number of educators and architects took up educational facility
planning as a professional activity. Since then, the classroom methodology and
innovations therein have been impacting the design and management of educational
facilities. (Castaldi, 1994).
In India the increasing student numbers at all levels of education-primary, secondary

and higher education, is posing tremendous challenge for educational planners and
administrators. The need is for systematic planning and decision making for better
management of educational institutions. All aspects of management have to be
considered for smooth functioning of the institution, i.e. planning and management of
physical fqcilities, manpower and fmances. Let us examine some concepts underlying
plannin~ physical infrastructure.
14.3.1 Concepts Underlying Planning of Physical

Infrastructure
Physical infrastructure, in the context of education implies the teaching learning space
and equipments necessary for effective teaching-learning process. This includes,
classrooms, libraries, laboratories, furniture, social space, IT networks and other
support needs, like special provisions for disabled etc (Rose, G.M., 2006). It is
important to understand some basic concepts which determine the planning and
management of physical facilities in educational institutions.
• The Concept of Balance
The educational planners should consider each educational goal in the proper
_ perspective. The learning experiences should be listed out by the curriculum
developers and these should be based on the institutional goals. The curriculum
designers should focus in a balanced way, on different learning areas, without giving
too much emphasis to one at the cost of the other. For e.g. school planners should
ensure that the emphasis on humanities or social studies does not affect the provisions
for the sciences, or over emphasis on the library facilities at the expense of sports
provisions. The institutional planners should test the curriculum for this balance, before
finalizing the building and other physical requirements of institutions.
• Concept of Educational Efficiency
Different types oflearning experiences are needed for achievement of educational

goals. Planners should be careful and ensure that only such learning experiences are
included that to achieve educational goals effectively and efficiently, i.e. learning is
29
effective using minimal resources of energy, time and money, maximally.
Management of Financial • Concept of Gradualism
Resources
Teaching methods in educational institutions evolve, gradually, over a period of time.
School and college buildings should have provision for these gradual changes in
teaching practices. Hence architects should design buildings with this fact in mind so
that innovations can be instituted without disturbance to the existing systems.
• Concept of Reversibility
It may happen that a new practice may prove ineffective or inappropriate at a later
stage. As discussed earlier, planners should not only provide for moving in the direction
of change but should also provide for reversing the direction whenever the need
anses.
• Concept of Constructability
This concept deals with the problem of excess building capacity, which educational
providers may be confronted with, when enrollment patterns show a decline. When
such a situation arises the excessive facility could be used for extra educational
purposes. For example if the school enrollment drops at a future stage, the school
facility may be used by some government, some private agency or for some other
compatible educational activity in the extra portion.
• Concept of Equity of Educational Opportunity
When plans are formulated it ,il11111d be ensured, that schools and colleges within a
particular area are provided with .uuality of educational opportunities. Some of the
long range planning should provi, L .\ 11' modernization of existing educational facilities.
• ConceptualInstit~ti()Il" Planning
Conceptual planning for an educational institution is an important aspect of planning

for educational facilities, since it deals with creative and imaginative processes. It is
defined as "a creative intellectual activity that precedes and contributes to educational
specifications. It is the process whereby fundamental educational concepts are
formulated, developed, expressed, evaluated and incorporated in the design."
Conceptual planning should involve careful evaluation of the plan in relation to
psychological principles of learning, administration and educational policies.
• Curriculum-oriented Planning
The architects of educational buildings should be informed about the curriculum and
the learning experiences likely to be provided to leamers. For example, simply telling
the architect that space is required for a physics or chemistry laboratory will be
insufficient. Instead specifications about student activities, experiences and time, if
provided, will help the architect to relate these with spatial requirements. For example,
in the case above, some useful inputs to the architect would be that - 20 % of time
35 students watch demonstrations, by the instructor, 20 students for 10% oftime
use consumables like gas, electricity, chemicals, etc.
• Planning for People
The inclusion of human aspect in planning for educational facilities is a new dimension
and is called ergonomics. For all purposes the emphasis is on functional planning,
i.e. a focus primarily designing buildings and creating facilities to achieve the intended
goals. However, it is also important to plan for the needs of the people - physical,
psychological and social, so as to ensure their health and safety.
30
• Planning for Effective Learning Management of Physical
Resources
Planning for educational facilities should be based on the fundamental principles of
learning and their of course, competent applications. Planners would design
infrastructure which is supportive of effective learning. Yet, Roth, an International
Authority on schools, feels that, school buildings are "faulty" since they are not
based on "sound pedagogic principles". The instructional elements should not be
obscured by the glamour of technology and must not ignore the essential applications
ofleaming principles.
After examining some basic concepts underlying the planning and management of
physical facilities of an educational institution, we need to look into the process of
planning for infrastructure.
(Acknowledgement: The section 14.3.1 is abstracted from, "Educational Facilities:

Planning Modernisation and Management", Castaldi Basil, 1994).

1) Enumerate at least 5 concepts which educational facility planners should
consider.
2) Explain anyone of the above concepts with an example.
14.3.2 Process of Planning for Physical Facilities

The process for planning of physical infrastructure of educational institutions depends
on its stages of development. The firstconsideration inthe context of establishing a
new institution would be to acquire land. This would be followed by decisions about
construction of the building, which would then need to be equipped and furnished
appropriately and adequately, in keeping with the goals of the institutions. However
in established institutions, the planning for infrastructure facilities implies better
utilisation of existing provisions. Here we shall discuss about the creation of these
physical facilities and their management.
The process of planning for creation of physical facilities in schools, colleges and
educational institutions involves long-range planning. The decisions in the context of
creating these facilities depend upon several factors like:
• The expected student enrollment

31
Management of Financial • The number of departments/divisions/faculties
Resources
• The expected number of teachers
• The expected ratio of number of students to teachers by faculties.
The planning is done with the projection of maximum expected intake. However, at
the initial stages, when the numbers are low, it may appear to be underutilized. This
should not be construed as poor planning, if low enrollment is restricted to only the
initial stages.
Let us examine the basic considerations underlying planning for material resources:
• Planning for space

It is the most important consideration in the initial phase. Since decisions are to be •
taken regarding .; space for various activities like, instruction, administration,
laboratory, library, staff-rooms, sports and games, student activity rooms -like
student union offices, student welfare activities, staff quarters, student hostels, space
for cultural activities - auditorium, conference halls etc.
Let us elaborate by taking the example of instruction. While planning and creating
physical facilities for instruction, the planners have to consider, the size of the
classrooms, and whether the sizes have to vary, depending on method of instruction
- seminar, tutorial, group discussions. Again this will be decided at the level of
curriculum planning; where in the method of instructional delivery is decided. Another
consideration for instructional space would be with regard to clustering of activities.
For example space allocation would be required for activities other than teaching
like, laboratory work, library and these would need to be furnished accordingly.
These details for instructional and related learning needs would be included in the
blueprint for building construction.
Proper planning of physical infrastructure requirements is essential for their effective

utilisation so that the learning activity becomes innovative and relevant for the learners.
• Determinations of materials facilities required
a
We should have clear understanding from start about the types of material resources
required for undertaking various activities in the educational institutions. By and
large the most important activity undertaken is imparting instruction. From early
times there has not been much change in the methods adopted for imparting instruction
and generally the ones followed are -
(i)Lecture Method (ii) Seminar Method (iii) Conference or tutorial method and (iv)
Laboratory Method. Very few innovative methods are adopted and the change if
any has been largely due to the intervention of communication and information
technologies.
• Specification of facilities required
The materials required for effective functioning of institution, need to be specified,

the specifications should be in the context of their utility, use and procedure. If the
specifications are not appropriate, there is possibility of the material resources being
either under utilized or faulty utilisation, i.e. not being used where they are most
intended to be used.
• Determination of quality
All kinds of material resources are available, some of which may have high quality
32
and others may be sub standard. Hence choosing and procuring materials of good . Management of Physical
quality is essential for their proper utilisation for maximum benefits. However in Resources
developing countries like India, there is a resource crunch which has direct bearing
on the quality of materials and their optimum use. Good quality materials will ensure
their utilisation over prolonged periods without frequent replacements, which will
also reduce wastage of resources.
• Quantifying needs as per requirement

A major consideration in the management of material resources and facilities is the
quantification on the basis of per capita requirement. In a vast country like India,
which has undergone unprecedented expansion in education, material facilities may
not be provided to all at one point of time. Hence with the given material resources
the management is required to improvise the use of resources for the benefit of the
institution and proper sharing of each unit of the resources. For this proper facility,
planning, proper time-table and proper space utilisation is required, for quantification
of per capita facility requirements there is need to ensure time management and
space utilisation in terms of per capita hour need.
• Development of per capita requirement indicator

Material requirement indicator is defined as the amount of material facility required
to produce a given amount of output. The combinations of various material facilities
are put together in an input matrix and over a period of time this has to be measured,
in order to find the extent to which the various input combinations have influenced
the outputs. This process is time consuming but must be undertaken especially since
facilities are in short supply and demands are increasing.
This material utilisation chart can be prepared as indicated in the Table -14.1 below
Table 14.1: Material Utilisation Chart

Type of Material Norm Required Gap Gap between Under Effectively Remarks
activity given requirement I- between given and utilized utilized
given and requirement
norm
Academic
1) Teaching learning process
2) Library activity
3) Laboratory activity
4) Any other related curricular activities
Extra Curricular
1)
2)
3)
Games Curricular
1)
2)
3)
33
Resources Cultural activities
1)
2)
3)
Extension Education
1)
2)
Source: Planning and Management of Higher Education (MES-104, Block-2), IGNOU, 2003
14.4 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL

FACILITIES
There is a lot that planners should know regarding the physical infrastructure for
education. Almost 10 to 25 percent of the education budget is spent on land
purchases, building construction, furnish wings and maintenance of the above. Hence
planners need to ensure the cost effectiveness of such capital investments for
education. Providing a good physical infrastructure for education reflects the political
will of the governments to provide community services.
After World War ITit was increasingly felt among the industrialized nations and also
the poor countries that education was a basic right. This was expressed through the
United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and led to massive programmes of
school construction around the world (United Nations, 1968). This led to emergence
of the concept of an educational facility planner, wherein it was envisioned that
architects and educationists should work as part interdisciplinary teams for creation
of physical facilities for education. A lot of research was carried out and documented
so that guidelines have emerged which could be applied to countries across the
globe (UNESCO, 1997).
Let us now examine the need and importance of physical facilities in the context of
providing good quality education.
There is a mixed opinion about the importance of physical facilities for education.
Some feel that well equipped institutions signal a message of political support for
education. Others feel that spending on physical infrastructure takes away the major
chunk of resources from the teachers' salaries and from learning material. However
the importance of proper physical facilities cannot be diminished even if one were to
look at teaching-learning from the Gandhian perspective or Tagore's Shantiniketan
- where learning was imparted in the natural surroundings, under trees etc.
14.4.1 Need for Buildings

The need to provide shelter for education is as important as we need shelter for
domestic activities and for projection from natural elements. Outdoor learning was
possible in India, during and before the years of its independence, but not any longer.
Recent research indicates that the "no-building" solution is unsatisfactory for an
emerging and developing economy. Further, data reveals that Indian schools without
their own buildings, which conduct classes under trees or borrow buildings to run
schools, tend to have very low attendance and poor academic performance (Govinda,
Varghese, 1993). Since topography climatic conditions vary across the globe, schools
34 without buildings cannot be considered.
14.4.2 Multidisciplinary Task Management of Physical
Resources
Educational buildings can be considered as 'machines for learning', echoing the
statement of a famous architect, Le Corbusier, who said that a dwelling unit should
be a "machine for living' . Educational machines for learning's consist of the buildings,
surrounding area, furniture inside, which are specially designed to accommodate
their specific functions like, delivering lectures, organizing discussions, various
approaches to teaching-learning - group study, discovery method, individuals learning.
This implies that physical facilities will need to respond to a variety of criteria, like it
will have to cater to specific functions, be cost effective, be structurally sound and
attractive. Hence the physical facility managers will need to be organized as a
multidisciplinary team, which will also include furniture designers, engineers, building
cost specialists, educational economists and town planners. Their collective efforts
will be to facilitate achievement of the objective as cited by Guy Oddie for the
OECD in 1966:' it is axiomatic that an effective school building investment policy
will succeed in building the right kind of schools in the right places at the right time
and at the right cost".
14.4.3 Increasing Numbers

The need for educational space is increasing due to five factors: growing population,
in most countries; acceptance of providing basic education to all seeking it, i.e.,
children, youth and adults and the number of years comprising basic education is
also rising. Traditional classroom methods like lecturing are being replaced by active
learning methods and the technology revolution has popularized life long learning
thereby attracting adults back to schools.
On the other side there are two factors that contribute to the reduction in demand
for educational space. These are -
• Countries with decreasing birth rates experience decrease in the school age
population. As a consequence there are empty teaching spaces especially in
rural areas.
• Those countries which have successfully launched educational programmes

through distance education or home schooling, i.e. off-campus programmes,
are able to cut down substantially the space needed for schools with full-time
attendance.
Access to education is being enhanced by resorting to non-formal techniques,

especially for those who have missed out on formal education. Typically these
programmes are organized on 'found' space which has other primary uses, be it
living rooms as in the case of Bangladesh (Ahmed, et. al.,1993) of Rajasthan, India
(Lok Jumbish, 1997). An innovative practice adopted by the Literacy Caravan of
Senegal, Cameroon and other countries, is the organization of an educational fair.
This brings together teachers and learning materials to rural areas, thereby motivating
the community towards literacy. This enterprise is adapted for the African region
and is supported by UNESCO clubs and the UNESCO office in Dakar. (UNESCO,
1997).
14.4.4 Addressing Quality Concerns

Educational facility planners have to focus their attention on providing the most
appropriate physical environment for education, based on concepts of quality learning.
Before we proceed to the issues of creating facilities for quality learning, let us examine
the quality aspect from the cover of the individual. 35
Management of Financial It is important for educational planners to identify those factors which have a direct
Resources bearing on the achievement of learners. A study by International Institute of
Educational Planning (ITEP)at Paris, with the cooperation of the Ministry of Education
and Culture in Zimbabwe revealed that-all things being equal- pupils could not be
expected to learn effectively if the classroom was not equipped with basic items
such as a blackboard, sitting and writing facilities for all pupils and basic storage
facilities for books and teaching aids. Several other research studies conducted in
developing countries, the low achievement levels of learning can be attributed to the
poor and inadequate facilities in school (Heynemann, 1980). In an investigation
conducted in Nigeria (Urwick and Janaidu, 1983), it was conducted that facilities
like buildings, separate classrooms, furniture etc. determine the organization of
teaching-learning and influence learner achievement. In a study in India by Varghese,
1995 it was reported that existence of sound physical facilities like desks and school
buildings determine the success of a school.
Fuller (1990) argues that the evidence of physical facilities being the determining
factor for student success is more convincing for developing countries than for
developed ones, like UK and USA. However Cash (1993), has revealed through a
study that there are cases in USA, where in comparable environments students who
attend well maintained schools which have a good appearance have higher
achievement than those which are poorly maintained.
The point that is being emphasized is that although it is not the physical infrastructure
but the teachers and instructional material which affects learning, yet a fully and well
equipped educational building has a positive impact on learner achievements.
However the state of physical facilities in the least developed countries is very alarming.
A pilot survey conducted by UNESCO and UNICEF in 14 Least Developed
Countries (LDCs), using a methodology developed by lEA (Schbicher etal, 1995)
is present in the Box 14.1 below -
Box 14.1.The conditions of primary schools in fourteen LDCs

Learning involves some very basic inputs that are not enjoyed by large numbers
of children in LDCs. Half the pupils in the pilot survey schools had no textbooks.
In no country did every classroom have a useable chalkboard. Only half the
first graders in Nepal, for example, had something to write with ... While
enrolment has risen since 1990 for both boys and girls in the countries surveyed,
the study found that in most, school conditions such as teacher housing, toilets,
classroom supplies, electricity or building conditions had actually deteriorated.
In three-quarters of the countries, 35 to 90 per cent of schools were seen as
requiring either major repairs or rebuilding ...
Asked to explain why children were not enrolled in school, Heads most often
invoked physical and socio-economic reasons. Schools may not have enough
places for everyone or be located too far away from home. As many other
studies have shown, parents feared for their daughters' safety ...
The average in most countries was one square meter of classroom space per
student. To cope with limited space, schools run shifts or multi-grade
classrooms. Although 80 per cent of children were in schools of only one
shift, some schools, such as those in Nepal and Zambia, had four to five
shifts, with schools in urban areas generally running more than those in rural
ones ...
Although half of the participating countries and an average of 40 pupils per
36 teacher, instructors commonly had handled huge classes- 67 pupils per teacher
Management of Physical
on average in Bangladesh and nearly 90 per teacher in Equatorial Guinea ... Resources
In half the participating countries, grade 1 classes comprised more than 55
pupils, with Equatorial Guinea reporting classes of 110 ... Only seven out of
thirteen countries had sitting places for up to two-fifths of the children in grade
1 classrooms. The situation was similar for writing places. In other words,
even if children had a place to sit on the floor, there was possibly no room for
them to write ...
For grade 1, actual hours of instruction per year ranged from 397 hours in
Bangladesh to 993 in Togo. In the final grade of primary school, the actual
hours ranged from 704 in the Maldives to 1,064 in Bhutan ...
Some parents refused to let their children attend schools where sanitation
facilities were poor. Often, the toilets were unusable because they had not
been cleaned. This appears to be an acute problem in both urban and rural
areas in nearly one-third of the countries. Even the most modem well-equipped
schools were lacking in piped water, electricity, a school garden, a first-aid
kit, or a canteen. Well over one-third of classroom in several countries have
either inadequate ventilation or lighting ...
In many countries, 40 per cent or more of pupils attended schools needing

major repairs or complete rebuilding, according to the school heads. Between
60 to 90 per cent of children in one-third of the countries were in schools
without any regular maintenance. In SOUl,", <ases, parents took care of
maintenance, in others; work was financed with til~ school's funds ...
In some African counties, one-third of the pupils attended temporary schools,

especially in rural areas ...
School Heads felt that teacher housing, toilets, classroom furniture and supplies
had deteriorated in the last five years ...
Source: Schleicher, A., et al., 1995., in;" Physical Facilities f~ucatiun: What
Planners Need to Know",John Beynon, IIEP, UNES€O, 199~ -
14.4.5 Functional Specifications

Designers of educational buildings need to understand the needs and liiiutations of
their clients. They have to follow certain guidelines also called 'architectural briefs'
or 'architectural programmes' .
These include data on -
• Architectural aspects
• Environmental norms
• Cost limits
• Building materials and
• Construction techniques to be used.
The educational specifications include-
• Instructions on the numbers of spaces required
• Sizes of the instructional spaces
• Use to which these spaces will be put
• Required equipment
Let us take an example of a construction project in Canada. TIlls is an illustration of
the use of educational specifications in a developed country. 37
Management of Financial This is given in Box 14.2
Resources
Box 14.2 Educational specification for a History-Social Sciences Department
in a secondary school
A. Context
A short description of why the study of history is included in the curriculum
B. General user requirements
1. Size. An indication that a 2,000 student school would have 1,300
students taking classes in this department with a maximum of 220
present at a given time. The corresponding room requirements in
square feet would be:
Large-group area 2200
Medium-group area 1400
Seminar rooms (4 @ 150 square feet) 600
Teacher preparation area 360
Storage 300
Total 4,900 square.feet
2. Layout. In this case, the major requirement was that the seminar
rooms be acoustically isolated and that the partitioning allow for
room rearrangement in due course. Typically and educational
specification would indicate which rooms should be directly
accessible to others.
3. Specialresource collection.Consideringthat the [central]information
resource centre cannot be completely stocked for the department's
needs, shelving for both print and non-print materials must be
supplied in the storage area of the history-social sciences complex.
C. Specific user requirements
1. Large group area. An area of 2,200 square feet is proposed to
permit three groups to join together for presentations in an 'open
space' arrangement which could be subdivided by moveable
partitions (panels hanging from rails) that could be easily moved to
subdi vide a large space.
2. Medium group area. This would be a standard classroom, preferably
adjacent to the large group are and separated from it by moveable
partitions.
3. Seminar rooms. These rooms would have two functions: discussion
by groups of 10 to 15 students (extensive use of audio-visual
materials to be foreseen), and parent-teacher conferences.
4. Teacher preparation area. This room would be used by teachers to
. prepare lectures and to arrange field visits. Furniture and equipment
would include tables, chairs, telephone and access to the school-
intercommunication system.
Storage and display. Closed storage for rare materials and audio-visual
equipment; open storage for reference materials that would be freely used by
students. All instructional areas to have adjustable shelving to store materials
currently in use. Storage to provide for display on tack boards as maps,
globes, old documents, artifacts and special collections.
A UNESCO team conducted a study (Hutton and Rostron, 1971) of 100 seconoary
38 schools in 14 countries across the world and they surveyed the educational spaces
Management of Financial Educational planners have to decide the approximate space required for educational
Resources activities, which they have to foresee and define. For example certain spaces need
not be very elaborate and expensive at lower levels of school, like laboratories.
(Caillods, et.al., 1997). According to a UNESCO (1997) report in Sri Lanka teachers
have very little space, whereas in Maldives the teachers' room is larger than a regular
classroom.

3. Mention few infrastructures required in the context of educational planning.
4. Explain the concept of constructability .
...................................................................................................................
14.4.6 Physical Comfort

Ergonomics or 'human engineering' is the study of the human body and how it carries
out specific tasks and responds to external conditions like sound, light, temperature
etc. Hence drawing from the principles of ergonomics it is essential that students get
the basic level of physical comfort in order to concentrate on their studies. Technical
norms on acoustics, thermal comfort and illumination for the task oflearning have
been developed for global use, and where necessary adapted to specific geographic
regions. The most integrated approach to these carried out by UNESCO with
developing countries of Asia in mind (Asia Regional Institute for Building Research,
1972) and by Villery who relates these to secondary schools round the world (1984).
Planners and designers have devised norms which state the proportions of the human
body and the positions in which the body is most comfortable for learning. This is
dealt with in a field of study called' anthropometries' which is a branch of ergonomics.
It is applied to education as it is concerned with the comfort of using furniture for
specific educational activities. These norms have emerged from researches conducted
in the US in the 1950s; UKin 1970~ and in UNESCO.
Let us examine some aspects of applying anthropometric data to education and the
challenges they pose
• Designers have to consider diverse age groups ranging from 4 years old children
to grown up adults.
• Variations in average height of individuals in same age which results mainly due
to different nutrition levels (in 1981 an average 14 year old Laotian male was
143 cm tall while his Singaporean counterpart was 162 cm).
Difference in average standing heights of a specific age group, over a period of time.
40 According to a report by UNESCO, eating habits overall several generations may
change resulting in consequent change of average standing heights of a specific age Management of Physical
group. For example an average 14 year old. Japanese male was 148 cm tall in 1950 Resources
but 163 cm in 1980 (Gua Lin, 1984). A recent report indicates that 14 year old
Maldivian males averaged 134 cm in 1974 and 157 cm in 1997 (Kishanigami,
1997).
Six steps are considered characteristic for designing anthropometric ally comfortable
school furniture
• Selecting a sample of children for measurement.
• Measurement of standing heights of persons in the sample.
• Applying body proportions to determine critical dimensions of furniture.
• Sizing furniture.
• Allocating furniture types according to age and sex of users and
• Matching seat heights to table top sizes. Furniture designers need to be very
well versed with all the above, six steps. However steps 1, 2 & 5 are of particular
significance to planners steps land 2 are described in Box 14.3.
•
Box 14.3 Furniture sizing
Selecting a sample of children for measurement
"
Two sampling techniques exist. Method' J\ below gives accurate results which
are specific to a country. However, arriving ai ~lA average standing height requires
considerable time and resources. Method 'B' wui give approximate results but
is much easier to implement.
Method A. The designer may measure the standing height of a sample of children
or each of the 5 to 17 years age-group. Those who are processing the data
should ensure that the population from which the random sample is taken includes
all socio-economic age-groups in the country. A sample giving a reasonable
degree of reliability must be chosen. Random samples of sizes 300 to 500 children
for each year of age have been used. [From the analysis of this data] a curve
showing the [average] standing height vers'!s age relationship is obtained from
the population of that country.
Method B. The standing heights of a random sample of 100 children in one of
the age group are measured. Then the average height is compared with data
from [other countries].
Measurement of standing height of persons in the sample
A measuring scale is drawn on or attached to wall ofthe classroom. Each child
is measured standing barefoot with his back against the wall. He has to stand
erect and look straight ahead, making four points of contact with the wall; the
back of his head, his shoulders, his buttocks and his heels. Using a right angle
square, the teacher places the straight edge on top of the child's head and the
other straight edge against the measuring scale on the wall. The height of the
student is taken as the reading on the underside of the horizontal edge.
Measurements 'should be made by the teacher to the nearest centimeter.
Source: Guat-Lin, 1984, in "Physical Facilities for Education: What Planners Need to
Know" John Beynon, UNESCO, 1997
14.4.7 Deciding the Size of Furniture, Rooms and School

Sites
Planners may not be required to decide the sizing up of furniture and other physical 41
Management of Financial facilities, but they have to define the age groups that will use the facilities. One size
Resources can serve learners' upto a three years age span, it is typical for four sizes of furniture
to be produced to serve ages six to eighteen. Decisions need to be taken about how
different furniture sizes will ensure comfort to all learners. UNESCO, Bangkok has
defined three groups of countries (designated I, IT,III) which have children of similar
standing height. This is illustrated in table 14.3 below.
Table 14.3: Furniture sizes suitable for standing height and age ranges by
group of country
Standing height (cm) corresponding age range in each group
. (M:Male, F:female)
Furniturer size Range Midpoint Group I Group 11 Group III
A 115 108 6-8 M+F
B 115-130 123 6-9 M+F 6-10 M+F 8-12 M+F
C 131-146 139 9-12 M+F 10-13 M+F 12-14 M+F
D 147-162 155 12-14 M 13-16 M 14+17 M+F

12+F 13+F
E 163-179 171 14+M 16+M
Source: Guat.Lin, 1984, in UNESCO, 1997.
The ratios presented in the figure are useful for designers and also for administrators
to place orders for the manufactured items. Furniture sizes generally of two sizes are
chosen - one for primary and intermediate education and other for secondary leveL
Room sizes depend on furniture sizes, teaching methods used, subject matter taught
the number oflearners and their possibilities to see and watch the materials presented
by the teacher considering the multiple parameters involved. There is not a single
norm for all situation; infact norms can be devised based on specific needs.
When it comes to the issue of determining the site area and the allocation of functions
to be served of the institution, the planners and designers must arrive at a consensus.
The architects will check the suitability of the land for construction and will get the
soil quality checked as also access to utilities.
14.4.8 Determining the Quality of Construction

All over the world there is a tremendous increase in the school-age population,
which has created a concern for increasing the educational space. All countries have
allocated some share the available resources to this demand for constructions
increased educational spaces. Some countries like Malaysia, Maldives, and Myanmar
have approached international funding bodies like World Bank, UNICEF etc to
obtain financial support, while other like Indonesia, Thailand financed their own
construction (UNESCO, 1997). All these projects have resulted in addition of new
spaces and facilities in buildings. However the mistake that were made and which
need to be avoided have been summarized in the following Box 14.4.
42
,.
Box 14.4 Flaws in outstanding primary school construction projects Management ofPhysicai
Resources
In one country the programme was based on building, furnishing and equipping
one complete five classroom school with a teacher's office and a storage
room (capacity 150 in single shift) in every village. Subsequent visits reveled
that the programme was rigorously executed, even in communities where there
were far fewer than 150 children of school age. The consequence was that in
many villages capacity grew more than did enrolment.
In another country the Minister of Education insisted that each of 19 new

primary schools be identical to avoid any political controversy between
administrative regions which could argue that they were not being treated
equally. The result was that only a few regions had a school complex that
corresponded to the student population. In others, the buildings were either
too large or too small. Once the available funds were transformed into coral
stone, lime mortar and teakwood roof trusses, there was no way to redistribute
resources.
One country had proudly maintained a modest but steady capital budget for
the construction of new schools for 20 years after independence. When a
burgeoning population growth outstripped the government capacity to support
all needed construction it turned to international finance agencies to supplement
government funds. As the need for more space increased government
abandoned all pretenses of paying the construction from its own funds and
thus ended up relying exclusively on externally supported, and externally
supervised, projects for all primary school construction.
In a fourth country a visit to a reconstructed existing school indicated a trebling

of enrolment to a point where class sizes had exceeded all reasonable limits
(in many school there were upwards of 100 pupils in grade 1). Questioning of
the pupils reveled that a large portion of the new students had moved from a
nearby neighboring school with derelict and unsafe buildings.
Source: "Physical facilities for Education: What Planners Need to Know", John Beynon,
UNESCO, 1997
14.4.9 Ensuring Safety

An important I .ictor that determines the quality of construction of a building is its
adherence to ~~Ikt\ parameters. The planners, administrators and designers need to
work out a comprehensive maintenance programme to bring a certain number of
buildings, say 20 per cent of the total stock, up to safely standards eacb year.
UNESCO has drawn up guidelines for designing schools to reduce accidents (Saini,
1988).
It is important to construct buildings which are secure against disasters like fires,
earthquakes, strong winds, heavy rains and floods. Generally during natural disasters,
like earthquake etc, more damage to human life and properly is from the falling and
flying debris. However with the advanced twentieth century technology, educational
buildings are being designed with safely factor in mind. In the developed countries,
national agencies prepare maps showing sites will risk, wind stands & flood frequency
which physical planr-: . '~sult, before approving school sites. UNESCO has
provided guidelines that are globally applicable regarding specific needs of educational
building forresisting earthquakes, strong winds, fires (Vait Loo, 1976; Arya, 1987;
Biogas, 1976 and 1989; Macks, 1996). Planners need to follow these guidelines as
well as local building codes, for all new constructions. Constructing a safe new
43
Management of Financial building is likely to enhance construction costs between 2 to 10 per cent. Another
Resources area of concern is the existing stock of school-college buildings.
These have to be evaluated for their resistance to natural disasters and protect them
accordingly for example to protect a building against floods is to build it on high
ground, non erodable material is advisable for construction, foundations should be
deep, hard finishes such as tile and painted cement plaster may be used, use of
wood should be avoided.
S. Mention few methods which are used in teaching learning process.
6. What is Ergonomics or human engineering?
7. What are the four factors on the basis of which building are judged?
8. Point out few factors of plan ning for creation of physical facilities in schools.
14.5 ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY

The information and communication technology revolution has taken place at
phenomenal speed. It has transformed all sectors of the economy. The revolution is
not one, but several, starting with large computer, followed by PCs, microprocessors,
intemet and now wireless links. It is also believed that the ICT revolution is a revolution
in learning. It invites every body to learn and make good use of the technology.
Being a revolution in learning it has transformed available technologies. The means
44
and methods of studying, the educational operations, the manner of investment and Management of Physical
expenditure of resources. In the context of education, the ICT infrastructure Resources
determines the institution's ability to deliver teaching and learning effectively.

Technology has impacted every aspect of teaching-learning, including the physical
facilities which support its delivery. Educational history of providing shelter for
educational activities can be traced back to almost 2,500 years to the era of Socrates
who taught under the shade of trees. There have been significant developments in
the field of education since then, particularly in the last 150 years. The concept of
providing access to education to all, i.e. of democratizing education and providing
opportunities for life long learning have taken deep roots. Several innovative schemes
have been undertaken to gauge the impact of technology on the instructional methods
and whether machines can replace books and teachers. Research studies like Trump
plan of the United States in 1950s and in Bangladesh with the Bangladesh Rural
Advancement Committee (BRAC) scheme of 1990s (Ahmed etal, 1993), have
experimented.to redefine class sizes and devise innovative educational practices.
Inspite of several such schemes and reported success of a few pilot schools, most
school system are still hinged around teachers and textbooks rather than the processor
of learning. It is observed that any fundamental change in the educational system,
experiences tremendous resistance. Hence the present system of educational physical
facilities will remain for a long time. Of course changes will take place as trends
evolve towards increasing access to learning to all age groups. A rational planning of
physical facilities requires a sound statistical base, which is still lacking, even at the
international level.
Computer revolution
Computers are now a part and parcel of the educational infrastructure even in the
poor and remote areas. Every school needs to have at least one computer. Computers
have also revolutionized the working of engineers and architects. Computer-aided
designs (CAD) have been introduced for generating building layouts and cost
estimates. This is advantageous for educational arid physical facility planners as they
can see three dimensional presentations. This technology exists in developed countries
and is also pervading developing countries; construction techniques have evolved
towards greater use of industrialized materials rather than locally produces material.
Decentralization of administration is impacting the management of physical resources
in a major way. The number of qualified educators, architects and engineers is
increasing in the developing countries, which is adding to the available resource pool
to work on cost effective educational buildings and furniture. It is expected that with
such a professional resource pool information will be transmitted through professional
associations such as the International Union of Architects Working Group on
Educational and Cultural Spaces or the Council of Educational Facilities Planners
International the advent of internet has facilitated transfer and exchange of vast
amounts of information across the world. However the challenge is that such easily
accessible information should be responsive to request for information based on
sound research.
14.6 LET US SUM UP

Physical resources for education are classified as premises, buildings, furniture &
construction. In this unit we examined some basic concepts underlying the management
of these physical resources in educational institutions. The need and importance of
physical facilities was discussed. Here we elaborated various aspects which the
physical facility planners have to bear in mind, for effective teaching-learning in the
institutions factors that contributed to demand for educational space and infrastructure
45
Management of Financial and the quality issues were dealt with. Some examples and case studies illustrated
Resources the direct relationship between well equipped educational institutions and high
achievement levels of students in them. The need and importance of providing
educational specification for educational planners and designers was discussed with
an example. The concepts of physical comfort based on principles of ergonomics
and the application of anthropometric data were also dealt with quality concerns
ensuring safely parameters while planning building construction were highlighted. A
checklist of data has also been provided which is a kind of educational building
inventory. The unit concludes with a brief description of the role of information and
communication technology on the process of physical facility planning in the developed
and developing world. The influence of computers and the teaching-learning process
globally and the corresponding impact on managing facility provisions is discussed.

1. Visit to an educational institution and list its different physical resources and
write a report analyzing the availability and utilization of these resources.
14.8 REFERENCES
1. Castaldi, Basil (1994) Educational facilities :Planning, Modernisation
and Management, Boston. Allyn and Bacon,
Inc.
2. Beynon, John (1997) Physical facilities for education what planners

need to know, UNESCO, Paris. Website:
http://www.unesco.org/iiep
3. Hernes, Gudmund Emerging Trends in ICT and challenges to

Educational Planning, (2002) in Technologies
for Education, Potentials, Parameters and \
Prospects (ed), UNESCO, Paris.
4. IGNOU (2003) Management of an Institution of Higher

Learning Planning and Management of Higher
Education Block 2 MES 114.
5. Ross, G. Mac Donald (2002): Teaching and Learning Infrastructure m

Higher Education; HEFCE Issues Paper
2002/31.
6. Rumble, Greville (1986) The Planning and Management of Distance

Education, Croom Helm, London.
7. Rumble, Greville (1997) The Cost and Economics of Open and

Distance Learning, Kogan Page, London.

1. a) The Concept of Balance
b) Concept of Educational Efficiency
c) Concept of Construct ability
d) Concept of Gradualism and
46 e) Concept of Equality of Educational Opportunities

2. Constructability :Constructability deals with the problems of excess of building Management of Physical
Resources
capacity. For example: if the school enrollment drops at a future stage, the
school facility may be used by some government or some private agency or
other compatible educational activity in the extra portion.
3. Physical infrastructure in the context of education implies the teaching learning

space and equipments necessary for effective teaching learning process. This
includes classrooms, libraries, laboratories, furnitures, social space, IT network
etc.
4. The concept deals with the problem of excess building capacity which
educational providers may be confronted with when enrollment pattern show a
decline. When such a situation arises the excessive facility could be used for
extra educational purpose.
5. a) lecture method, (b) Seminar Method, © Conference or tutorial method, (d)

Laboratory method
6. Engonornics or human engineering is the study of the human body and how it
carries out specific tasks and responds to external conditions like sound, light,
temperature etc.
7. The four factors on the basis of which building are judges:
a) Functionality.
b) Construction
c) Aesthetics
d) Cost
8. i) The number of departments, division and faculties.
ii) The expected number of teachers.
iii) The expected student enrollment,
iv) The expected ratio of numbers of students to teacher by faculties.
47
UNIT 15 UTILISATION OF
INFRASTRUCTURAL
RESOURCES
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Optimum Utilisation of Physical Resources
15.4 Space Utilisation

15.4.1 Need to Measure Space Utilisation
15.4.2 Strategic Role of Utilisation: Balancing Different Perspectives
15.5 Flexibility in Utilisation

15.5.1 Short-term flexibility
15.5.2 Long-term flexibility
15.6 Utilisation of Library

15.6.1 Organisation of a Library
15.6.2 Infrastructure facilities in the Library
15.6.3 Library Management
15.7 Laboratory Management and Utilisation

15.7.1 Personnel Management
15.7.2 Laboratory Equipment Procurement
15.7.3 Time and Space Management
15.7.4 Safety Management
15.8 Maintenance of Physical Resources

15.8.1 Role and Responsibilities of Personnel in Maintenance of Facilities
15.8.2 Maintenance Budget
15.9 Impact of Technology on Utilisation of Physical Infrastructure Resources

15.9.1 Emerging Instructional Methodology
15.9.2 Impact of leT on Educational Facility Planning
15.10 LetUsSumUp
15.12 References
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Physical facilities in education need to be considered as a capital asset. However,

the management of physical facilities in educational institutions can pose a problem
for planners because education is always in a state of change. It becomes a challenge
for planners to accommodate the new and varying forms of education and devise
appropriate physical infrastructure as per changing needs. In the previous unit, you
read about the creation of such physical infrastructure and their management. Some
concepts underlying the planning and management of these physical resources was
discussed. It was established that a direct relationship exists between the physical
facilities provided and the achievement levels of the students. The unit also highlighted
the need to ensure quality and safety parameters while planning the building and
48
other infrastructure. In this unit you will study about the utilisation of the infrastructural Utilization of
resources. You will agree that it is important to put the facilities of an institution to Infrastructural Resources
multiple uses. There is also a need to use these resources optimally through innovative
.-
techniques of institutional management and planning. This can substantially reduce
the recurring and non-recurring cost per student.
A general observation is that material facilities have not always been optimally utilized
for discharge of educational activities. The reasons cited are that often the facilities
provided are not relevant to the educational programmes offered, the infrastructure
is not adequate, or if provided are not efficiently and effectively used. It is also likely
that many times the physical facilities are not according to the programme
specifications, enrolment (present and future) and geographical surroundings.
Sometimes the users do not fmd the infrastructure well provided to be aesthetically
and intellectually motivating or exciting.
It is imperative that facility planners give due attention to such aspects. Proper
utilisation of infrastructure must be ensured S? that goals and objectives of the
educational activities are effectively and efficiently achieved. These aspects are dealt
with in this unit to give you an understanding of the concepts underlying optimal
utilisation of infrastructure resources.
15.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
• explain the need for optimum utilisation of infrastructural facilities of an institution;
• describe the importance of maintenance of physical resources in institutions;
• explain the basic considerations involved in the utilisation of material resources;
• describe the components of utilization of library resources;
• identify the issues of utilisation oflaboratory resources; and
• assess the impact oflCT on management of physical resources.
15.3 OPTIMUM UTILISATION OF PHYSICAL

RESOURCES
It is often stated that, the resources available for education are meager and there is
an urgent need to make large investments in education. A review of th, educational
system reveals not so much a lack of resources as the under utilisation of ~' ~ .;;,isting
ones. If we examine the status of utilisation of existing physical resources - building
and equipment, you will agree that they are grossly under utilized.
Studies made by the education commission show that majority of the educational
buildings are utilized for only five to six hours in a day. The rooms in the buildings
show different patterns of utilisation in institutions. Very often several rooms lie vacant
and unused for days together. The laboratories and libraries which should ideally be
used throughout the year, including the vacations are used sparingly, sometimes only
for a few hours during JIe week, on working days. Most of the educational buildings
hostels and infrastruc.ore remain unutilized because no vacation projects are ever
organised. It is found that sometimes even costly equipment remains unutilized and
goes waste, due to lack of a proper plan for utilisation. A proper plan should be
worked out to utilize the infrastructure intensively and optiroally.
49
Management of Financia Let us take some examples, which illustrate how existing infrastructure in an
Resources educational institute can be utilized for optimum benefit, with very little additional
investment. You will agree that school going children belonging to the poorer segment
of society do not get proper study conditions. They are deprived of textbooks,
study materials, requisite stationery which are the basic requirements for a meaningful
program of study. Most often they do not even get the minimum space, because of
their poor living conditions, where they can study peacefully. In order to improve the
performance levels and keep such leamers motivated to continue studying, the learning
materials and proper learning conditions should be provided. They also need a quiet
place where they can study peacefully and undisturbed. In one instance, the building
of a secondary school is designed in such a way that a number of beds are built into
the wall, as in a railway compartment. These are folded so that the classrooms are
also used as dormitories. The additional expenditure incurred was very little about
Rs. 50 per bed. As a result of this arrangement, the poor children of the area who
attend school were invited to live in the building. They come to school after supper
at 8.00 p.m., study there till 10.00 p.m. or 11.00 p.m. and again in the morning.
They return home at 10.00 a.m., for meals and return to school by 11.00 a.m., when
it is regular school time. They remain in school till about 5.00 p.m., play till about
6.00 or 6.30 p.m. and then go home for supper. There children are under the guidance
and supervision of one or two teachers, who are given remuneration. Students also
have access to a library equipped with requisite textbooks. Such an innovation has
shown a magnificent improvement in the student' attainment levels, at a small additional
expenditure of Rs. 20 per child per year.
Another interesting case is of a vacation programme being experimented by some

secondary schools in Bombay. The school is attended by children of poor parents
who cannot send their children outside the city, during vacations. Lack of space at
home, compels these children to wander out in the streets during daytime and idle
their time. As an innovative step, the head masters of these schools have converted
the school building to a hostel during the summer vacation, to fulfill the needs of
such children who constitute a major percentage of the enrolment. The children who
seek this facility are allowed to spend their entire time on the school campus. Teachers
are present to guide and supervise them all through their study, play and recreation
activities. Such an enterprise has proved quite beneficial in terms of student
achievement, in increasing their motivation and enthusiasm. The additional expenditure
is only on the remuneration of teachers and cost of materials which works out to be
Rs. 10/- per student for the whole vacation time. Poor countries like India, which -
are caught in a vicious circle because oflow investment in education, have to ensure
intensive utilisation of available resources, within the investments made: The planning
at the policy level should ensure a better return from existing facilities and new
investments should be permitted only when the existing facilities are maxirnally utilized.
From the foregoing examples, it is clear that there are several ways by which the
ever increasing demand for additional financial resources can be decreased. One
way is to optimize the use of non-monetary or physical resources in education.
Physical resources may thus be optimally utilised in one of the following ways-
(i) The infrastructural facilities of the institution could be put to multiple uses -
double or triple shifts. The morning and day shifts could be used for formal
education and the evening shifts for non-formal education or tutorials etc. The
library may also be used for different categories of learners. This way non-
recurring expenditure per student can be reduced.
50
(ii) Innovative techniques of institutional planning and management can optimise Utilization of
utilization of physical resources. Use of non-formal channels of learning, in a Infrastructural Resources
complementary, supplementary or integrative mode can reduce the recurring
and non-recurring expenditure to a great extent. ,-
(iii) Another method is to raise the student teacher ratio; to reduce the recurring
expenditure on education teachers should be imparted proper training to learn
techniques of dealing with large numbers.
(Above section abstracted from source: www.education.nic.in/cditryears/)
Let us now examine some aspects to be considered for proper utilisation of physical
resources in educational institutions. Some of the important considerations are:
1. Space utilisation
2. Internal flexibility
3. Utilisation of library resources
4. Utilisation oflaboratories
5. Maintenance operations
Check Your Progress

1. Justify the statement that educational resources are grossly underutilized.
2. illustrate with one example how school infrastructure can be optimally utilized
to benefit the children from poor sections of the society.
15.4 SPACE UTILISATION

Space utilisation means an assessment of how much space is being utilised, whether
it is being utilized optimally or being utilized at all. Study conducted by UK Higher
Education Space Management Group (SMG) has defined space utilisation as:
"Space utilisation is u u.easure of whether and how space is being used. The utilisation
rate is a function of a frequency rate and an occupancy rate. Frequency rate measures
the proportion of time that space is used compared to its availability and the occupancy
rate measures how full the space is compared to its capacity, Utilisation rates can be
assessed in terms of both actual use and predicted use". 51
Resources
The utilisation studies also assess the size of estate that is affordable, which is linked
to the type and amount of space that is required on the basis of information provided
by utilisation studies, decisions can be made about type and scale of facilities required.
The results of such studies also address issues pertaining to effecti ve use of resources
underutilised and directed elsewhere for better utilisation. The study has evolved a
standard formula to calculate space utilisation (Good Practice Guide: 1996);
% frequency x % occupancy '"

100 = space utilisation
where:
• Frequency is the number of hours a room is in use as a proportion of total

availability (as per the schedule for the week).
• Occupancy is the average group size as a proportion of total capacity for the
hours a room is in use.
Utilisation can be calculated on the basis of observation of the way space is actually
being put to use. Alternatively it can also be worked out on the basis of projected
use, i.e. based on assumptions of how space will be used, in a new building or
planned use according to a timetable.
A report on space utilisation entitled 'The Management of Space in Higher Education

Institutions in Wales' (1996), prepared by the UK. National Audit office strongly
suggests conducting space utilisation surveys, to give an objective measure of the
efficiency with which the estate is used. It stated:
'Space like time is money. If your institution is typical, servicing and maintenance of
accommodation is the second largest cost it has to bear. Without efficient space
management, the resources tied up in your institution's estate are not used to best
effect. Reducing estate costs by using space more efficiently can release funds for
other more important activities.' (SMG, 2006)
15.4.1 Need to Measure Space Utilisation

The study conducted on the HEls also discusses the need to measure space utilisation.
The reasons cited are: •
i) ensuring that space needs match space provisions;
ii) providing a sound basis for space allocations or for planning new buildings;
iii) monitoring efficient space utilization;
iv) identifying the under utilized and over utilized areas;
v) arriving at the difference between timetabled use and actual use;
vi) keeping record of changes occurring over time; and
vii) demonstrating good practice.
The finding of this study can also be applied to management of space utilisation in
educational institutions anywhere in general. The report provides a discussion on the
strategic role of space utilisation.
52
15.4.2 Strategic Role of Utilisation: Balancing Different Utilization of
Infrastructural Resources
Perspectives
It is agreed and accepted that space in an educational institution should be utilised
optimally and efficiently. However when examined from a broader perspective the
facility managers have to strike a balance between the differing interests, needs and
the demands. This is explained through a Balanced Score Card approach (Kaplan
R. and Norton D, 2006) to strategic management of different perspectives of space
utilisation within an organisation. These are as follow:
• Customer perspective
• Financial perspective
• Business perspective (internal management)
• Innovation and development perspective
The key factors impacting space utilisation are represented in fig 15.1
FINANCE
• Value for Money

• Income generation
• Affordable estate
• Cost ~fusing space
• Space charges
CUSTOMERS INTERNAL
• Student perspective MANAGEMENT!
• Attracting/ retaining PROCESSES
staff STRATEGY • Top level support
• Commercial activity • Corporate plan • Targets/data
• Well managed space • Estate strategy collection
• Good quality • Space Management • Analysis Integration
environment plan into strategy
• Good match • Actual and target communication
between space space utilisation • Time tabling
available, and • Room Allocation
needs/expectations
-
--
- INNOVATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
-'
i~ -
• Future Scenarios
• Changing learning! teaching
• New ways of working
• Changing attitudes
• Questioning orthodoxy
• New Space Management
Methods
Figure 15. 1: Key factors affecting space utilisation: a balanced score card approach (UK.
Higher Education Space Management Project, September 2006). 53
Management of Financial From the balanced score card it can be concluded that utilisation is just one of the
Resources many factors affecting the type and quantity of space to be provided. It should be
borne in mind that efficiency and effectiveness of space cannot be managed without
periodic analysis of utilisation, carried out at all levels of the institution. Annual utilization
surveys should be carried out and the obtained data should be reviewed in the light
of targets set.
We can also examine another case of Space Management, allocation and utilisation
in James Cook University (JCU). The policy provides guidelines for management of
space utilisation in the University. Various aspects of management space utilisation
which the policy outlines are as follows: -
• Responsibility for Management and utilisation of allocated space is allocated to

University authonties like Pro Vice ChancellorlHeads of Faculties or Divisions.
• A Coordinator is in place to monitor the quantum of space allocated with the

space actually required. He will ensure that space allocation is proportional to
the need and requirements so as to maximize equity for all students and all staff.
• All departments have to evolve a timetabling system on the basis of a standard

one (Celcat Timetabling System), so that teaching spaces are allocated to all
faculties, for optimal utilisation.
• An important criterion is monitoring space utilisation for which bench marks

are established of acceptable utilisation rates based on a combination of seat
occupancy levels and frequency of use. An additional role entrusted to the
facility managers through this criterion is to find out the spaces which are
underutilized and reallocate in accordance with university norms.
• There are also provisions in the space utilisation policy of JCU to place requests
for additional space bearing in mind the changes that may occur over periods
of time. Such changes may include expansion in the number of teaching
programmes faculty members, creation of new disciplines etc.
Management of space utilisation should be directed to provide improved services to

the students, which will enable them to maximize their achievements in a student
centred learning environment.
Check Your Progress
3. Give two reasons why an educational institution needs to measure its space
utilization.
4. Enumerate the key factors that impact space utilisation.
54
Utilization of
·................................................................................................•.................
15.5 FLEXffiILITY IN UTILISATION

Physical facilities in educational institutions should be such that they cater to the
future needs also. They should be able to accommodate new and ever-changing
forms of education. This is possible if the educational institutions adopt a flexible
approach in creation and maintenance of the physical infrastructure.
15.5.1 Short-term Flexibility

Built in spaces in educational buildings can be put to a variety of uses during the day.
The classrooms can be partitioned to accommodate a variety of class sizes. The
short term flexibility gained popularity in the US and Europe in 1960s and 1970s
respectively. Short-term flexibility was achieved by constructing new buildings and
remodeling existing ones with mechanically moveable partitions. During the school •
days, these partitions can be opened to combine several standard classrooms to
make a room biggetin size for larger numbers or subdivide the big classrooms into
spaces suitable for small group discussions. An alternative view is that while such an
arrangement does increase utilization rates, u~,t,t involves high initial costs and
maintenance cost. It would be economically more tc<::ibleto build special purpose
spaces for large and small groups and ignore their low utilisation.
15.5.2 Long-term Flexibility

The concept oflong term flexibilityis translated into practice by industrializedcountries
and it offers substantial returns. According to a report by the ITEP,"Industrialised
counties have learned that replacing load bearing internal walls with structural frames
and internal partitions of inexpensive materials, permits them to make affordable
rearrangements, when curriculum and teaching methods reforms require a new
arrangement of spaces. As technology advances in developing counties and structural
frames become more economical. This approach is increasingly cost effective for
them." [IIEP.http://www.unesco.org/iiep].
In developing counties the considerations are different when decisions about flexibility
in provisions of physical infrastructure are made. A major consideration is class size.
For example, the number of students in the lower classes is more than in the higher
classes. Hence the accommodations need to be planned as per actual enrolment
rather than theoretical projections. This implies that real enrolments should be
considered. The second aspect to be considered is the provision of flexibility in
using space, at affordable cost by the developing countries. A proposal made to
Guinea in Africa by UNESCO's Dakar Office, was to provide furniture in classroom,
that had desks fixed to the ground, but with mobile seats. In Africa mobile furniture
has shorter life than fixed furniture. Depending on the affordabilityand need the
institutions should exercise flexibility in the utilization of material resources and such
decisions should be taken at the planning stage. In the subsequent sections we shall
discuss management of specific resources and their utilization like Libraries and
Laboratories.
55
Management of Financial Check Your Progress
Resources
5. A major consideration for educational facility planners in a developing country

is 'class size' while deciding the extent of flexibility. Discuss briefly(in about 50
words).
15.6 UTILISATION OF LIBRARY

The school library and its staff are important school assets, and should be taken as
an educational investment. In fact libraries have a history of development which is
synonymous with the development of educational institutions. Libraries are the
depositories of human knowledge and information for centuries. Libraries are
considered as temples of knowledge, and have a tremendous role to play as
disseminators of knowledge, and help immensely to develop the spirit of inquiry,
initiative, scientific temper, conceptual clarity and linguistic skills oflearners.
There are research studies which provide evidence that quality school library
programs, positively affects student achievement. Some of these are (Spence, 2005):
• That student achievement increases in accordance with the level of teacher

librarian staffing, size of the collection and library budget.
• Other factors that directly impact student achievement are, cooperative planning
between teacher librarians and teachers, identifying materials for teachers,
teaching information, literacy skills to students, in-service training of teachers,
and managing an information portaL
• In a study involving a survey of over 13,000 students, 99.44 percent of

respondents indicated that school library services had assisted their learning.
Hence administrators of educational institutions at all levels must support libraries in

the best interest of students. It has been reported that quality library media
programmes can enhance student achievement and informed, committed libraries
can help principals enhance their own administration practice (Spence, 2005).
Since libraries constitute an important instructional component, it is necessary that

these services are properly organized, managed and utilised for effective teaching
learning process.
15.6.1 Organisation of a Library

Library has an unique organisational and management structure, and is considered
an institution in itself in the context of higher learning. The role and functions of all the
members are interlinked. Let us examine the organization of a library in a college, to
understand its use as a valuable learning resource.
56
Utilization of
PRINCIPAL
,.
SR. LIDRARIAN
JR. LIDRARIAN
LIDRARY ASSISTANTS
LIDRARY ATIENDANTS
Fig 15.2: Organisational structur~ of a College Library
These functionaries are involved in the activities of the library. There is also a
committee called library committee to take stock of the library operations and give
recommendations for better functioning. The structural organization of the library
system is generally as shown below:
Principal / Staff Committee
Senior Librarian
BookAcquisition Technical Periodical Circulation Reference
Fig 15.3: Structural Organisation of Library System
Source: Aspects ofInstitutional Management- 3, Block-2, MES-104, IGNOU,2003
Let us now discus- IIll.' physical aspects of the library which are crucial for its proper
utilization. We can categorize them as the following:-
• Infrastructure taci Iities, i.e. buildings, rooms, auditorium etc.
• Equipment
• Books, journals, periodicals, audio-video materials etc.
• Miscellaneous consumable items
15.6.2 Infrastructure facilities in the Library

A library must be a source of inspiration for its users. In the context of higher education
a library building should be attractive, spacious, and well equipped. The building
should be architecrurally sound, harmonious with nature and accessible to its readers.
The infrastructure \lTl- ., - - -1=ring to the present needs should also have scope for
future expansion. Space distribution and utilization, as also discussed earlier, is an
important aspect. Castaldi (1987) has suggested an ideal space allocation provision
for each library as:
• thirty square feet of floor space for each reader using the library; 37
Management of Financi ••.
• one hundred feet of floor space for each staff member using the library and
Resources
• fifteen volumes per square foot of floor space for keeping the she 1ves in the
library.
Some infrastructure facilities are linked to the service sections, which contribute to
better provisions. These components are the following:
• Administrative Office
• Book Stock Rooms
• Acquisition Department
• Catalogue Department
• Process Department
.,
• Circulation Department
Periodical Section
• Reference Section
• Display Section
• Newspaper and Magazine Section
• StoreRooms
• Common Rooms
• Reading Hall
• Audio- visual Media Room
• Language Laboratory
• Browsing Section
• Photocopying etc.
(i) Equipments
Library services have to be rendered through usage of certain equipments for efficient
and smooth utilization, a library should be well equipped with technical equipment
and furniture mentioned below:
• Bookshelves, a1mirahs and stacks
• Catalogue box
• Reading chairs and tables
• Book display board
• Periodical and Newspaper stands
• Trolley
• Computers
• Audio-visual components
58 • Reprographic equipments
• Energy equipments Utilization of
• Proper light arrangements - windows and electric lights should be placed in a
manner so as to facilitate comfortable reading for library users.
ii) Essential Items

A library stands for some essential items like the following:
• Books
• Journals
• Magazines
• Periodicals
• Reference Materials
• Audio visual media-films, slides, CD-ROMs, software etc.
ill) Miscellaneous Consumable Items

The miscellaneous items of a library are given below:
• Library index cards
• Paper
• Adhesives
• Maintenance Materials
• Toiletries
15.6.3 Library Management

Proper and efficient management of a library system is effected through the execution
of its various functions. Functions of a library can be broadly categorized as-
• Administrative
• Technical
• Cataloguing and
• Circulation
(i) Administrative Functions

The administrative functions guide the overall functioning of a library, through policy
decision and directions. Library administration coordinator controls and regulates
other depart mental work.
(ii) Technical Functions

a) The main technical function of a library is acquisition of books. Selection of
books is based on a decision taken in consultation with the librarian and other
academic ot lOt> ;'Istitution.
b) The other function is acquisition of library materials to preserve the acquired

books, like book shelves, racks etc.
c) Placing order for the required materials.

59
Management of Financial d) Repair and maintenance of library equipment and
Resources
e) Handling petty cash.
(ill) Cataloguing Functions
The catalogue department is a crucial section of the library that classifies and arranges
books in a particular order either author wise or subject wise, which is called
processing of books.
The description of books may as per the following features - name of author, title of
the book, place of publication, publisher, date of printing, number of pages.
(iv) Circulation Functions
The functions included in this category are:
• delivery of books to borrowers
• collection of books from borrowers
• stock maintenance, restoration and shelving of books
• keeping account of fmes, missing books etc .'
(v) Reference Services
The reference services extended by the library are:
• informing and assisting users about collection of books and resources
• locating the resources
• answering requests for information
• loaning out reference materials
• borrowing materials from other sources for students and faculty

vi) Browsing Services
New arrivals - books and other journals should be displayed for browsing by users.
vii) Creating of Departmental Library
The main library should extend help and support for creation of departmental libraries
in the institution. It should assist in selection of books and materials and also in
organizational aspects, involving both students and teachers of the respective
departments.
Libraries c<iQ.be used either on the open shelf system or closed shelf basis for which
special requests have to made or a mixed mode as is in existence at most of the
institutions of higher learning in the Indian context.
An important aspect of utilization of library resources is the management of human

resources of the library. To optimize utilization of a library, its resources should be
integrated into the curriculum. This will enhance development of information literacy.
The School Library Association of South Australia has defmed the role statement of
Teacher Librarians. The teacher librarians have a dual responsibility as teachers and
information specialists and be the leaders for such an information literacy program.
SLASA (2003) has provided a model to define the role and responsibilities of a
60 teacher librarian. These include:
1) Teaching and Learning Utilization of
• Facilitate students' learning by helping them to seek, critically evaluate, synthesize
and present information
• Initiate learners into u-age of resources and technologies
• Promote collaborative learning, group work, alongwith subject and class

teachers, focusing on individual learner needs.
2) Leadership
• Sound professional knowledge and approach, keeping updated about the current
trends and practices in education.
• Focus on the institutional goals, policies and needs.
• Facilitate knowledge management process, school's ICT plans an advocate

the need for students to be information literate. •
3) Curriculum Involvement
• Be part of the curriculum team and should be informed about latest curricular
development and documents.
• Promote student information literacy across the curriculum
• Strengthen efforts to integrate Information CUl\.-l Communication Technology in

the Curriculum.
The other roles described for the Teacher Librarian are management functions,
Literature promotion and facilitating access to several other resources-print,
electronic, to ensure that the library becomes a multi-functional resource centre and
a focal point for student learning.
Another important aspect of the efficient functioning of the library is training of library
staff. Excellent library resources can remain unutilised or underutilised in the absence
of trained personnel. Training of librarians and other staff should provide academic
inputs, to enable them to disseminate information to the users. Teachers should
motivate students to correlate classroom teaching with reading and reference materials
in the library to maximize learning. This will enable both teachers and learners to
keep abreast of the latest developments in their areas of expertise and also inculcate
the right attitude toward utilisation of library facilities.
The Kothari Commission (1964-66) has emphasized the role of human resources in
the context oflibrary development, stating, "The object oflibrary planning is not to
build a collection of books unrelated to class-work, laboratory research and
conference room. The object is rather to relate book selection, organization of books ,
conditions of access and all library activities to the daily needs and activities of the
academic community, both professionals and students."( IGNOU, 2003)
After discussing the various aspects of management of library as a resource for

maximum utility to its users i.e. students and teachers, we shall now examine another
important physical resource in the educational system and that is the Laboratory.
Check Your Progress
61
Management of Financial 6. Describe briefly the organizational structure of a college library.
Resources
7. Enumerate three functions of the reference section of a library .
••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••
15.7 LABORATORY IVIANAGEMENT AND

UTILISATION
Laboratory work or practical work has tremendous significance in the teaching-
learning system, particularly in the context of Science, Technology and other related
fields of study. However practical work is in separate from natural science teaching
at every level- primary, secondary and tertiary. Experimental work is the basic
method of science and this should be reinforced. Science is not just about verifying
rules and laws, but learning science should develop a scientific temper in theindividual
i.e. the skill of observation, data collection, its analysis and interpretation.
The fundamental objectives of any laboratory activity in the teaching-learning process

can be enlisted as:
• teaching manipulative skills to enhance a learner's motor and observation

capabilities;
• teaching application of basic scientific theories to practical problems;
• improving the understanding of various methods and procedures of scientific

enqwry;
• explaining the process of natural phenomena in a scientific manner;
• designing and planning an activity;
• cultivating a professional and scientific attitude and
• identifying and measuring the actual utility of current researches in science.
These objectives will provide the basis for management and organization oflaboratory
resources.
The objectives of laboratory based learning should be visualised in the larger

perspective of real life situations. It cannot be confined to the four walls and should
create a process of interaction between know ledge and information generators and
receivers. This interaction with the basic purpose of knowledge generation can be
achieved through the following steps:
• re-organisation and updating the curriculum
62 • orientation of the teachers and laboratory-supporting staff

• developing linkages with community - involving students with community based Utilization of
problems and projects. Infrastructural Resources
• linkages can be established with development agencies, to identify problems

and work on their solutions through laboratory work.
For optimum results and to foster the spirit of creativity and innovation, laboratories
should be properly managed and its resources properly utilized. The laboratory
management involves the following aspects (Ahmed, 1983):
• Personnel management
• Procurement and maintenance oflaboratory equipment
• Procurement, storage and stock-keeping of consumables
• Management oflaboratory time and space
• Training and orientation oflaboratory personnel
• Financial Management and
• Management of safety
•
15.7.1 Personnel Management
The personnelusually employed for laboratory management are - subject teachers,
demonstrators, laboratory assistants, attendants •.'•...d students. All the personnel
involved interact closely with their own levels of knowledge and skills. This
coordinated interaction among them determines the effecti veness of the experiment
undertaken.
Let us examine the role of each of the personnel involved to bring about proper
utilization of laboratory resources.
Teachers
The teacher has a crucial role to play in the success of the practical based learning.
A teacher should possess specific skills and capabilities so as to link their theoretical
knowledge to the practical activities in the laboratory. This will also lead to efficient
management of all laboratory activities. Teachers should be able to present information
to students, question, explain and motivate students. Besides they should be able to
train and instruct demonstrators and technicians about the experiment and lab
requirements.
Demonstrators
The demonstrators should be well equipped academically and professionally for
correct and efficient demonstration of experiments. According to Broan and Atkine,
1988, the skills which demonstrators should have are:
• observing students at work,
• anticipate and recognize major difficulties in understanding,
• give brief clarifications and explanations of processes and procedure,
• give directions, ask questions which guide students,
• be encouraging and supportive of students and
• know situations where students need or do not need help. 63

Management of Financial Laboratory Assistantsrrechnicians
Resources
The Laboratory assistants and technicians play an .important role in preparing and
setting the laboratory for carrying out the experiments. They are the actual manager
of the laboratory. Their professional and technical expertise should be developed
through periodic training, to keep them updated about the usage and maintenance of
all equipments and articles.
Students
Students are the target group who are to ultimately use the laboratories for gaining
the requisite skills and knowledge. For optimum utilization of the laboratory equipment
and materials for scient ific experiment it is important to know the extent oftheir
motivation and preparedness, Individual differeJtids of students should be borne in
mind, while organizing practical sessions for them. The laboratory management should
aim to improve the students' experimental aptitude, as also their academic achievement
in the science subject. The management system should keep the student motivated
and enthused for learning.
15.7.2 Laboratory Equipment Procurement

Material and equipment has to be procured for laboratories. The requirements vary
according to the need and nature of the subject. The specifications depend on the
type of experiment to be performed and process in Indian educational system is still
traditional and unchanged.
The procurement process has two aspects:
(i) equipment is procured according to specification of needs of various

experimental programmes and
(ii) equipment is procured to replace the obsolete ones or which are broken or
under repair.
The procurement of materials is organized though a committee which decides the

quantity and quality of the items. When the equipment is required on a large scale
and correspondingly high expenditure is involved, then tenders are invited from the
manufacturing companies/firms. After advertising, the lowest quotation is selected
for placing orders.
Maintenance of the procured equipment is also important since proper maintenance

can enhance the life span of the equipments and materials. Proper care and upkeep
of the laboratory infrastructure is essential, by keeping an account of their state and
maintaining a checklist. Personnel have to be engaged for maintenance and repair of
the laboratory equipment.
15.7.3 Time and Space Management

A laboratory is used by a diverse group oflearners at different times during the day.
Hence time management for using the laboratory is of great significance. In order
that the laboratory infrastructure is utilized to its full potential by all groups ofleamers,
the timings should be staggered. Usage of equipment can be alternated between the
groups, this being accessible to all.
Another aspect of time management is the location of the laboratory in the campus.
At the design stage it should be ensured that students do not waste much time, in
reaching the laboratory, i.e. the distance between the class-rooms and labs should
be minimal.
64
Along with time management, space management and its utilisation plays a crucial Utilization of
role. Space utilization for educational purposes has been discussed in the earlier ,.
sections. However it would be pertinent to highlight the different aspects of space
utilization in the context oflaboratory activities. It has the following six major aspects:
• Space utilisation as per laboratory requirements/specification
• Space utilisation in terms of working and available time
• Utilisation per student unit
• Utilisation of space per laboratory programme
• Utilisation of space in terms of apparatus and equipment installation capacity
• Utilisation of space for further purpose or programmes
15.7.4 Safety Management

An important dimension of laboratory usage "is the safety management. Some
materials, especially certain chemicals need to be kept safely and handled with care
and precaution. The demonstrators and technical staff should have prior knowledge
about such materials and the methods of safe handling. Even the students should be
instructed by the teachers and demonstrators about the precautions and safety
measures that they need to adopt for conducting such experiments.
The basic precautions that one must be aware of before conducting the laboratory
experiments are the following:
• Careful handling of fragile equipment like glassware
• Precautions while using chemicals and electrical appliances
• Fire extinguishers to be installed at requisite places
• First aid boxes readily available.
Acknowledgement: Section: 3.7 abstracted from Unit-8 (Aspects ofInstitutional

Management-S). Blocl-;-2. MES-104, IGNOU,2003.
Such details COLI Lt be provided to all concerned through concise booklets or

summarized in Il~ll"lout....
Check Your Progre- ....
8. Discuss at least three objectives oflaboratory teaching -learning activity .
. .
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
9. Enlist two precautions to be observed in the conduct oflaboratory experiments .
...................................................................................................................
65
Resources
.
...................................................................................................................
15.8 MAINTENANCE OF PHYSICAL RESOURCES

As soon as the educational institution becomes operational, i.e. the school
administrators, teachers and student begin to function, its aging process starts. The
materials and surfaces begin to deteriorate at their own pace, and the wear and tear
sets in. Since the wear and tear is a natural and inevitable phenomenon, resulting
from usage, a maintenance programme should be in place.
According to Harrison, in Castaldi. B, (1994),
"The School Custodian is eo-responsible with the principal for a building worth
many thousands of dollars, its care and operation, and indirectly responsible for the
priceless lives relate to the proper operation of the school plant."
It is a fact that the contribution of the personnel involved in maintaining a comfortable

and healthful environment in the institution building goes unnoticed. An alert and
proactive custodian can save a lot of resources for future maintenance, by paying
attention to small wear and tear and restoring it for normal usage. This workforce
also plays a significant role in the educational process by creating and maintaining an
environment conducive for learning.
Let us now examine the role and responsibilities of the personnel involved in
maintenance of buildings and other infrastructure for teaching-learning.
15.8.1 Role and Responsibilities of Personnel in

Maintenance of Facilities
Educational institutions must have a facilities maintenance mechanism in place.
According to Castaldi (1994):
"A good facility maintenance programme requires commitment from board,

administration, staff and community that maintenance of facilities is a high priority
and must be provided each year with adequate funding."
Size ofWorkforce
All school or college personnel share a responsibility in the basic upkeep of the
institution. Adequate number of staff should be engaged, for regular operations. It
should also be ensured that maintenance personnel do not get overworked very
often it is observed that a small sized workforce is employed for maintenance with
complete disregard to the size ofthe teaching-learning area, numbers of students
and teachers and the overall load of all educational activities provisions should be
made in accordance with the size of the building, the conditions of the infrastructure
whether it is old, requires replacement or repair. If it is a new building, but
overcrowded or overused then more personnel may need to be assigned for adequate .
maintenance.
15.8.2 Maintenance Budget

The administration of educational institutions is responsible for providing funds for
supplies, cleaning and maintenance of equipments and normal wear and tear. Generally
a school or college budget accords very low priority to this aspect of infrastructure
utilization. Very often because of limited resources, the expenditures on maintenance
are usually deferred to a later date. However, timely maintenance proves beneficial
66 in tl-." l"n(T •..,,"\
The budget should allocate sufficient funds for procuring the supplies which are Utilization of
efficient and least damaging for example cleaning agents, paints, tiles to be used Infrastructural Resources
laboratory equipment and chemicals, furniture, electrical appliances and other material
items of the institution. A competent custodian should be hired and generally such
activity is assigned to the central purchase unit of the college, which caters to the
needs of all aspects of physical infrastructure. Wear and tear of the mechanical
equipment should also be kept in mind. Ideally there should be a programme of
planned replacement of worn out infrastructure. A maintenance plan should be
developed which can be made more cost-effective through use of computerized
database management system.
Check Your Progress
10. What are the two important aspects of maintenance of facilities that an institution
must ensure?
11. Describe the role of the workforce in facility maintenance in an institution.
15.9 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON UTILISATION OF

PHYSH"AI. INFRASTRUCTURE RESOURCES
It is a common pr.icticc 1\ l/ educational planner, to make provisions according to
existing practices The pt issible innovations and other new methods are seldom
considered, which are likely to improve the educational practices with rapid
advancement in information and communication technologies, some; .:-la.:..:.~oom
teachers are on the constant look out for and even design imaginative and exciting
practices to keep the learners enthused and improve their performance. It is because
of this that the curriculum is in a state of constant flux and change. However in the
Indian context, the curriculum is quite rigid and leaves little room for changing concepts
and practices. To plan educational buildings and infrastructure, with a scope for
innovation and creativity of teachers and learners, the planners should have the
following attributes-
• should be endowed with creative ability
• should be knowledgeable to distinguish between such educational practices

which will be long lasting and those which will be short lived
• should have an understanding of the existing curricular and eo-curricular practices

=nd know which infrastructures features are best suited to execute them 67
Management of Financial • choose such features that are best suited to the philosophy of the users of the
Resources educational system.
Let us examine how technological advancements have impacted the creation and
utilization of educational facilities. The design of educational facilities reflects the
educational thinking and architectural facilities at the time when school facilities are
proposed, planned, conceived and constructed. The resultant educational
infrastructure reflects the prevailing architectural concepts, educational practices,
and promising curricular innovations. A well planned educational facility also has
scope for foreseeable educational concepts of the future.
Educational infrastructure particularly the instructional devices have evolved and

new additions made over a period of time. A teaching aid of the early times was the
slide projector, followed by the movie projector. Today the educational systems
utilize very sophisticated devices which range from programmable ones to fully
automated ones. They are designed in a user-friendly manner are light weight compact
and easier on maintenance and upkeep. The new technology supplements the older
systems for e.g. the overhead projector has replaced the chalkboard.
Whatever the electronic or technological device, their potential is not yet fully exploited
by the educators. Educators particularly in the developing countries, are aware of
their potential and its superior capabilities of impacting the teaching-learning process.
However due to resource constraints, lack of proper training and orientation are
unable to adapt the end-users i.e. teachers and students toward its full usage. To
utilize the communication technology and infrastructure to its full potential, the school
administrators and educationists should provide opportunities for training the staff
and provide the requisite staff, equipment and necessary software.
Computer is an invaluable information and communication tool for students. It has

the capability of and perfects suited for controlling the operation of a wide variety of
teaching devices currently available. Computers can be programmed to display a
series of interactive instructional materials for instant use by the student in a logical
and prearranged sequence. It can also be programmed to trigger a videotape player,
a television set, an audiotape player, a movie projector, and films strips and slides
properly interspersed in the teaching-learning sequence at the proper time as designed
in the curriculum.
The potential of technology for educational practices is unlimited. The facility planners
have to keep abreast of the developments in educational technology and exploit
them for educational benefits.
15.9.1 Emerging Instructional Methodologies

Software, also termed as "Courseware" is being developed to cover vast curricula
in many educational fields. Learning systems have been created in the developed
countries called Integrated Learning Systems (ILS) and Integrated Instructional
System (lIS), which work directly with school districts to create school programs in
keeping with their needs. The advent of technologies like-television satellites, cable
television, fibre-optics transmission lines are providing path breaking educational
capabilities, un-thought of in the earlier times. With these advanced technical devices,
it is possible to disseminate ILS programs, over large geographical areas and provide
enrichment instructional programs. These educational programs are also transmitted
through satellite technologies or over fib er-optic lines and can be received by
microcomputers in homes and schools.
It would be pertinent at this point to examine the different phases ofICT revolution
68
and the challenges it poses for educational planners. According to a report by Hemes Utilization of
G(2002) the ICT revolution is not one but has evolved through five stages. The first Infrastructural Resources
revolution after world war two was the computer, the applications of which gradually
advanced from use in academic research to weather forecasting ticketing for travel
and several forms of accounting. The second ICT revolution occurred in the 1970s
when processors.• on a chip and magnetic discs were constructed which paved the
way for creation of the Personal Computer (PC). In 1981 IBM launched the first
PC in the markets, which is now a household article, at least in the developed world.
The computer revolution is a continuous process with its applications and use
expanding by the day. The third phase of ICT revolution is the emergence of
Microprocessors. These are embedded in an ever widening range of products like,
video players, credit cards, cameras, remote controls, etc .and its capacity is ever
increasing. The internet is the fourth revolution and dates back to the late 1960s. It
was first used by the US Department of Defense for a communication network
(ARPANET). Subsequently, several academic institutions in the US set up their
academic networks, which became a part of the internet. Several such networks
emerged in Europe and CERN in Geneva was crucial in the development of the
World Wide Web, in 1990. This-led to surfing on the net and use of modem for the
PC. The most significant aspect of the fourth revolution was the building up of social
networks by users through the computer. The possibilities oflinking without lines
were opened up by the discovery of mobile phones which is the fifth product of the
ICT revolution. Mobile phones are multifunctional devices that are used not just for
talking, but for exchanging messages, booking movie tickets and diverse other uses.
"Linking without lines now takes place not just inter-continentally via satellites, but
also via high frequency short range radio transmitters covering a specific area or cell
(hence the name "cellular phones" ) and inside buildings by "Bluetooth" and infrared-
light".
A major impact of the ICT revolutions is their emergence as necessities -PCs and
their multiple innovative uses. Another impact is globalization. The components come
from all over the world- chips from Asia, software from America, mobile phones
from Europe. The world is now interconnected through instant communications due
to satellite technology. The internet and World Wide Web link the world providing
the dynamic and interactive network. "Now the passport to the world citizenship
has become'@'" (Ref. Gudmund. H. 2002).
15.9.2 Impact of LC'I' Revolution on Educational Facility

Planning
Learning technologies have also been impacted by the ICT revolution. The methods
of studying, school procedures, organization of resources; etc. have been transformed
by the impact oflCT. Computers have been in use for teaching-learning since 1966(by
John Hopkins University). However the web technologies are being increasingly
used by educational institutions for posting course materials, communicating
assignments, and providing round the clock access to teachers and experts in diverse
subject areas. Learning materials are now readily accessible to distance learners as
well as to conventional learners in their classrooms. This new technology has
transformed the delivery mechanisms oflearning institutions but has altered the
perceptions about education as a system. This transformation in teaching learning
methodologies has two aspects:
1. It removes the constraints of time and space for educational provisions- access
to learning is provided from any place, any time.
2. Training and material can be tailored based on individual needs and can be
self-paced. 69
Management of Financial Challenges to Educational Facility Planners
Resources
ICT poses tremendous challenges to the facility planners in education. They can be
broadly categorized into two: challenge of equity and challenge of quality.
Issues of equity- This poses the question of access to the ICT resources within the
developed and developing countries. There is wide disparity in terms of accessibility
in these two regions .For example in Norway 50% of the people have access to the
internet and 80% have mobile phones. On the other hand telephones are available
to only halfthe world's population. In many countries all the telephones are in the
capital city only. Electrification is yet to be achieved in many villages in the developing
countries. Hence a major challenge for educational planners is to provide access to
such technology to the millions of poor uneducated and unreached populations.
Equitable access to leT for education is not just about who the users are but also
who produce the educational material. Educational material is produced by some
countries and they are "net -based education providers". The education material IS
freely accessible through the net .some countries also develop and promote
programmes for foreigners by distance education methodology through the net.
The WTO is considering proposals for trading "education products" as a commodity
from one country to another. This opens up further opportunities for students since
education is freed from national controls and paves the way for globalization of
education.
Issue of equity can be addressed from two aspects:
a) equitable access to students as consumers, where the poor countries are at a

disadvantage.
b) Equitable provision of content in which the poor have little to contribute.
Issues of Quality
Rapid changes are taking places in technology and so training cannot be a once and
for all affair. Knowledge has to be constantly updated in order to keep pace with the
changes and latest developments. The educational systems have to be so planned
so that learners are familiarized with latest technologies. Planning and designing such
systems is a challenge for educational planners both on the intellectual and economic
front.
The technology driven learning method should be appropriate and economical too.
In this age of virtual interactivity educational planners should make adequate
provisions for interpersonal interactivity, peer relations and stay connected in the
face to face mode as well. Educational content should be relevant, enable the learners
to solve problems, develop abilities of perception, empathy and excellence. "Education
after all means to lead out, within and beyond ones present confines by bringing out
latent abilities and talents." Educational planners have to consider that students cannot
be left to their unguided personal search but have to be led out.
Learning should be ICT assisted, because merely posting content on the web does
not ensure quality teaching or its effective use. Teachers have to be made
knowledgeable and skilled through training. Planners have to arrange for continuous
experimentation and innovations in an ever changing environment.
Acknowledgement: This section has been abstracted from Hernes Gudmund (2002):
Emerging Trends in ICT and challenges to Educational Planning, in Technologies for
Education, Potentials, Parameters and Prospects (ed), UNESCO,Paris.
70
Educational planners should create conditions for technology utilization so that the Utilization of
digital divide could be minimized. The benefits of new technologies should be reaped Infrastructural Resources
by the developed world to empower and enable those who are marginalized and
disadvantaged. '
Check your progress
b) Ch,eck your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
12. State at least two qualities which educational facility planners must have. .
...................................................................................................................
"
13. What are the two major impactsof K'T revolution on the teaching -learning
process? •
15.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we discussed:
• The need for optimum utilization of infrastructural resources of an institution.
• Measurement of space utilization and key factors impacting it.
• Utilisation and management of institutional resources, like, libraries and

laboratories.
• Role of personnel in the maintenance of physical facilities in an institution.
• Impact of technology on the instructional systems and the challenges it poses

for effective facility management for educational planners.

1. Visit a college library. Prepare a format for assessment of different components
of the library, i.e., facilities available, physical aspects, staff employed (full time,
part-time, etc), arrangement for students and other considerations for effective
functioning of the library.
15.12 REFERENCES
1. Hemes Gudmund (2002) Emerging Trends in ICT and challenges to
Educational Planning, in Technologies for
Education, Potentials, Parameters and
Prospects (ed), UNESCO,Paris.
71
Management of Financial 2 http://www.education.nic.inlcd50years/g/12/5z/
Resources
Some Special Aspects of Planning for a Poor
Country
3. SMG (2006) Space Utilisation: Practice. Performance and

Guidelines. UK Higher Education Space
Management Project
4. School Library Association Teacher Librarian Role Statement

of South Australia (SLASA)
(2003)
5. Spence Sue (2005) 'Teacher librarians. an under utilized asset in

schools', in Curriculum Leadership, Vol3,
issue 14.
6. IGNOU (2003) Management of an Institution of Higher

Learning, Block-2, MES-l 04.
7. Castaldi, Basil (1994) Educationalfacilities:Planning,Modernisation

and Management, Boston. Allyn and Bacon.
Inc.
1. Educational buildings are used for only a few hours in the day, whereas they
can function on a shift system, thereby increasing access to more numbers.
During holidays and vacations classes could be organized as per needs of
students or the premises could be used for group work, projects, camps etc.
2. Children from the lower economic strata can be provided educational

opportunities in urban schools. Since school space and staff are unutilized after
one shift, these can be be used to organize classes for such needy children at
very little extra cost. Teachers can be appointed on a voluntary basis or with
some extra remuneration.
3. These are:
a) to provide a sound basis for allocating spaces for various components

and also for planning new structures
b) to take stock of under utilized and over utilized areas in the institution.
4. These are
a) Finance
b) Customers
c) Innovation and development
d) Internal management processes
.e) The clientele/customers, i.e., students
f) Strategy/ different plans
5. Class size is an important consideration, for educational facility planners in

developing countries because there is a difference in the numbers of students in
the lower classes than at the tertiary level. Hence long term flexibility
considerations are difficult to incorporate.
72
6. The library is headed by a senior librarian who reports to the principal of the Utilization of
college. The senior librarian is supported by junior librarian, library assistants Infrastructural Resources
,-
and library attendants.
7. These are:
• Informing and assisting users about collecting books and resources
• Locating resources
• Answering requests for various types of informations
8. a) to teach manipulative skills
b) to develop scientific temper
c) to teach application of scientific theories to practical situations
9. a) careful handling of fragile equipments.
b) precautions while using chemicals and electrical appliances.
10. a) Sizeofworkforce
b) Provision of maintenance budget
11. Appropriate number of personnel should be engaged for maintenance and

upkeep of physical infrastructure. All the staff should fee I responsible and
display ownership towards the facilities. If the staff employed is not proportionate
to the size of the area to be managed or if the institution is understaffed then
staff will get overworked and efficiency will decrease.
12. a) They should be creative.
b) They should have the ability to distinguish between long lasting and short
lived educational practices.
13. a) Increased access to education because constraints of time and space are
removed.
b) lnxuu i 'I[l,d material can be designed to meetindividuallearnerneeds.
73'

Activities
Block-4 Management oflnfrastructure
Unit-IS Utilization of Infra-structural Resources
Unit-If Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators

"fbffr 1{Aq q;T ~ ~ ~ qmft t atR 3TT\if
c6 ¥ ~err ~ cffi CfHi?l qft 1lTCAT 'PT 3TmR '4t
t I \iR ~ 3Rl qmuft ~ ~ \ifTfcr ~ Cflf<m
~t4S1dl3IT q;T ~ CfRCl ~ ~ q;T ~ wm
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by birth and other circumstances."
- Indira Gandhi
Management
Block
5
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
UNIT 16
Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Indicators ~ 5

UNIT 17
Tools of Management 31
UNIT 18
Strategies for Quality Improvement 75

UNIT 19
Role of Different Agencies 95

UNIT 20
Quality Concerns and Issues for Research 112
1
-'
Expert Committee
Ms. Poonam Bhushan
s Bhubaneshwar, Orissa
Prof. Vibha Joshi
Psychology. M.S. University of 8angalore
SOE,IGNOU >;
8aroda, Vadodara,Gujarat
Prof. B. 8. Khanna
Prof. K. Sudharao SCHool of Management Studies
Senior Fellow IGNOU
Prof. S.K. Panda
STRIDE, IGNOU
.
, New Delhi

Course Contributors Unit Design and Editing Content Editing
Dr. M.M. Mohanty Prof. Vibha Joshi Prof. S.V.S. Chaudhary

Formerly with OPEPA SOE,IGNOU Vice-Chairperson, NCTE
Orissa . Delhi
Proof Reading
Dr.M.K. Dash Mr. Trilokes De
Programme Officer Consultant
DEEP,IGNOU SOE,IGNOU
Dr. Kanchan Bala
Executive Officer
NIOS, Noida, UP
Mr. Trilokes De
Consultant, SOE, IGNOU
Production
School of Education
October, 2009
ISBN-978-81-266-4377-6
means, without permission in writingfrom the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l l 0068.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar;Phase-I, Delhi-91.
Printed At :- Kalyan Enterprises ,215/5 Ambadker GaJi Moujpur,Delhi -53
1
BLOCK 5 . TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Quality management has three main components - quality control, quality assurance
and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on quality, but
also on the means to achieve quality and sustain total quality management is the
organisation-wide management of quality.It consists of planning, organising,directing,
controling and assuring quality. Total quality is called total because it consists of two
elements: quality of return to satisfy the needs of the stakeholders and quality of
products. The Block comprises 5 units. So let us discuss in briefly as follows:
Unit 16 deals with quality control, quality assurance and quality indicators.
Quality control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in the
service or process. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the services or
·. processes provided meet specific requirements and are dependable satisfactorily,
and fiscally sound. The quality assurance is reactive, retrospective and policing,
and in many ways it is punitive. It often involves and determines as to who was at
fault or what went wrong.
Unit 17 deals with tools of management. Here we have discussed the categories
and quality of tools of management. Every tool that has been discussed here as
quality tools is not an all purpose tool. Every tool has some definite function in
collecting data required for some definite stages of problem solving process.
Unit 18 encompasses strategies for quality improvement. Quality improvement
is a formal approach to the analysis of performance and systematic efforts to improve
it. Quality improvement involves both prospective and retrospective strategies. It is
aimed at improvement measuring where you are, and figuring out ways to make
things better.It specifically attempts to avoid attributing blame, and to create systems
to prevent errors from happening. Quality improvement activities can be very helpful
in improving how things work. Trying to fmd where the 'defect' in the system is, and
figuring out new ways to do things can be challenging and fun. It is a great opportunity
to think the various strategies for quality improvement.
Unit 19 consists of role of different agenc.es. There are many agencies associated
with assessment and accreditation of eductional institutions and programmes of
studies at school education, higher education, professional educationand open and
distance education in the country and abroad. The role of these agencies in quality
context has been discussed.
The last unit i.e. 20 encompasses of Quality Concerns and Issues for Research.
In this unit we discuss on various aspects of research in educationalmanagement
and the issues related to improving quality of research in the filed of educational
management too. Further we elaborate the role and responsibilities ofinstitutions
acquaintance with research in the field of educational management.
1
Unit-2 Curriculum lransaction

Activities
Unit-6 Educational Finance: Meaning, Importance and ~cope
Unit-I2 Management of Human Resources
Block-4 Management of Infrastructure
Unit-13 Concept, Importance and Need ofInfrastructure

Management
Unit-I4 Management of Physical Resources

"
Unit-I5 Utilisation of Infra-structural Resources
Unit-19 Role' of Different Agencies
1
UNIT 16 QUALITY CONTROL, QUALITY
ASSURANCE AND INDICATORS
Structure
Introduction ~
16.1
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Understanding Quality
16.4 Criterion of Quality
16.5 Dimensions of Quality
16.6 Facets of Quality
16.7 Quality Control
16.8 Quality Assurance
16.9 Quality Indicators
16.9.1 Input Indicators
16.9.2 Process Indicators
16.9.3 Output Indicators
16.9.4 Quality vis-a-vis Accountability
16.10 Quality Gap

16.11 Total Quality Management
16.12 Quality Education

16.12.1 The Concept of Quality Education
16.12.2 Dimensions of Quality Education
16.13 Quality Education: Ideas of Quality Gurus

16.13.1 Edwards Deming's 14 Points
16.13.2 Key Points of Joseph Juran
16.13.3 Key Points of Phi lip B. Crosby
16.13.4 Downey's Quality Fit Framework
16.14 Let Us Sum Up
16.16 References
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The term quality is commonly used these days. At the same time, it is one of the
most difficult terms to understand properly. It is a perception of what one is looking
for in a service or product. Therefore, it varies from person to person, situation to
situation, service to service, context to context, institution to institution and so on.
For example, attaining cent percent pass percentage of class X students in a school
may be the quality parameter for the principal while for a mathematics teacher the
quality parameter may be that all the students must attain minimum first class in
secondary board examination. As we all know, the terms quality as well as its 5
• ~:~:" 0"
7
Total Quality Management management have been borrowed from the corporate world. In today's era of
privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation education has been viewed more as an
investment and a power for economic and social development than a means for the
human development. Therefore our earlier belief that education is for acquring
knowledge has changed drastically, Today it is one of the prominent service sectors
which need effective, efficient and systemic management for preparing students
capable of facing challenges of emerging society. This is possible by providing
quality education to them. In this regard we all have been confronting with queries
like -
• What do we mean by quality education? -.
• How can we subdivide the term quality into different parts andeach part can
be measured independently in order to arrive at comprehensive meaning of the
term.
• How to minimise the difference between the producers' claim of service
standards vis-a-vis users' satisfaction levels?
.. There may be many more questions in your mind related to this aspect. The
emergence of quality councils/bodies for school education, higher education and
professional education at the national and international levels is the outcome of our
concern about quality education.
In this Unit we shall familiarise you with the common terms used in managing quality
in general and education in particular.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• explain the concept, and importance of quality in education;
• describe certain criteria of quality of education;
• explain the concept of quality control, quality assurance, and quality gaps;
• discuss quality control and quality assurance in the context of managing
educational institutions;
• enumerate common indicators of quality control and quality assurance in the
educational context;
• discuss the interrelationships between quality control and quality assurance;
and
• describe the ideas of the famous exponents of the TQ M and their implications
for quality education.
16.3 UNDERSTANDINGQUALITY
The term quality has been borrowed from industry. As you know, in the past the
functions attached to education and industry were distinct. Today there has been
amalgamation of functions as industry has replaced its values of hierarchy, power
and control by values of autonomy, cooperation and sharing of responsibilities-
values generally linked with the academic world. Similarly, educational organisations
have been adopting corporate patterns of organisation, including strategic planning,
delineation of responsibility and accountability. As a result educational organisations
have been using management concepts in their operations.
As quality management has become a necessary requirement in the corporate world
6 in national and international arenas, there have been many definitions of quality given
I
by theorists and management experts. Some of the widely accepted definitions of Quality Control,
quality are as follows: Quality Assurance and
Indicators
• Quality is a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability, at low cost and
suited to the market (Deming).
• Quality is a fitness for use (Juran).
• Quality is conformance to requirements (Crosby).
• Quality is the (minimum) loss imparted by a product to society from the time
the product is shipped (Taguchi).
• Quality is, in its essence, a way of managing the organisation (Feibygunbaum).
• Quality is correcting and preventing loss, not living with loss (Hoshin).
The above definitions reflect a common vision of quality. The universally accepted
definition of quality given by ISO is as follows:
Quality is the totality of characteristics of an entity that bears on its' ability
to satisfy stated and implied needs.
Though the above definition appears simple enough, it conveys a lot of meaning
about the requirement of quality. The second part of the sentence is crucial as it
emphasises the ability of the entity'to satisfy stated and implied needs of a customer.
An entity may be a process or a product of an organisation. Needs or requirements
may be stated in due form of a specification by the customer or they may be
understated by implied either by convention, customers' expectations or by statutory
requirements of a society. The implied needs are expected to be identified by the
supplier or the producer.
Quality in itself is et complex issue, therefore has different interpretations. They are
as follows:
• Absolute vs Relative
• Producer's vs Consumer's
• Product vs Service
Let us discuss each interpretation for our understanding.
Absolute vs relative quality: The absolute quality is an ideal state with which
there can be no change. Here th~ laid down standards are met to the perfection
level. They are valuable and convey prestige to the producer. The main features of
absolute quality are rarity, class and expense. Examples of this type could be seen in
the educational institutions like world famous universities/institutions like Cambridge
University,Oxford University in England, MIT, StanfordUniversity,Wharton Business
School in USA and AIIMS, IITs and IIMs in India. At the school levelalso many
schools attained these standards. The reason behind this is the claim linked to their
products or students are preferred admission in good institutions and injob markets,
they are absorbed by market/world of work with better placement stafus and salary. '
as
The word relative has different connotations. It signifies the quality not an attribute
of a product or service but something which is ascribed to it. This view says, quality
can be judged to exist when good or service need not be expensive and exclusive.
In educational institution's context, adequate infrastructure, relevant curriculum and
proper teaching services may all display quality if they meet pre-determined standards.
Here we all have been confronting with the basic problem that what kind of quality 7
, ~~ . _.. . ·t.<: '.'~.'~~;~
I
Total Qu~lity Management we would like to opt - absolute or relative in the context of our educational institutions?
There is no one solution to this issue. It depends both the institution and its' context.
Producer vs Consumer: In allthe transactions there are two partners. Similarly in

education service sector too there are the producer and the consumer. Both bear
different expectations. Therefore the relativity aspect has two sides. One denotes
the specifications listed by the producer and on the other requirements of the consumer
or costumers. Ideally there should be perfect matching but reality is different. The
first usage of measuring up to specification is often considered as fitness for purpose
or use. This is sometimes called producer's definition of quality. It is generally
equated to the pre-specified quality products or service quality over a period of
time by the producer. For example, the similar pattern of campus placement retained
by a professional institution over a period, say five years or more. Quality is also
demonstrated by the producer having a system, which enables the consistent
production of the outputs or services to a particular standard or specification. A
service or product quality is demonstrated so long it consistently meets its producer's
claim. This attribute of quality is also called as reliability. For example any senior
secondary school passout from Central Board of Secondary Education is of same
quality irrespective of the location, medium and type of school s/he attended. Similarly
HMs products claim to be similar irrespective ofthe HM they have studied. This
view of quality sometimes called quality in fact.
On the other side quality perceived by the users is equally important. According to
this view quality satisfies and exceeds customers' needs and demands, therefore it
is referred as quality in perception. Here customers are the main certifiers of
quality standards by comparing their perception scores over their expectations on
satisfaction. Now the question we have been grappling regarding this aspect is-
should we plan quality education as defined by the market or consumers or should
educational institutions have their own standards?
Product or service: Similarly we can also classify education as a product or a

service category. The distinction between a product and a service is predominantly
due to some basic differences between the two which have a bearing on.how their
quality can be assured. If education is seen as a production system with graduates
emerging out as the products, for quality assurance the input/raw materials or students
must pass through a standard set of processes and out put must meet defined
specifications. This model does not easily fit into education as it would need initial
screening of potential aspirants in order to have high quality raw materials. This
situation may be possible in some selected types of courses and institutions like TITs,
HMs; Public Schools, and s<?on. gut institutions meant for wider access and mass
education may not be able to follow the strict and selected parameters to have
quality input materials. For example, under Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) all students
are admitted to primary schools irrespective of heterogeneity.
Seeing education as a service makes it imperative that education is mainly a service

than a product. Therefore, it is more important as to how an outcome is arrived at
than what the outcome is. Here quality of physical and human resources used and
the quality oftechnology and management utilised becomes more important in the .
production of the fmal output. Though it is difficult to measure the quality of service,
but ultimately it ends up in the manufacture of educational products. Thus quality of
educational service and product both are equally important while analysing the fmal
quality of education. The quality as expressed by Davis(2009) " Quality i::. an
important issue but it is not easy to deal with it. It is often subjected to o. .es
,. own interpretation. Hence countries should establish their quality a Id
8 accreditation norms before inviting foreign institutions".
I
Quality Control,
16.4 'CRITERION OF QUALITY Quality Assurance and
Indicators
The explanation of the term quality from various aspects leads to certain criteria of
quality. Under quality of education these criteria are as follows:
• Education is both a product and a service. For analyzing the final quality of
education, both the quality of educational service and the product is important.
.-
• Quality of educational service or-product can be defined as that which satisfies
consumer's needs and requirement.
• Quality of educational service or product can be judged if they meet some pre- "
set criteria/specifications.
• Quality of educational service or product can be assured by its producer. So
long as the product or the service conforms to their manufacturer's specifications
and standards, they exhibit quality. Quality can be retained by regular monitoring
and subsequently improving the service or product.
Check Your Progress

,
1) Define the concept of quality.
2) Write three main ways that can be used in interpreting the term quality.
3) Explain anyone criterion of quality.
16.5 / DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY
In the education sector also, perception of the stakeholders is the main deciding
factor of quality. You might have observed that parents want their wards to get
admission in the best school. Similarly all aspirants for medical education prefer
AIIMS as their first priority and similar is the case with other education courses as
well RS institutions. Thus, based on the stated and implied needs ofthe customer, the 9
7
Total Quality Management product to be provided by the supplier has to have certain characteristcs and features
and ultimately it is the customers who determine whether or not quality has.been
achieved. Standards have, therefore, to be established specifying the characteristics
to be measured either by determinants or by subjective criteria or a combination of
both. The various dimensions of quality which the customer look for in a product in
order to satisfy their needs, determine the characteristics of the product. Some of
them are as given below: ~
• Performance
• Features
• Reliability
• Conformity
• Durability
• Serviceability
.. • Aesthetics
• Perceived quality
• Trrne
• Timeliness
• Completeness
• Courtesy
• Consistency
• Accessibility and Convenience
• Accuracy
• Responsiveness
You might feel most of these attributes are, important in the corporate sector where .
customers' demands with respect to products appearance, service, durability could
be anticipated and satisfactory services could be provided for quality. It is obvious
when we are dealing with machines or goods and already aware of the expected
service details, it is easier to control as well as assure quality products and/or services
to clients: In today's competitive world, where education is seen as a service sector,
for providing quality education to students these attributes must be ingrained in an
.educational institution.
Check Your Progress

b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of this unit.
4) Write any five attributes of a product or service for managing quality.
...................................................................................................................
................................................. " .
...................................................................................................................
10
...................................................................................................................
I
Quality Control,
16.6 FACETS OF QUALITY Quality Assurance and
Indicators
For the producer as well as the supplier of the product or service, in order to provide ,
quality product or services, it is mandatory to consider what constitutes quality. This
has been explained in detail in the earlier section. There are four facets of quality,
which cover most ofthe dimensions that are key points to product quality. The
facets are as follows: ' ~
• Need for the product: The first facet of quality is/due to the extent and
completeness of defining and updating the product needs to meet market places
requirements and opportunities.
• Product design: The second facet of quality is due to designing in to the

product the characteristic ( based on quality dimension) that enables it to meet
market place requirements and opportunities and to provide value to customers
and other stakeholders.
• Conformity to product design: The third facet of quality is due to maintaining

.. day to day consistency inconformity to product design and in providing the
design characteristic and values for customers and other stakeholders.
• Product support: The fourth facet of quality to furnishing product support

throughout the life cycle as needed, is to provide the design characteristic and
values for customers and other stakeholders.
Unlike quality planning and quality control processes quality improvement is the
means by which an organization selectively identifies, implements and changes on
the subsystems level. Quality planning and quality control establishe a stable/consistent
product quality •'culture", or foundation, throughout an organization. The third aspect
i.e., quality improvement provides managers the means to find and rectify the basic
quality -limiting causes embedded in the organisation.
Check Your Progress
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end ofthis unit.
5) List four facets for quality management.
..................................... , ; .
16.7 QUALITY CONTROL
It is an after-the-event process which is concerned with the detection and elimination

ofthe final products that are not of expected standard. Control is an activity which
lakes place after the process has occurred and is carried out by a third party and
usually not by the producer. It involves checking and monitoring. Testing and
inspection are the most common methods of quality control, and arewidely used in
education to determine whether standards are being met. In education, two methods
are used for quality control. They are as follows:
11
7
Total Quality Management • National Education Testing (NET) is one of the ways to screen the product as
being used by UGC for the seleotion ofJRF's/ Lecturer's eligibiiity.
• Agencies like National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) under
the University Grants Commission and National Board ofAccreditation (NBA)
under the All India Council for Technical Education. NAAC is associated with
evaluation of higher education institutions and NBA assesses programmes for
. ~
professional courses.
The question is whether we are able to control the quality of education by adopting
measures developed by concerned accreditation and assessment bodies. This issue
needs further discussion.
Check Your Progress
Note : a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
.. 6) Write names of any two agencie-sassociated with quality in education .
16.8 QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality assurance is different from quality control. It refers to activities or steps
under taken before and during the process of reaching the outputs/products. It is
proactive and anticipatory. Generally standards and procedures are clearly defined
in advance and the personnel are trained to be able to meet them. Its concern is to
prevent faults occurring in the first place. Quality is designed into the process to
attempt to ensure that the output is produced to a pre-set criteria/norms. In other
words, it is the systematic review of the educational programme to ensure that
acceptable standards of education are achieved. Quality standards are maintained
by following the procedures laid down in the quality assurance system (QAS). The
quality standards in education are associated with its input, process and output
variables. It includes proper infrastructural facilities, properly qualified and
professionally updated faculty, appropriate administrative support and facilitative
and efficient management. These aspects include quantitative as well as qualitative
aspects. You might be aware of the need for establishment of Internal Quality
Assurance Cell (IQAC) by universities and colleges for continuous qualityassessment
and academic audit as one ofthe recommendations of the UGC for higher education
institutions in the country. Now the main question is whether these cells really
functioning as per the expection and assuring quality of the institution.
Check Your Progress
7) Name some variables which influence quality education in an institution.
12
1
Quality Control,
Quality Assurance and
Indicators
16.9 QUALITY INDICATORS
Generally,the mission and vision of any educational organisation is the development

of individual and society. The development in the proper direction is possible only if
education provided by the organisation is of relevance which is one major
components of quality. In this context if we think about providing quality education, '.
it becomes necessary to know what constitutes quality in education. In other words
what are the indicators/criteria of quality education and how can the quality be
assessed and improved? In the field of education, these indicators may be understood
in terms of all the three main variables i. e., input, output and process. Let us discuss
each variable in detail.
.. 16.9.1 Input Indicators
The input variables are nothing but the resources - physical, academic and financial,
employed by the institution to produce the products of good quality. Thus it is
necessary to count the inputs required for the efficient working of the education
system for realising the laid down objectives. These variables work as an important
indicator of the quality education. There are five types of input variables and are as
follows:
• Academic resources or teachers/faculty
• Administrative support
• Academic infrastructure
• Physical resources, and
• Financial resources
Let us dicuss each type for our understanding.
Academic resources: Teachers/faculty, students' curriculum,etc., constitute of
academic resources in an educational organisation. Teachers carry out the teaching-
learning process in classroom, supervise and assess student's progress, guide
research students, carry out the individual and group research projects, engage in
consultancy and extension services to the community, guide students and so on.
Teachers are important quality indicator as they are more or less responsible for the
enhancement or deterioration of quality of education.
To ensure this aspect, there is a need to attract, retain and motivate the best available
talent in the education system. For this input transparency in recruitment, proper
salary structure,adequate promotion channels, provision of professional growth,
recognition and due incentives to motivated, committed and creative teachers must
be ensured. You might have observed that at the school sector teachers devote a
considerable amount of time in carrying out activities not related to teaching, like
census and election duties and other administrative duties in the school as many
schools do not have provision for administrative staff. To ensure quality, provision
for in-service training participation in seminars/conferences/workshops along with
presentation and publication of research papers/articles injournals must be an integral
part ofteachers' responsibilities. l3
1
Total Quality Management Student's quality is also equally important. The admission criteria should be objective,
transparent and ensure equal educational opportunities t~ all those interested in getting
education. Provision of remedial and enrichment learning opportunities to students
must be provided. Finally, the curriculum must be relevant, up- to- date. It must
foster creativity and imagination among students in order to facilitate their all round-
development. .
Administrative support: Next important input is the administrative system available

to the institution. Effective working ofthe administrative system is important for
good health of the school or college or any other educational institution. A good
administrative system could lead timely and appropriate decisions and can create
provisions for different types of facilities to the teachers, students, supporting staff
members and others. Improvement in quality administrative system depends on the,
following points:
• Timely framing of rules and regulations
• Assigning responsibilities to all staff members
.. • Providing academic infrastructure, like classrooms, laboratories, library,
computer and other facilities
• Registration and admission of students
• Examination and post -examination activities
• Distribution of salary and other financial! management related activities
• Providing technological support, like e-governance
• Providing physical facilities, like means of transport and, communication, water
and power supply, hostel and residential complex, etc.
The timely satisfaction of these requirements demands that the administrative staff
should be competent, efficient and also sensitive to the needs ofteachers and students.
In reality, it is not only the number of administrative staff members an educational
institution has but the onus of quality depends on the service rendered-by them in
realising the institution's objectives.
Academic infrastructure: Academic infi\structure of an educational institution is

the backbone without which effective teaching-learning is next to impossible. It
includes: .
• Classrooms with proper light and ventilation

• Availability of instructional aids
• Well equipped laboratories
• Library with easy access to its books,journals and e-resources
• Computer and internet facilities
Proper academic infrastructure directly influences the quality of instructional processes
which in turn affects the quality of educational output.
Physical resources: The crucial physical inputs for the smooth functioning of any
institution are as follows:
• Transport and communication
• Water and power supply
• Staff quarter and hostel facility
14
1
• Security and medical facility Quality Control,
• Guest house and canteen facilities Indicators
'. Sports and cultural facilities
Financial resources: Any educational institution needs adequate funds for buildings,
libraries, laboratories, equipments, research, sports, cultpral activities, hostel and
other purposes. Payment of salaries to teachers, other staff members including casual
or daily wagers, guest/part -time/contract faculty members or teachers (if uses their
services). Besides, maintenance, extension and renovation activities require money.
These facilities also directly influence the work and teaching-learning environment
of the institution. As in India, most of the school level education are dependents on
government funding and same is the case with higher and professional education
institutions.
16.9.2 Process Indicators

This indicates the ways in which resources and factors are combined and used in
order to produce an institution's output. It is related with the operational and
management aspect of teaching, research and extension activities. Efficient working
'of the technological system also comes under it. The following points are to be
considered under this aspect: '
• Placel.venueofteaching-learning activities.
• Use/reference oflibrary books, journals and other resources( including e-
resources) by students and faculty both.
• Modes of student assessment - continuous, terminal, theory, practical, seminar
.and so on.
• Administrative support to faculty and students for quality learning.
16.9.3 Output Indicators

This aspect includes quantity as well as quality dimensions of products. Firstly, the
internal judgement of the output as assessed by the educational institution itself and
secondly,the external assessment of the output by the society (i.e., market economy).
First point denotes the internal efficiency of the system while the other to the external
efficiency or social relevance of the system. There are various kinds of output
indicators. Some of them are as follows:
• Number of pass outs

• Level of academic achievement
• The nature of skills and competencies attained by the students
• Research output
• Nature of institution-community interface
• Private and social rate of returns of education
16.9.4 Quality vis-a-vis Accountability

To assure quality we should assess the functioning, performance and standards of'
an institution. This has to be done keeping in mind its mission, goals and objectives.
This is known as test accountability of an institution.
I'"
.•. '" -. -.... --.,
7
Teal Quality Management In the simplest form, accountability means being answerable for one's action. The
main purpose of the system of accountability is to ensure minimum performance and
thus help in enhancing the quality of education. The accountability of any educational
institution can be discussed in term of academic, administrative, and financial matters.
However, there has been a debate on the manner in which the assessment of quality
vis-a-vis accountability is to be conducted-through internal mechanism (self
management) or by external agency (Powar, 2002).
Internal assessment (self-assessment)
Successful internal assessment presupposes that minds are open and receptive to
ideas. It requires the involvement of all major stakeholders including teachers,
students and management to get their feedback. Assessment of all the programmes
and work of all the individuals of the institution is mandatory. It may be conducted
on the following ways:
• Self -appraisal of teachers
• Self-appraisal of departments
Internal-appraisal ofthe teachers includes work of heads of departments and deans

of schools and internal review covers the work of main administrators like registrars,
controllers of examination, finance officers, and Vice-Chancellors in universities and
principals and vice-principals in schools and colleges. It also includes review of the
work of librarians, directors of academic staff college, college development council
and physical education and also reviews the work of engineers, wardens and doctors
of the institution.
External assessment (accreditation)
External assessment is a mechanism of quality control in the functioning of education.

The focus is more on the culture of compliance rather than one of continous quality
enhancement. Fund allocation to colleges and universities is generally based on the
recommendations on external assessment. Finally, it helps in the institutions in the
process of quality enhancement.
Check Your Progress
8) Write the common variables placed under input variables .
....................................................................................................................
9) Mention any two types of output indicators in a school.
16
I
Quality Control,
16.10 QUALITY GAP Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Quality gap is commonly used term to describe the difference between the pre-set
criteria for quality control and the actual quality output in a product, service or
process. In ideal situation there should not be any difference or gap but due to loss
in transmission of service there is gap between the expected quality and the 'Observed
quality. A survey conducted by UGC (2007) as quoted b~Kasetwar (2008) reveals
that:
• On almost all indicators i.e. faculty standards, library facilities, computer
availabilities, student -teacher ratio,and higher education are in crying need
for upgradation.
• 90 percent of the colleges and 68 percent universities across the country are
of middling or poor quality.
• The dropout rates among ST is maximum (61.5 percent) followed by SC (51.21
percent) and OBC (50.09 percent.
• There is only one computer for 229 students.
.. • Among 29.56 colleges only 10 percent made "A" grade, 66 percent were' B'
grade and t4 percent 'C' grade.
The above mentioned findings clearly show the need for improving the quality level
of the higher education in our country.
16.11 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

Totalquality management is about creating a quality culture. It is about providing the
customers with what they want, when they want it and how they want'.In TQM, the
customer is in the focus of the quality. In the education context, students are the
qualityproduct instead of the school, or college or professional institution. It involves
moving with changing customer expectations and aspirations to design programmes!
courses of studies and providing learning experiences in the form of services which
meet and exceed their expectations. In education, the quality and relevance of the
courses are important. To understand TQM the following questions need to be
addressed: '
Are the courses of studies updated?
Are the existing subjects of studies still relevant to the society?
What new subjects of studies are in demand now and how can they are
provided?
Are the students and parents satisfied with the procedures of examination and
evaluation?
In TQM, the most powerful vehicle for ensuring quality relationship is the effective
team. It recognizes and respects the potential of every individual's autonomy as it
anticipates what is to be done to produce the best.
The success of any quality assurance initiative is greatly dependent on the managerial
factor. It is essential that the institutional management be totally committed to the
concept, be able to visualize future actions in their totality and design appropriate
procedures, You may like to know that the Japanese concept ofTQM is being
sought to be applied to educational institutions worldwide. TQM is a philosophy of
continous improvement - hence also known as continous quality improvement
(CQI) - which can provide educational institutions with appropriate tools to meet
the needs and expectations oftheir students and other stakeholders. It emphasizes
management by fact, improvement, change and continious innovation. 17
1
Total Quality Management Check Your Progress

10) State the philosophy ofTQM.
16.12 QUALITY EDUCATION
There is a great deal of confusion about the precise connotation of the concept of
quality in education. This is because of the fact that three different expressions-
quality, standards, and efficiency - are being used in different context, sometimes
interchangeably. Considerations of quality of an education system sometimes involve
consideration of several independent variables like significance, relevance, capacity,
standards, and efficiency (Naik, 1975). With a variety of meanings and connotations,
quality is referred to by some authors as a 'slippery concept' (Pfeffer and Coote,
1991). The confusion associated with the meaning of quality is aptly described by
Pirsig(1974):
Quality ... you know what it is, yet you don't know what it is. But that's self-
contradictory. But some things are better than others, that is, they have more quality.
But when you try to say what the quality is, apart from the things that have it, it all
goes poof There is nothing to talk about it. But if you can't say what Quality is, how
do you know what it is, or how do you know that it even exists? If no one knows
what it is, then for all practical purposes, it doesn't exist at all. But for all practical
purposes it really does exist ... So round and round you go, spinning mental wheels
and nowhere finding any place to get traction. What the hell is Quality? What is it?
(p.l71)
Let us examine the connotation of quality in education in the context of the total
quality management (TQM).
16.12.1 The Concept of Quality Education

TQM which very often deals with the quality of industrial or business management,
quality of product or service, is ccncemed with customer's satisfaction. Customer's
satisfaction is dependent on his/her expectations and the performance of the product
or service whose quality is being assessed. The concept of quality may be examined
in relation to its relevance for education.
The American Society for Quality Control defines quality as the totality of features
and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated of
implied needs (Johnson & Winchell, 1990).According to (British Standard Institution,
1991)the quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service
that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
Quality can be quantified as:
Q= Where Q= Quality, P= Performance, and E = Expectations
If Q is greater than 1.0, then customer has a good feeling about the product or
service,
18 (Besterfield et a1.,2003)
I
A more definitive statement about quality is given in ISO 9000: 2000. It has defined QualityCcntrel,
quality as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements. Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Degree means that the quality can be used with adjectives such as poor, good, and
excellent. Inherent is defined as existing in something, especially as a permanent
characteristics which can be quantitative or qualitative. Requirement is a need or
expectation that is stated; generally implied by the organization, its customers, and
other interested parties or obligatory (Besterfield et al., 20b3).
From the above explanation, four components of quality emerge:
L Quality is defined by the customer or stakeholder.
IL Quality is intricately connected with the needs and expectations of the
customers.
1lL Quality can have several dimensions of customer satisfaction - meeting,
exceeding, and delighting.
IV. Customers' needs and expectations change over time.
In education, there are various stakeholders, such as students, teachers, parents,
.. community members, administrators, etc. The students are the primary stakeholder
of any education system. Therefore, the quality of education is, to a large extent, tied
to the students' needs and expectations. If we reformulate Downey's (1991)
explanation, we can say that quality education should meet,exceed, and delight
learners' needs and expectations with the fact that these needs and desires will
change over time.
16.12.2 Dimensions of Quality Education

Quality may have several dimensions. Garvin (1988) lists as many as nine dimensions
of quality.Theyare performance, features, conformance, reliability,durability,service,
response, aesthetics, and reputation. A more comprehensive list of dimensions of
quality has been recommended by the American Society for Quality Control (see
Table 18.1).
Table 18.1 Dimensions of Quality
Dimensions Definition
Accuracy Correctness; freed from mistakes I
Aesthetics How a product or service looks or feels?
Assurance Teachers' and other employees; knowledge and ability to
convey trust.
Conformance Degree to which product or service matches established standards
(e.g., right the first time ).
Consistency How closely a product or service resembles those that precede
and follow; lack of variation and irregularity.
Durability Useful life of a product or service; how much usage it gives
before it deteriorates.
Empathy Caring, individual attention provided to customers.
Features Characteristics of products or services that add to their basic
functioning, such as user-friendly, induces-delight, or
exceeding customers' expectation.
Performance Primary operating characteristics of product or service such as
. on time, or error-free.
Precision Degree of refinement with which an operation is performed.
Reliability Dependability of performance over time.
Reputation Image and record of the organization.
Responsiveness Helping customers and providing prompt service.
Serviceability Speed and ease in resolution of problems and complaints. -
Tangibles Physical facilities, equipment,and appearance of people.
19
Source: Miller (1993)
7
Total Quality Management • Quality in Education
The dimensions of quality of education in the TQM framework broadly grouped
under three categories: product, software, and service. The specifications of these
dimensions can be applicable, with necessary modifications, to other levels of
education also.
Product is what is visible and tangible and is commonly understood as the parameter
to assess the quality of the education system. Table 18.2 depicts the six dimensions
to judge the quality of product in education.
Table 16.2: Product dimensions of quality in education
Dimensions Definition in education

Performance Primary knowledge / skills required for students
Features Secondary / supplementary knowledge and skills.
Reliability The extent to which knowledge/ skills learned is
correct, accurate, and up to date.
Conformance The degree to which an institutional programme /
course meets established standards, plans and promises.
Durability Depth of learning.
Serviceability How well an institution handles customers'
complaints?
Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (1996)

Now let us discuss software dimensions. Software is an intangible product and is
considered more consistent with education in general and education in particular.
For example, the dimensions of quality software used in engineering are as follows:
correctness, reliability, efficiency, integrity, usability, maintainability, testability,
expandability,portability,reusability,and interoperability(Watts, 1987).These quality
dimensions have been applied by Owlia and Aspinwall (1996) to higher education
(refer to Table 18.3).
Table 16.3: Software Dimensions of Quality in Education
Dimensions / Definitions in education
Correctness The extent to which a programme / course complies
with the specified requirements.
Reliability The degree to which knowledge / skills learned is
correct, accurate, and up to date.
Efficiency The extent to which knowledge / skills learned is
applicable to the future career of students.
In~egrity The extent to which personal information is secure
from unauthorized access.
Usability The ease of learning and the degree of
communicativeness in classroom.
Maintainability How well an institution handles customers'
complaints?
Testability How fair examinations represent a subject of study?
Expandability Flexibility
Portability, reusability, The degree fo which knowledge / skills learned is
and interoperability applicable to other fields.
Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (1996) -

Now, we shall discuss service related quality dimensions. Services, unlike products
or software, cannot be stored and are perishable. They are more akin to the
processes. In education, services essentially refer to the educational processes.
Parsuraman et al (1985) have proposed ten dimensions of services: reliability,
responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security,
20 understanding the customer,and tangibles. Owlia andAspinwall(1996) afterreviewing
.\
I
several literatures have made a comprehensive list of service dimensions of quality Quality Control,
higher education (Table16.4). Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Table 16.4: Service Dimensions of Quality in Education
Dimensions Definition in education
Reliability The degree to which education is correct, accurate and
up to date. How well an institution keeps its promises?
The degree of consistency in educational process.
Responsiveness Willingness and readiness of staff to help students,
Understanding Understanding students and their needs.
customers I
Access The extent to which staff are available for guidance

and advice.
Competence The theoretical and practical knowledge of staff as well
as other presentation skills.
Courtesy Emotive and positive attitude towards students.
Communication How well teachers and students communicate in the
classroom?
Credibility The degree oftrustworthiness of the institution.
Security Confidential ity of information.
Tangible State. sufficiency and availability of equipment and
facilities.
Performance Primary knowledge I skills required for students.
Completeness Supplementary knowledge and skills, use of
computers.
Flexibility The extent to which knowledge I skills learned is
applicable to other fields.
Redress How well an institution handles customers' complaints
and solves problems?
Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (J996)

After analyzing the three different approaches to quality in education, Owlia and
Aspinwall (1996) tried to present a conceptual framework for quality education
with six dimensions: tangibles, competence, attitude, content, delivery,and reliability
as presented in Table 18.5. These dimensions are indicative of the areas that should
be of concern to ensure quality in education.
Table 16.5 : Quality Dimensions in Education
Dimensions Characteristics
Tangibles Sufficient equipment I facilities; Modem equipment
Ifacilities; Ease of access; Visually appealing environment;
Support services.
Competence Sufficient( academ ic) staff; Theoretical -knowledge,
qualifications; Practical knowledge; Up to date; Teaching
expertise, communication.
.
Attitude Understanding students' needs; Willingness to help;
Availability for Guidance and advice.
Content Relevance of curriculum to the future jobs of students;
Effectiveness; Containing primary knowledge and skills;
Completeness, use of computers; Communication skills and
team working; Flexibility of knowledge, being cross
disciplinary.
Delivery Effective presentation; Sequencing, Timeliness; Consistency;
Fairness of examinations; Feedback from students;
Encouraging students.
Reliability Trustworthiness; Giving valid award; Keeping promises,
matching to the goals; Handling complaints, solving
problems.
Source: Owlia and Aspinwall (J996) 21

.""94fIE~
7

1. What is quality education?
2. Mention the dimension of quality education according to Garvin.
.
,
16.13 QUALITY EDUCATION: IDEAS OF QUALITY

GURUS
Movement ofTQM was brought about and enriched by the ideas of a number of
thinkers in developed countries. The movement had its origin in the industrial .
management in the late 1940s which later flourished particularly in Japan. In its early :\
days, the movement originated and dominated by eminent experts of statisticalprocess
control. It was Walter A. Shewhart (1931) working at the Western Electric and Bell
Telephone Laboratories who developed control chart theory with control limits to
study variations in the performance of systems. He also developed the PDSA cycle
for learning and improvement (Refer Unit 17). But, W.Edwards Deming, a protege
ofShewhart, is considered as the father of the TQM movement. Other prominent
leaders in the movement are Joseph M.Juran, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Philip B.
Crosby, all from U.S.A. and Kaoru Ishikawa and Genichi Taguichi of Japan. But,
so far as total quality movement in education is concerned, the contributions ofW.
Edwards Deming, Joseph Juran, and Phillip B. Crosby are considered crucial.
Although all of them have concentrated on quality in industrial and manufacturing
sector, their contributions can also be applied to other sectors, including education.
Here, we have made brief presentation of their philosophies and tried to draw their
educational implications.
16.13.1 W. Edwards Deming's 14 Points

Dr. William Edwards Deming (1900-1993), regarded as the father of quality
movement, a statistician by profession started his career in the late 1920s at the
Western Electric Hawthorne Plant and later moved to US Department ofAgriculture
when he worked on Shewhart's statistical methods related to product variation and
product quality in industry.His expertise were used to develop qualityof war materials
during the Second World War. In 1Q50s he taught a group of Japanese scientists
and engineers on his beliefs about how to use statistical processes to control quality
of industrial products and manufacturing system. Deming's ideas are considered
crucial in rebuilding war devastated Japan's industry and economy and in Japan's
22 resurgence as an economic power in the world within a very short span of time. He
1
has authored a number of books including Out of the Crisis, and Quality, Quality Control,
Productivity, and Competitive Position and many scholarly articles. Quality Assurance and
Indicators
Deming's emphasis was on using statistical approaches to enhance quality of
production by reducing variation. He also developed concepts of management that
have a strong emphasis on employees. These are reflected in his famous book
"Fourteen Points of Management" (Deming,1982) His' M points of management'
with their implications in education are presented in the Table18.6.
Table 16.6: Deming's 14 Points and their Educational Implications.
Deming's 14 Points Educational Implication

1. Create constancy of Create constancy of purpose towards
purpose. the mission of the education system.
2. Adopt the philosophy. Use quality premises to focus the
management and leadership of the
education system.
3. Cease dependence on mass Cease dependence on summative
inspection. measures of students and staff.
4. Cease doing business on Develop long-lasting relationships with
price tag alone. suppliers and base dependence on
lowest cost in resources.
5. Continual improvement of Improve constantly and forever the
process. processes in the education system.
6. Institute training on the job. Provide staff development
opportunities to meet job expectations.
7. Institute leadership. Leaders must initiate and model
paradigm shifts.
8. Drive out fear; build trust. Remove those structures that
create fear in students and staff.
9. Break down barriers Work in interdependent ways- break
between departments. down barriers between groups m
schools and between schools and
district office.
10. Eliminate slogans, Eliminate the use of targets, slogans to
exhortations, and targets. encourage performance.
11. Eliminate numerical Work on the process and do not reward
quotas. staff based on student achievement i
gains.
12. Allow pride in Remove barriers that rob staff of pride
workmanship. in their work and students of the ability
to concentrate on the job of learning.
13. Institute a programme of Have everyone in the education system
Self-improvement. help in its ongoing transformation.
14. Mobilize all staff members, Empower all employees and other
teachers and other stake- stakeholders to transform the education
holders to transform the system.
system - do it.
Source: Downey et at (J 994)
23
7
Total Quality Management Deming's four areas of profound knowledge
In 1991, Deming developed four interactive areas of profound knowledge which
are important for their direct implications for education. These are presented below
. .
ill avery concise manner:
Area ~ Description
Appreciation A system is a network er function within an
ofa system organization that works for the aim of the
organization. Management of the system
requires knowledge of the interrelationships
among all.of the components within the system
and of the people who work in it.
Knowlege of People are born with a natural desire to be
psychology creative and to acquire knowledge. Intrinsic, and
not extrinsic, motivators are crucial to the
workplace. Managers must understand
.
, psychology and people.
Knowledge of Optimization of the system and improvements in
variation productivity depend on an understanding of
variability in processes.
Theory of Managers must understand the work and make
Knowledge predictions regarding work. Study of these
predictions brings new knowledge.
16.13.2 Key points of Joseph Juran .

Joseph Moses Juran (1904-2008), all electrical engineer by profession, worked at
Western Electric from 1924 to 1941 where he was exposed to the concept of
Shewhart. Juran went to Japan in 1954 to teach quality management. He defined
quality as 'fitness for purpose'. According to him a product or service can meet its
specification and yet not be fit for its purpose. The specification may be faulty and
not meeting the needs and expectations of the customer. For bringing qualitative
improvement of product or service, Juran developed an approach having three
components: planning, control, and improvement, and referred to as the Juran
Trilogy (Besterfield et al, 2003). He pointed out that poor quality is the result of the
failure of the management. He was also of the opinion that 85 percent of the problems
in an organization is due to systems failure and the remaining 15 percent due to
individuals (Juran, 1989).
Juran (1974) recommends a ten-steps approach in quality improvement. They are

as follows:
1. Build awareness ofthe need and opportunity for improvement.
IL Set explicit goals for improvement.
m, Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems, select
projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).
IV. Provide appropriate training.
v. Carry out projects to solve problems.
VI. Report progress.
VIL Give recognition and reinforce success.
24 V1lL Communicate results.
1
,.
IX. Keep records of changes. Quality Control,
QualityAssurance and
x. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes. Indicators
16.13.3 Key Points of Philip B. Crosby

Philip Bayerd Crosby (1926-2001) is perhaps the most influential management.thinker
in the field of quality who contributed to management theory and quality management
practices. Crosby initiated the Zero Defects programme at the Martin Company
Flori@, plant. As the quality control manager ofthe 'pershing missile' programme,
Crosby was credited with a 25 percent reduction in the overall rejection rate and a
30 percent reduction in scrap costs. Later he started his own management consultant
company which offered courses in quality management. Crosby's response to the
quality crisis was the principle of "doing it right thefirst time" (DIRFT). He is
best known for his four absolutes of quality management (Crosby, 1984). They are:
• the definition of quality is conformance to requirements
• the system of quality is prevention
• the performance standard is zero defects
• the measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance
Crosby has given the list of 14 steps for quality management:

L Make it clear where management stands on quality.
n. Establish a quality improvement team to run the programme.
iii, Display nonperforrnance as a quality measurement.
lV. Use cost of quality as a management tool.
v. Raise the level of employees' quality awareness.
vi. Provide a systemic way of addressing problems.
vu. Prepare to launch a zero-defects program.
viii Define supervisors' training requirements.
IX. Conduct a "Zero-defects Day".
x. Encourage individuals and groups to set goals.
xt, Establish an "Error Cause Removal" reporting system.
xn. Appreciate and recognize those who participate.
xiii.. Bring together quality champions, and network in quality councils.
xiv. Do it over again.
16.13.4 Downey's Quality Fit Framework

Synthesizing the ideas of a number of quality experts, Downey (1992) identified 18
quality premises for designing a model that the educational institutions can use to
diagnosetheir specific needs prior to implementing total quality education programme.
This model called the Quality Fit Framework has been built around three leverage
points found in every work setting which were earlier conceptualized by Weisbord
(1987). The leverage points are: purpose, structure, and relationship. With the
25
----------
I
Total Quality Management expectation that these leverage points can turn anxiety into energy, Weisbord (1987)
states that:
• Purpose or mission is the business we are in. It "embodies future visions on
which security and meaning depend."
• Structure is defined as "who gets to do what" and this "affects self-esteem,
dignity, and learning," ~
• Relationships are defined as the "connections with eo-workers that let us feel
whole - require cooperation across lines of hierarchy, function, class, race and
gender." (p.258). '
The core premises within the three leverage points are interrelated and need be
integrated in a systematic way. The 18 premises grouped under the three leverage
points have been summarized in the box 16.1 given below. We shall discuss this
model in Section 18.5 of the unit 18.
Box 16.1
QUALITY FIT FRAMEWORK
Eighteen core premises of the Quality Fit Framework using three

leverage points - purpose, structure, and relationships.
Purpose: A quality system has four premises related to purpose:
1.Focuses on the customer.

2.Provides for a meaningful shared mission.
3.Has a sense of mission and constancy of purpose.
4.Believes in continuous improvement.
Structure: A quality system has seven premises related to structure:
5.Acts as a systemic organizational structure.

6. Focuses on optimization.
7.ls a rational organization.
8.Has an integrated webbed management structure.
9.Focuses on process.
10. Understands variation.
11. Uses a data orientation .
.•..
. Relationships: A quality system recognizes that organizations are
human endeavors and has seven premises related to relationships
or dynamics ..
12. Mobilizes the workers.

l3. Has collaboratively, cooperatively interdependent workers.
14. Has an organizational culture of shared values and beliefs.
15. Understands how people are motivated.
16. Recognizes that most failures are attributable to faults in
the system.
17. Provides for a community of learners.
18. Provides for constant communication and feedback.
'source: Downey, 1992
26
1
Check Your Progress Quality Control,
Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers. Indicators
3. Mention the Juran ten-steps approach in quality improvement.
•••• ~ •••••••••• #I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
4. Enumerate four absolutes of quality management of Crosby .
•••••• •••• ••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••.• ••••••••••• 0 •••• 0 •••••••••
, . \
\
16.14 LET US SUM UP
Quality is a commonly used expression but difficult to explain. There have been
common associated terms, like quality control, quality assurance and quality gaps.
The era of globalisation, privatisation and internationalisation of education is seen
more as an entity could be comparable to industrial system. The borrowing of values
of autonomy, cooperation and sharing of responsibilities from the education sector
by the corporate sector has also led education system to have corporate pattern of
organisation. Today educational institutions have been assessed and accreditated
on patterns similar to the corporate organisation. The term quality control denotes
the dos and don'ts in planning and implementation related activities which help in
delivering expected level of services in education system. The planning components
like infrastructural facilities, teachers, entrants (freshers), administrative and support
staff and teaching-learning materials are input variables. The process variables
include the expertise and articulation of teachers in teaching-learning, use of
instructional aids and nature of evaluation methodology used. Similarly number of
passouts, nature of achievement, placement, e.c ..are the output indicators. All the.
three variables are important in the attainment oftotal quality management (TQM)
in any educational institution. Similarly quality assurance could be equated to warranty
mentioned in any product. Quality control is concerned with the product, while
quality assurance is process-oriented.Similarly quality gap shows the difference
between the pre-determined standards set by the provider and the actual attainment
level of the output. Further, the concept of quality education and the ideas of important
quality gurus in quality education have been discussed in detail.

1
L Conduct a brainstorming session with a group of college students on the topic-
need of quality control in Indian higher education. Prepare a report
highlighting the issues discussed in it.
According to you, what could be the main criteria of quality assurance in school
education in India. Give justification in support of your answer.
27
..•••••••;,""'J, .
1
Total Quality Management
16.16 REFERENCES
Sambrani, Vinod N. (2009), Quality Assurance in Higher Education; The Role
ofNAAC, University news -A weekly journal of Higher Education, AID, 47(44),
Nov.-2-8, pp13-18.
Besterfield, D.H., Besterfield-Michna.C; Besterfield, GH., and Besterfield-Sacre,
M. (2003). Total quality management (3rd• ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Crosby, P.B (1984). Quality without tears. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Deming, W.E. (1982). Out ofthe crisis. Cambridge: MITPress.
Deming, W.E. (1991, March). A system ofprofound knowledge. Paper presented
at the Quality Seminar, Santa Clara, California.
Downey, C.J. (1992, September). Can the Lone Ranger join the dream team?
Quality Network News, AASA,Arlington, Vancouver.
·. Downey, C.J., Frase, L.E., and Peters J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press.
Miller, D. (1993, August). Total quality management and the curriculum audit
seminar. Paper presented at the National Academy of School Administrators
Workshop, American Association ofSchoulAdministrators, Gurnee, Illinois.
Naik, J.P.(1975). Equality, quality and quantity: The elusive triangle in Indian
education. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Owlia, M.S. andAspinwall, E.M. (1996). A framework for the dimension of quality
in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4(2), 12-20.
Parasuraman, A, Zeithaml, Y.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985). A conceptual model of
service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49,
Fall,41-50.
Pfeffer, N. and Coote, A (1991). Is quality good for you? A critical review of
quality assurance in the welfare services. London: Institute of Public Policy
Research.
Pirsig, R.M. (1974). Zen and the art of motor cycle maintenance. New York:
Vmtage.
Shewhart, W.A (1931). Economic control of quality of manufactured product.

New York: D. Van Nostrand,
Watts, R. A. (1987), Measuring software quality. Oxford: National Computing
Center.
Quality and Relevance in Higher Education- Special Issue, UniversityNews 46(46),
November 17 -23, 2008; AIU, New Delhi
Dhar, TN (Ed.) Modules on Quality Dimensions of Elementary Education Under
SSA, NCERT, Ne'.'! Delhi, 2006.
Dhar, B.B.(2001). Quality and Accreditation Complementary to Each Other,
University News, 39(36) September 3-9,2001.
Thorat, S. (2006). Higher Education in India Emerging Issues Related to Access,
Inclusiveness and Quality.Nehru Memorial Lecture, University ofMl_L'!lbai,2002
28
I
Power, K.B. (2002). Indian Higher Education, Concept Publishing House, New Quality Control,
Dehli,2002. Quality Assu ranee and
Indicators
Kasetwar R.B.(2008). A Qualitative Role of Business Communication in Quality of
Higher Education. University News, Vol. 46(41). October, 13-19.
Glyn Davis, VC, University of Melbourne, Australia - Times of India, 21.09.2009)

~

2) a) Absolute Vs Relative
b) Procedures Vs Consumer
c) Product Vs Service
3) The criteria are:
• Education is both a product and service. For analyzing the final quality of
education, both the quality of educational service and the product is
important.
• Quality of educational service or product can be defined as that which

satisfies consumer's needs and requirement.
• Quality of educational service or product can be judged if they meet some
pre-set criteria/specifications.
• Quality of educational service or product can be assured by its producers.
So long as product or the service conforms to their manufacturer's
specifications and standards, they exhibit quality. Quality can be retained
by regular monitoring and subsequently improving the service or product.
4) Any five among the following
• Performance
• Features
• Reliability
• Conformity
• Durability
• Serviceability
• Aesthetics
• Perceived quality
• Tune
• TImeliness
• Completeness
• Courtesy
• Consistency
• Accessibility and Convenience
• Accuracy
• Responsiveness
29
I
, Total Quality~anagement 5) The facets are :'
• Need for the product: The first facet of quality is due to the extent and
completeness of defining and updating the product needs to meet market
places requirements and opportunities.
• Product design: The second facet-of quality is due to designing in to the
product the charaeteristic ( based on quality dimension) that enables it to
meet market place requirements and opportunities and to provide value
to customers and other stakeholders.
•
• Conformityto product design: The third facet of qualityisdue to maintainirig
day to day consistency inconformity to product design and in providing
the design characteristic and values for customers and other stakeholders.
• Product support: It is due to furnishing product support throughout the life
cycle as needed, to provide the design characteristic and values for
customers and other stakeholders.
'6) NAAC, NBA
.
,
7) Ref. Section 16.7
8) Academic resources; administrative support; academic infrastructure; physical
resources; financial resources.
9) Number of students pass, level of academic achievement; the nature of skills &
competencies attained by students;
10) TQM is about creating a quality culture in an organisation. In a college, the
services and facilities provided to the college students are in tune with their
I
needs and demands, shows the institution has created a qualityculture. Summing
up of the output of these services and facilities with provide the TQM level of
that college.
11.. Ref. section 16.3
12. Quality may have several dimensions. Garvin listed nine dimensions of quality.
They are -Performance, Features, Conformance, Reliability,Durability, Service,
response, aesthetics & reputation.
13. Juran 1974, recommends a ten steps approach in quality improvement. These
are as follows:
L' Build awareness ofthe need and opportunity for improvement.
n. Set explicit goals for improvement.
lll. Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems
select projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).
v. Carry out projects to solve problems.
Vll. Give recognition and reinforce success.
Vlll. Communicate results.
IX. Keep records of changes.
x. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes.
14. a) The definition of quality is conformance to requirement.
b) The system of quality is prevention.
c) The performance standard.
30
d) The measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.
I
UNIT 17 TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT
Structure
17.1. Introduction
17.2 Objectives
17.3 Categories of Tools of Management
17.4 Quality Group Process Tools
17.4.1 Brainstorming
17.4.2 Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
17.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
17.5 Seven Basic Quality Tools

17.5.1 Histogram
17.5.2 Pareto Chart
17.5.3 Scatter Diagram
17.5.4 Trend/Run Chart
17.5.5 Control Chart
17.5.6 Cause and Effect Diagram
17.5.7 Flow Chart
17.6 Pre-planningTools
17.6.1 Affinity Diagram
17.6.2 Tree Diagram
17.6.3 Matrices
17.6.4 Interrelationship Digraphs
17.6.5 RaderlSpider Chart
17.6.6 Force Field Diagram
17.6.7 Benchmarking
17.7 Integrative Quality Tools

17.7.1 Action Planning
17.7.2 Activity Diagrams
17.7.3 Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle
17.7.4 Hoshin Planning
17.8 Let Us Sum Up

17.10 References
17.1 INTRODUCATION
Total quality education (TQ E) differs from other educational improvement efforts in
three broad aspects:
• Quality is seen mainly in terms of customer's satisfaction - meeting and exceeding
ever-changing needs and expectations of the customer, basically the learner.
• (TQE) aims at improvement in totality of each and every individual and systems!
institutions.
31
I
Total Quality Management • TQ E is neither one time nor a recurring process. It aims at continuous quality
improvement (CQI).
Further, learning which the centrality of all TQE efforts, is non-linear and extremely
complex. Since, every learner has unique way oflearning, it is difficult to monitor
the learning progress of all learners, even within a grade, using one or a few tools
and techniques using them a~a particular time of an academic year as is the present
practice in nearly all educational institutions.
TQE recognizes the importance ofvariances existing in all aspects - processes,
customers and systems - of education. Reduction of these variances increases the
quality of education. Variances arise out of two basic causes - the common and the
special. Common causes like lack of feedback, unclear priorities, insufficient training,
overextended or outdated procedures create comparatively small random variances
and are likely to recur time and again. Because they arise out 0!minor systemic
errors, they can easily be monitored and controlled using quality tools. On the other
hand special causes like faulty procedures, failure to follow procedures, inaccurate
inputs, or reluctance to change create variances which are unexpected and are difficult
to accept. Such wide variances almost always result in major overhauls or changes
in the system. Reduction ofthese variances requires continuous as well as timely
identification and control of the causes of the variances.
For all these considerations, there is the need for large number of tools and techniques
to be made available to the practitioners associated with the effective management
of ensuring TQE.
17.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should able to :
• describe various categories of tools and techniques used in the total quality
management of education.
• discuss tools ofTQM, the process of their construction and educational uses.
17.3 CATEGORIES OF TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT

In the management of education, as in other spheres oflife, we are confronted with
problems which need to be solved within a stipulated period. For ensuring quality
education, the process of problem solution, among other requirements, need to be
efficient. To be efficient, the process need to focus on the specifically identified
problem components, develop and employ strategies that exactly fit to the focused
problem components, and should not eng~ge in wasteful efforts both in terms of
time and resources. Therefore, when you are confronted with a problem working in
any sphere of education, you need quite a large body of information or data at every
stage ofthe problem solution.
Consider, for example, while working in a District Education Office, you observe
that quite a large number of girls in rural areas of the district are staying out of the
school or dropping out of the school prematurely before completing their schooling.
In order to bring back all the school age girls of your district to the school and retain
them till their successful completion of the school education, you need to have several
information at your disposal for identification of the locality or community specific
reasons of non-enrolment and drop-outs, planning strategies for their enrolment,
identification ofthe status ofleaming of drop-out trying-out and finalizingthe strategies,
32 implementing and evaluating the strategies in solving the problems. You may also
1
need to know whether the school environment and classroom climate/practices are Tools of Management
congenial for the girls or not, the resourcefulness of teachers and the availability of
community and official support in the district. Besides, you need to help the teachers
in monitoring the learning progress of the enrolled girls regularly so as to enable them
to provide remedial/enrichment programmes for ensuring quality education. While
you actuallyget intothe plarmingfor the problem solution,implementing and evaluating
the strategies, you will surely experience the need for information/data on several
other areas than those listed here. Now, the question is how to collect these data.
Just think for a moment. How many tools and techniques are immediately available
to you at present? Perhaps one or two or none. While we are engaged in the TQ E,
we need a number of quality tools to gather data on all possible dimensions of the
problem that we shall be encountering at different times. Use of tools that help
quantify or provide information is a key element in process improvement. We in the
school system very often rely on our intuitions than being empirical in our thinking.
But accurate data help us to determine how well we are meeting our customer's
requirements, Setting goals and then measuring that target are important indicators
for improvement. Good use of tools tracks the use of resources and how efficiently
they are used. In brief the journey of continuous quality improvement is always data
driven (Downey,Frase, & Peters, 1994).
Latta and Downey (1994) group the tools for TQ M into four categories:
• Quality group process tools (4nos.),
• Basic quality tools(7nos.),
• Tools used prior to planning and management(7), and
• Integrative quality tools (4).
These tools, as any other tools, are mainly used for gathering information or data for
solving or in developing strategies for solving the problem we are confronted with.
Problem solving processes involve six important phases so far as utility of the tools
are concerned, they are:
• Problem identification,
• Problem analysis,
• Establish objectiveslTargets,
• Examine solution Strategies,
• Implement action Plans, and

• Evaluate and revise the strategies based on feedbacks.
Every tool that has been listed here as quality tool is not an all purpose tool. Every
tool has some definite function in collecting data required for some definite stages of
problem solving process as specified above and has been summarised in the following
figure.
33
1
lbtal Quality ~fanagement
Problem Solving Process
Quality Improvement
Problem Problem Establish Examines Implements Evaluate
-
Tools and Techniques Identification Analysis Objectives Solution Action and
Strategies Plans Revise
based on
Feedback
Group Brainstorming X X X
Process
Nominal Group X X ~ X
Technioue ~,
Focus Group X X X X
Discussion
Basic Histograms X X X
Quality
Tools Pareto Charts X X X
Scatter X X . X
Dlazrams
Run Charts X X X
Cause and Effect X X X X
Diaarams
Flowcharts X X X X X
Prelude to Affinity X X
Planning Diagrams
and Tree Diagrams X X
"
Manage-
ment Matrices X X
Interrelationship X X X
Radar Diagrams X X X X
Force-Field X X X X
Analvsis
Benchmarking X X X X X
Integrative Action Planning X X X X X X
Quality Activity
Tools X X X X X X
Network I
Plan-Do-Check- X X X X X X
Act Cvcle
Hoshin Planning X X X X X X
Fig.17.1: Quality Tools: Their Use and Relativity to the Problem Solving Process
(Source: Latta and Downey, 1994, p. 10).
17.4 QUALITY GROUP PROCESS TOOLS

We are familiar with individual and group tests depending on the type of administration
of pre-structured test or the tool. But participation of members of a group in attempting
problem solution is quite a different technique altogether. These tools insist on group
processes of offering free flowing creative ideas. Every one in the group can,
without any hindrance, participate in the process which is little structured and the
solutions arrived at may not be anticipated. In addition, working in groups, the
tools help to :
• Engage the participating members in assuming ownership of the problem solving
process and the problem solution emerging out ofthe group process.
• Create a learning situation where each member of the group learns why, where,
when, and how to use quality tools.
• Demonstrate how educators may adapt a tool or process to make it work

specifically in educational settings.
• Change suspicions that shroud the use of data and quantitative analysis to
confidence in using applications that are appropriate.
In brief, group process tools or techniques provide the value-added component
34 necessary for the quality tools to be substantive use in education.
-
I
Three quality group process tools described here ate brainstorming, nominal group Tools of Management
technique and focus group discussion.
17.4.1 Brainstorming
Linus Pauling once said, "If you want great ideas, you need to have lots of ideas."
Brainstorming is the most popular technique for producing lots of ideas. I~ is an
idea-generation technique to generate a list of ideas through group participation for
the solution of a problem in a risk-free environment. The meth&i was firstpopularized
in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osbome through his book entitled Applied
Imagination in which he speculated that groups could double their creative output
with brainstorming (Osbome, 1963). .•
The basic rules :Osbome (1963) states four basic rules of the brainstorming intended
to reduce social inhibitions among group members stimulate idea generation and
increase overall creativity of the group. These rules are:
• Focus on quantity: This rule is intended for encouraging divergent production
based on the belief that quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the
greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a
radical and effective solution.
• Withhold criticism: During the stage of idea generation, criticism of generated
ideas should not be allowed. Instead, participants should focus on extending or
adding to ideas reserving criticism for a later' critical stage' of the process. By
suspendingjudgments, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
• Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas open up new vistas of thinking and
are sparks of creativity which need to be encouraged. These are generated by
looking the problem situation from a completely different perspective. These
new ways of thinking may provide better solutions.
• Combine and improve ideas: Several good ideas may be combined to
form a single good idea. It is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a
process of association.
The process: Ideally, the brainstorming session should be broken into two parts:
the first for idea generation and the second for evaluation.
The following steps are usually followed for idea generation during brainstorming:
L Starting with a warm-up exercise especially l en the group is novice, doesn't
brainstorm frequently or when the group seems to be distracted by some other
issues. This is essential to expose or bring back the group to the criticism-free
environment. Word games, puzzles or humor may also be used at this stage to
create a relaxed, free and enjoyable atmosphere. A simple problem is usually
brainstormed as a part of the warm-up exercise, for example, How to keep
our classroom clean and beautiful?
Jl. Setting the problem: Before a brainstorming session, it is critical to define the
problem. State or write the topic clearly at the top of a flip chart or board. The
problem or topic-must be clear, not too big, and preferably in a question form
such as "How to improve quality of learning in the school?"
• Presents the problem and give further explanations if needed.
• Establish a time limit for the process.
35
I
\ T~~)~ality Management • Explain-the rules of the brainstorming to participants. Ask and seek
questions to clarify the rules. Obtain agreement/consensus on the rules to
be followed.
m. Asking the brainstorming group for their ideas. The following points need to
be kept in mind:
• Every one is encouraged to participate, either with original ideas or
"piggybacking" (adding on to) other participant's input.
• All ideas are good; evaluatinglcritiquinglcriticizing of ideas at the time of
idea generation should not be allowed.
• A large number of ideas should be generated. Focus initially on quantity,
not quality of ideas.
• All ideas presented are recorded in a text large enough for everyone to
see. These are written on tIie white board or large sheet of paper serially:
This will help to motivate participants and tojump back and forth between
ideas without loosing track of the main problem ..
.
,
• . Participants may offer more than one idea at a time. Motivate/encourage
. participants to say anything, no matter how wild or "far out" they may
seem.
,
IV. After all ideas are generated, the participants may clarify ideas as needed.
v. Organizing the ideas into categories, identify additional categories to include,
and add within each category.
After the ideas are generated, the group then evaluates the ideas and select one idea
or a category of ideas as the solution to the proposed problem.
• The solution should not require resources or skills that the members of the
. group do not have or cannot acquire.
• If acquiring additional resources or skills is necessary, that should constitute
the first part of the problem.
• The solution must specify the way to measure progress and success.
• The steps to carry out the solution must be clear stated.
At no stage ofthe brainstorming process, managers should remain present in the
room otherwise it may inhibit the free flow of ideas.
Educational uses: Brainstorming has all the potentials of generating ideas for
bringing about continuous development of educational systems and processes at all
levels. Some examples of the educational problems require brainstorming for
generating solutions are:
• What is the method of recruiting effective teachers for the elementary schools
ofthe state?
9 How to ensure regular attendance of all enrolled children in schools?
• Strategies for enhancing community involvement in school activities.
• Ways of improving quality ofleaming achievement of students.
Brainstorming is a good technique for building comprehensive strategies for most of
36
i
I
the educational problems on a continuous basis. But this falls short of the requirements Tools of Management .
of a tool of evaluation. It is difficult to attempt quantification of variables in the
search for problem solutions. In spite of these limitations its capabilities for generating
ideas marked by number and novelty are valuable to the process of Continuous
Quality Improvement.
17.4.2 Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The NGT is a tool to bring a team in conflict to consensus on relative importance of
issues, problems or solutions by completing individual importance ranking into a
team's final priorities. It is widely used as a tool for decision making and planning by
allowing a group to achieve consensus and prioritises issues. It can be seen as a
more formalised or structured version of brainstorming or focused group discussion,
as itretainsthe group consensus building process while harnessing a range ofindividual
views. The nomenclature "nominal group" relates to the fact that it is a group in
name only, as the views of each individual participant are collected individually.
The basic rules: The following are the basic rules of NGT
• Individuals within the group: When using this technique, the participants
assemble in groups, but for all practical purposes they cannot interact with
each other.The individual opinion is encouraged on the issue and the consensus
is sought later.
• No dominance by individuals: There is very little scope of verbal interaction.
Therefore, no individual, however powerful speaker he/she is, cannot dominate
the proceedings.
• Participation by each participant: Each ofthe participants has to actively
contribute to the proceedings. No one can remain passive or can escape from
doing any activity conducted in the NGT.
• Prioritisation of outcomes: Not just listing the possible solutions, but to arrange
them in order of priority considering their importance and viability is given more
importance in the NGT.
The Process
As a matter of routine the following steps are followed in the NGT:

L Introduction and explanation: The session starts with a warm welcome to
the participants and followed by stating the task or the problem, the purpose
and the procedure of the meeting. The statement of the problem should be
displayed prominently either writing on a board or on a flipchart. The statement
should be unambiguous and clear for understanding.
it) Silent generation of ideas: The participants are allowed 5 to 15 minutes of
silence to think on the problem and write down all ideas that come to mind on
the problem on a sheet of paper provided to each of them. During this period
the participants are not allowed to consult or discuss or share their ideas with
others.
iii) Sharing ideas: The participants are invited to share the ideas they have
generated. Each member states one idea at a time. The facilitator records all
the ideas advanced by the participants on a flipchart. This process continues
when the participants have exhausted all their ideas. There is no debate or
discussion about the items at this stage. Any new idea generated by the
participants during:this process is also indllrfen in the )j<:t. Th~ T'1"~t'~.,.."'J}'i'~'?";?<'
/
. Total Quality Management near equal contribution from all the participants. .This stage may take 15 - 30
minutes.
iv) Group discussion: When all suggestions are written, the participant may offer
verbal explanation or further details on the item s/he has suggested when others
seek any clarification on it It must be ensured that each person gets chance to
contribute without spending too much time on any single item. It is important to
ensurethat the process remains as neutral as possible, avoiding any judgment
or criticism. If the group decides, it may suggest new ideas for discussion.
Duplicate items may be eliminated at this stage only if the originator of the idea
agrees. This stage lasts about 30-45 minutes.
v) Prioritizing the ideas: Having clarified and eliminated duplication, individuals
are asked to prioritize the recorded ideas in relation to the original problem.
Following suitable process of voting and ranking the items are arranged in the
form of a sequence in order of relative importance decided on the process of'
ranking. At the end each participant has a list of probable strategies/solutions
to the problem arranged in order of importance for their immediate use.
Educational uses of NGT:
The NGT is used in all situations where brainstorming or other group techniques are
employed. It has two distinct advantages over other participatory group techniques:
First, it ensures equal participation of all the members of the group without exception.
In other situations some feel reluctant to give their opinions or ideas for fear of being
criticised or not to create any disturbance. But in NGT because of scrupulous
avoidance of any value judgment of participants' ideas, every bodyfeelsfree to
participate. Again in participation, it has clear advantage in minimising the differences
and ensuring relatively equal participation. Second, not only it helps in generating
large number of ideas as in other group techniques, but the additional advantage is
due to its emphasis on producing a list of ideas/strategies/solutions arranged
consensually in order of importance. This helps the user for immediate selection of
. strategy suitable for his/her purpose. Other advantages include its emphasis on
optimum use of time.
Major criticism against the NGT is its lack of sufficient flexibility and to a large
extent encouraging consensus and conformity. In spite of best efforts, sometimes,
opinions may not converge in the voting. There is no spontaneity involved with this
method and very often cross fertilization of ideas may be constrained and hence the
process may sometimes appear to be mechanical.
17.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

In order to probe, for example, the consistent high rate of drop outs in the schools
of a particular cluster in a district, the district authorities constituted a small group
consisting of two teachers, three parents at least two of them had children who were
drop outs, one panchayat member of the area, two members chosen from the
school committees of two schools to probe into the phenomenon. Through in depth
discussion on their experience on the phenomenon of drop outs, the group came out
with a list of reasons and the strategy to check the drop outs to the school. This is a
typical case of focus group discussion.
Afocus group constituted of a few "selected people from among the different
categories of stakeholders of education is given the responsibilities of focusing en a
specific problem of education which is experienced by them. It is call ea a 1.. cus
group for two reasons: choice of participants are confmed to the stakeho' .ers or
38
I
those who are involved in different capacities with the problem under study and Tools of Management
second, the group only concentrate on the required aspect(s) of a problem at a
time.
The basic rules: Thefollowing two are the basic rules offocus group discussion:
• The size ofthe group: The size must be just right to be able to share their
ideas but large enough to provide diversity of stakehold~rs. Approximately 6 -
12participants guided by a facilitator form the group. However, the number of
participants will depend on the objectives of the study (Stewart, 1990).
-. Spontaneity and freedom: Once the question is posed before the group in
an interactive setting, the participants are free to talk among each other focusing
on the problem. Spontaneous participation is the key to a successful focus
group discussion (FGD).
The process: The process followed in the conduct of afocus group discussion
is a follows:
~ Determine the purpose: Identify a problem within the educational system.
Spellout the detailed dimensions of the problem with the help of situationanalysis.
This is required because the problem is usually qualitative in nature and will
require a great deal of further clarification.
it) Constitute the group: Select the required number of members from among
the different categories of functionaries/stakeholders of education associated
with the problem so that it becomes a cross-functional group.
ill) Prepare the tools for FGD: Design the data collection instruments like
questionnaire, discussion guides etc.
iv) Conduct the session: One of the group members act as a 'facilitator' or
'moderator' and another should act as a 'recorder'. The major functions of the
facilitator are to introduce the session, encourage discussion and involvement
build rapport and empathise, control the rhythm of the discussion without being
obtrusive. At the end of the session, the facilitator summarises the deliberations
.and check for the agreements among the participants.
v) Process and analyse the results: After conducting several sessions of with the
same or different groups on the problem in focus, the facilitator aridthe recorder
sit together, analyse the results using suitable techniques of qualitative analysis
and draw conclusions.
VI) Develop and submit report: Draft and submit a report documenting how the
group met its mandate and came out with the solution( s).
Educational uses of FGD:
FGD can be an useful tool in evolving innovative or creative solutions to various
challenges faced by the education system at its different levels. Some examples of
such challenges are:
• Developing strategies for improving quality education in a district, cluster or in
the school.
• Problems in management of activity-based classrooms.

• Strategies for developing greater responsibilities of students for their own
learning.
39
I
Total Quality Management Like other qualitative methods, focus groups give insights into not just what "
participants think, but also why they think so. It can reveal consensus and dive~
of participants' needs; experiences, preferences, and assumptions. Group interaction
allows participants to build on each other's ideas and comments to provide an in-
depth view not attainable from individual questioning. Unexpected comments in the
form of new perspectives can be explored with ease.
Typical small size groups may ~ot be-representative in FGD.1t can generate a large
amount of data that is often difficult to analyse the information collected may be
more likely biased by subjective interpretations. More outspoken individuals can
dominate the discussions and the view points ofless assertive persons are often
difficult to assess. The interpretations are more dependent on the skill of the facilitator.
Again, too much moderator control means you hear very little of the participants'
own perspectives and too little moderator control means you hear less about the
topic that interests you.
Check Your Progress
1. State the three qualities of group process tools.
2. What are the educational uses of brainstorming?
17.5 SEVEN BASIC QUALITY TOOLS

In the three group processes described in the Section 17.4 the participants very
often need quantitative data apart from the qualitative information they receive or
provide concerning the problem they are dealing with. Following basic tools which
are in the form of a graphs or diagrams help the users to have a quick estimate of
different aspects of the data relative to the problem under consideration. These
seven tool are: histograms, pareto charts, scatter diagrams, trend/run charts, control
chart, cause-and-effect Diagrams and Flow Charts. These are also called statistical
process control (SPC) tools. Let us discuss each tool in brief.
17.5.1 Histogram
The management of a particular school wanted to know the picture of students
abstaining from the school last week. The principal ofthe school found that on the
working days during the last week the number of students who remained absent
were as follows: Monday- 12, Tuesday-I 5, Wednesday- 27, Thursday- 22, Friday-
14, and Saturday- 16. The data are presented graphically. This type of graph is
40 called histogram. -
I
o
From this histogram we can get answers to several questions like" On which day Tools of Management .
maximum/minimum number of students were absent?", "On which days the pattern
of absentees were nearly same?"
The answers can be visualised with ease.
Absentees in a Week
III
~ 30,....-----
t:
CD
25 .
20 .
III
.c 15 o
et 10
.•..
o 5-
o 0 +,~~_4~----~----~~--+-~--+_~~
Z
.<"v"," .
~o<::'- ,,"
0<::'-'"
.. ~e;
Days of The Week . ~
Fig.17.2: Histogram of Absentees in Week
A histogram is a combination of series of columns showing the frequency distribution

of data( No. of absentees in the above example) collected on a given variable(
working days of the week). The height 'of each column displays the frequency of
o .
data (number).
Process of construction of a histogram: You can follow a systematic may to

construct a histogram.
L Collect the data and arrange them in a dichotomy of independent and dependent
variables (like days in a week -no. of absentees, months- amount of rainfall,
Different scores- no. of students obtaining each of the scores, group,s or class •
iriterval of marks- no. of students securing marks falling within each class interval).
IL Divide the x-axis (the horizontal line indicating the axis) into munber of classes.
(depending upon the no. of categories in the independent variable, like no. of
days, months, scores ,or class intervals) of equal width which becomes the
base of the column.
111. Complete the column (or, rectangle) with width ofthe class interval and the
respective accumulation of data (or, frequency)
o iv. . Totality of columns is the histogram sho~g summarised results. \
Educational uses: Because of the ease of its construction and comprehension, it

is widely used in different spheres and so also in education. At every level of
educational management, histogram in its varied form is very often used. Some
iexamples of such use are: :;
• Number ofteachers engaged in elementary schools during the last five years.
•
.
Monthly school attendance during an academic year.
.
• Dropouts in the-district over the last five years.
• Average marks in Class V Mathematics obtained by number of students in the

41
•
1
'lbtal Quality Management last six consecutive examinations.
• Number of students attaining mastery level in Language at Class I level during
the last five examinations.
17.5.2 Pareto Chart

The District Education Officer oT a particular district wanted to know the major
reasons of non-attendance in schools of the district. With the help of the resource
team the reasons identified were: (i) Home responsibility(60 percent of the
respondents), (ii) Home work not done (25 percent), (iii) Difficult School Work (l0
percent) and (iv) Other reasons (5percent). This has been presented in a type of bar
graph called pareto chart. .
A Pareto chart is special type of bar graph in which the values being plotted are
arranged in descending order of magnitude or importance from right to left. The
graph is accompanied by a line graph showing the cumulative total of each category,
left to right.
The chart is named after a nineteenth century Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto who
tried to illustrate his famous 80-20 Rule - that 80 per cent of the wealth is concentrated
with 20 percent of people. Juran, the TQM guru extended the idea to the problems
in place of wealth and concluded that problems stem from 20 percent of all the
varied causes (vitalfew) , and the &maining 80 percent of the causes account for
only 20 percent of the problems (useful many) .
-~~~~
home homework had 10 other
respon. not done work
Reasons for Absence
Fig.17.3: Pareto Chart of Reasons and Extent of Absence
Process of construction of pareto chart: we use the following steps while

constructing a pareto chart.
• Select problems or areas to be analysed.
• Decide the standards of comparison for ranking the characteristics or grouping
the data.
• Determine the time period of the study.
• Collect the data and calculate the occurrences (frequency) in each data category.
• Mark categories from left to right on the horizontal axis (x-axis) in descending
urder of their occurrences- from largest to smallest.
• Construct bar graph using the frequency of occurrences of each category.
• Calculate the cumulative frequencies and percentages.

42 • Construct a cumulative line graph over the bar graph.
1
After the completion of the chart, in order to solve the problem under study, the Tools of Management
highest categories need to be attended on priority basis. One has to keep in mind
that Pareto Chart does not provide any solution to a problem, but, helps to segregate
the vital few causes from the useful many.
Educational uses: Pareto Chart can be used to analyse a diversity of educational
problems confronted at different levels. Examples of some such problems are:
• Reasons for dropouts:

• Reasons of poor or late attendance.
• Excuses for poor achievement.
• Analysing parental complaints.
• Analysing factors of poor school climate.
• Analysis of causes of campus disturbances.
17.5.3 Scatter Diagram,

After the results of the final examination of a class in a school came out, the class
teacher wanted to know whether there is any relation between absenteeism of
students and their performance in the examination. She identified the students who
remained absent for more than five days and the total marks they obtained in the
final examination. She plotted the marks against the number of days of absence and
prepared a graph called Scatter Diagram. It is also known as Scatter Plot, Scatter
Chart, Scatter Graph or Scattergram.
A scatter diagram is a graph that plots one variable against another. The data is
displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable determining
the position on the x-axis, and the value of the other on the y-axis.
100
75
50
25
• ••
O~--~--~--r-~~-'--~---r--
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of Days Absent
Fig.17. 4: Scattergram showing negative relationship
Properly plotted, the collection of points indicate to the possible relationship existing
between the two variables.
• Ifthe pattern of plotted points slopes from the lower left to upper right, it
. suggests a positive correlation between the variables under consideration.
, If the pattern of the points slopes from upper left to lower right, it suggests a
negative correlation.
1
• Total Quality Management It the points are scattered and do not demonstrate any clear trend, then the two
variables have little relationship between them .
. - ,
. -
A line of best fit (or, a trend line) call be drawn in order to study die nature of
~rrelation between the two variables.Toconfirmthe ~atureof correlation,ctet~rmining.
co-efficient of correlation and conducting regression <l?aly~~<!anyield sta~stically
more authentic results. <>
o •
The scatter diagram is a tool to study the nature and strength of rel~ti~nship-exist~g
.' between the variables. From this no inference regarding cause-and-effect can be .
drawn.
Process of construction:
The construction of scatter diagram involves-the following steps:

•
1. Decide the two variables whose correl~tion you wanfto study,
. .
2. Prepare a grapli with one variable (p,referably, the independent variable) on
the x-axis (horizontal axis) and the other on the y-a~is (vertical axis).
..
3. Plot the points and examine whether the cluster of points indicate any linear
trend i.e. whether a straight can be drawn from which an approximatitm of
relationship between the two variables can be made.
Educational uses:
The scatter diagram is used when we are probing for any potential relationships
_existing between two variables associated with educational practice arid outcomes.
Some such examples (pairs of variables) where we can use the scatter diagram are:
• Absenteeism and score on a test.

• Average family income and performance in the final examination.
• Parental involvement and student attitude towards education.
• Teacher absence and student indiscipline.
• Time spent on learning and performance on unit tests.
0'
• Amount of home assignment and student's performance on language tests.
. 17 .5.4 Trend/Run Chart

The school authorities are worried over the problem of students absence froin the
. school but they do not have idea precisely in which period of the year the students
absence is maximum and when it is minimum. For that one can record the number of
students remaining absent in every month during the last two years. These data
when presented graphically take the form of trend/run chart. A run or a trend
chart is a line graph of data points organised in time sequence and centered on the
average/median data value.
It is a simple version of a single line chart and is often used to determine during what
pcriodts) the process indicators ofthe variable concerned are changing or new
trends developing, lfthe process indicators are correct and nothing else cli.anges,
there should be.approximatelyequal number of data points arrayed both above and
below the average line. Thus, plotting data on a run chart can help in identifying
trends and relate them to the time they occurred. This helps iri the search for the
44
special causes that may be adding variation to the process adopted.
1
o
o Tools of Management .
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t
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(Q
.
<fl
.
,
.;:l.
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IX)
•
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QJ
Eln+-~~~ _
o
~ .~
o·
,] C"l
> '
'0.
'0 N •
~
e
1· 2' ~ '·4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
"
•
Months
... • . Fig.17 .~,:Trentf/R!ln Chart of Added Monthly Income
Som~ special cause variation is revealed when we analyse the unusual run-chart
patterns through th.e study of the trends runs. Runs are sbquenceofpoims-that of
.stay on one stde of, either above or below, the average or median line .. One
, wayof countingthe runs is to circle these sequences and tally-them. Another way of
doing this is to count !he number of times the run-line crosses the average line, and
then add o one.
Pto~ess ofconstruction s The following process is used to construct a run!

trend chart:
L Identify the area of concern.
lL Determine the units of time to be displayed along the horizontal axis (x -axis).
These periods might be years, months, days, hours, minutes, or seconds
depending on how data is gathered. ....
Ill. Determine the units of measure for data collected to be displayed along the
vertical axis (y-axis).
IV. Make the horizontal scale about two to three times the distance of the vertical
scale.
. v. Determine the average/median value of the data and-label it on the vertical axis.
Draw a line parallel to the horizontal axis through the point labeled as the average/
. median value ..This line is called the average or median line.
• . • • 0
Vl. Plot the data points in sequence and connect each point to the next point in the
sequence with a line.
Educational
o
uses: Examples of'educational problems • where run chart is used:
• Campus indiscipline reported in last two years.
• Average weekly attendance during the last two consecutive quarters of the
academic s~ssion. •
• Score on the unit test in Mathematics of a class during the year. .,
o •
•
.
Average daily time spent on eo-curricular activities during a particular month.
,
• Average monthly time spent per teacher on non-teaching work in the school.
17.5.5 Control Chart

o In a school with student strength of 250, it was observed from last six months' data'
that the average number of absentees per week is 45. In order to keep the absenteeism
.
"
within a limit, it was decided to fix an upper and lower limit of 50 and 35 respectively'
45
I
Total Quality Management per week. A chart was drawn with last quarters' figures of absentees week -wise
with clear specification of the limits. The figures of absentees for subsequent weeks
were recorded and when the figure in any week exceeded the specified limits the
causes for this were investigated. This is an example of a control chart.
A control chart or otherwise known as Shewhart chart orprocess-behavior chart
is a graphic representation of time-related performance of a process determined
with either practical or statistical upper and lower limits. The control chart was
invented by Walter A. Shewhart who was working for Bell Labs in the 1920s. The
company was incurring loss due to uncontrolled increase in variations in the
manufacturing process which ultimately resulted in degradation in quality of products.
Shewhart framed the problem in terms of common- and special-causes of variation.
He concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display
controlled variation that is natural to the process, while others display uncontrolled
variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times (Wheeler,
1999). A control chart is intended to demonstrate the point when the uncontrolled
variation set in to disturb the controlled variation.
A control chart contains the following feautures :
• Points representing measurements of a quality characteristic in samples taken
from the process at different times.
• An average line, a central line drawn with mean value calculated from data and
running parallel to the horizontal axis.
• Upper and lower control limits (also called "natural process limits") indicate
the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely'.
11,0
U ¥v - - -~- -
'.0
\It
'C
2:
<:>
~ 10,0 -
-5
z..
'a;;:$
0' - - -. -- _. --~. - - - ~- 1.(1.=9,256
:3 6 9 12
sample
Fig.17.6: Structure of a Control Chart
Control charts show variation on the process variables and seek to identify the
common rather than special causes of variation, carefully distinguishing between the
two types of causes. If the process is in control, all points will lie within the control
limits. Any observation outside the limits suggests the introduction of a new or
unanticipated source of variation or otherwise known as a special cause of variation
which needs immediate attention in order to keep the system in control.
Process of construction: Construction of control chart involves following steps:
1. Collect data on the issue or problem at predetermined time intervals.
2. Plot data on the control chart. The time intervals are shown on the horizontal
axis and the values ofthe dependent variable on the vertical axis.
3. Calculate the mean of the data and draw a line (central or mean or average
line) parallel to the horizontal axis running through the mean value plotted on
the vertical axis. '
46
/
/
4. Determine the upper and lower limits and draw the two lines equidistant from Tools of Management
the central line on either sides of it. The limits can be determined either basing
on the experience or at a distance of two standard deviations above and below
the central line.
5. Additional features like the warning limits, division into time zones may be
incorporated into the chart depending on the requirement ofthe organisation.
After the control chart is constructed, identify the points out side the upper and
lower limits and determine the special causes for these points. Then build strategies
to eliminate the special causes. At the same time, identify ways to reduce the normal
variance resulting from common causes.
If due to the efforts, the normal variance gets reduced, then the mean of the
observations shall increase and there will be requirement of adjusting the average
line and the lines of upper and lower limits.
Educational uses: The use of control chart in education is mainly for quality
control of management issues. Some such issues, as for example, are:
• Absenteeism of students month-wise over an academic session.
• Incidence of indiscipline in each month over a year. Number of students of
Class IX not completing home work per week over a quarter of the session.
• Average weekly time spent on eo-curricular activities over a period of a quarter.
/
17.5.6 Cause and Effect Diagram

The District Education Officer is worried over the problem of students' absence
from the schools of the district and wanted to know all possible reasons. He uses
different methods like FGD, brainstorming sessions with different groups of
stakeholders. Collecting a large number of reasons of absence, he tried to categorize
them into four possible major sources i.e. the students, the schools, family and others
and plotted them in a chart for easy comprehension which helps in planning the
strategies to check the absenteeism of the students.
The cause-and-effect diagrams that graphically show the causes and sub-cause that
are related directly to the identified problem or event. This is also calledfish bone
diagram as it resembles the skeleton of a fish or an Ishikawa diagram after Kaoru
Ishikawa, the quality guru of Japan, who first invented in 1943 and is being used
widely since 1960s. The cause-and-effect diagram is based on two basic
assumptions:
• A problem is composed oflimited number of causes, which are in turn also
composed of sub-causes.
• Distinguishing these causes and sub-causes is a useful first step to deal with the
problem.
.
The diagram is created by participation of groups in the brainstorming process and
is usually used as an useful tool during preplanning phase of problem solving. The
benefits of the diagram, as noted by Ishikawa (1985) are the following:
• The creation of the diagram has educational purpose. While participating in the
discussion, people learn from each other.
• The diagram helps the users to focus on the issues involved in solving the
problem; This reduces complaints and irrelevant discussion.
• Its use helps in an active search for the causes of the problem.
• Its use helps in identifying data that can be collected to further the search for
the solution of the problem.
47
7
\
o
"
•
.Total Quality Management • The level of complexity of the diagram is directly related to the level of
understanding of the members of the staff who creates and uses it. •
Process of construction:The construction of a cuase and effect diagram.
involves the following steps:
L
. .
. Identify, and clearly state, and agree on the problem or effect to be analysed.
IL Draw a box containing the'problem or effect on the right side of the diagram
with a horizontal spine.
ll1. Write the problem identified clearly in the box of the diagram which resembles
the 'head' of the fish.
IV.
.
Identifyprobable major categories of causes that relate to the problem identified,
.
such as. students, school, parents and other causes related . to the problem of
late or irregular attendance. These major categories are labeled as branches
(fish bones) of the diagram (see Fig. 17.7).
v. Brainstorm causes of the problem that fall within each of the major categories.
" As ideas are generated determine on which branch ('bone') the item is to be
placed.
VI. Depending on next level analysis of causes, each branch may have several sub-
branches in order to establish effective relationships.
It should M kept in mind that developing the diagram is a team work and there is no
right or wrong answer. Therefore, as far as possible group consensus on the
identification of causes and sub-causes need to be established without indulging in
prolonged arguments. Sufficient care need to be taken to spell out the causes in
specific, measurable and controllable forms.
o
The
o
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
.
Category 2
Sub.C 1 Sub.C2
Cause 1 _--..
I I-
The
Problem
Category 3 Category 4
Fig.17.7. Structure ofa Cause-and-Effect Diagram.
Educdtional uses: The cause-and-effect diagram can be developed and used for
solving any educational problem. As for example it can be used in identifying the
causes of '
• Student drop outs,
48
/
• Low, late and irregular students' attendance. Tools of Management
• Teacher absenteeism.
• Lack of community and parental involvement in school activities.
• Poor learners' performance.
The cause-and-effect diagram is useful for systematic identification causes of some
problems/effects. It is not particularly useful for extremely complex problems, where
many causes and many problems are interrelated.
17.5.7 Flow Chart

The mathematics teacher desires that all his/her students in grade 5 master the concept
of each unit oflesson before moving to the next concept unit. With help ofhislher
colleagues he!she develops an activity schedule arranged in proper order of activities
so that there would be little confusion in the progress ofthe students. The plan he!
she developed in the form of a diagram( Fig. 17.8) which is called aflow chart.
( start)
Teach one
unit
Is the
student
successful?
Test
Remedial NO students'
Exercises achievemen
Test the
progress
Enrichment
Is the . exercises
NO student
successful?
YES
Summarise
and start the next
unit.
Fig.17.8: Flow chart of teaching for mastery
A flow chart is a common and visual way of representing a process showing its
steps using various kinds of boxes and symbols. The steps are shown in different
types of boxes in a well arranged order of sequence connected by arrows.
49
<
>
1
Common Symbols Description
used in Flow Charts
The starting or ending of

C'---_) of the process
Oblong
Operation or activity performed

or planned -to be performed
Rectangle
.
Represents conditional or decision. These typically
.. contain "Yes/No" or "True/False" responses with each
response flowing to different operations or activities.
Diamond
Indicates direction and order of flow.
Arrow
There are several other symbols used.in flow charts but with less-universality such
as:
• Input/output represented as a parallelogram.
• A document represented as a rectangle with a wavy base.
• A manual operation represented by a trapezium with the longest parallel side
at the top.
• A data File represented by a cylinder.
• A connector represented by a circle which connects the operation or decisions
without having to cross the flow lines.
The flow chart was first introduced by Frank Gilbreth in his presentation "Process
Charts - First Step in Finding the One Best Way" to the members of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921. This found immediate use in the
industrial and engineering curricula. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived
from Gilbreth's original work as the ASME Standard for Process Charts. Herrnan
Goldstein and John von Neuman further developed flow charts in late 1946s at
Princeton University (Goldstine, 1972).
There are different types of flow charts depending on their use or content. Stemeckert
(2003) categorises them into four types: Document flowcharts, Data flowcharts,
System flow charts, and Program flowcharts. Others have also developed different
categories like, Decision flowcharts, Logic flowcharts, Product flowcharts, Process
flowcharts, etc (Fryman, 2001)
50
1
Process of Construction: Tools of Management
The following are the steps of constructing a flowchart:

L Determine the purpose and scope of flowchart.
IL List all inputs and outputs.
1lL Arrange the operations/activities in their required sequences.
IV. Draw the flowchart selecting appropriate standard symbols. Keep the use of
symbols to possible minimum for ease and clarity in communication.
v. Review the flowchart as to whether it addresses the proper flow of events/
activities, presents sequential and simultaneous events appropriately, accurately
reflects the major decisions and repeats or omits anyevent/activity/decision.
VI. Modify or delete those steps which are inefficient or unnecessary.
Educational uses: Flowchart has extensive utility as developing models for solving
.. educational problems at each level of school system. Some such uses are given here
as examples,
• Model of school improvement plan.
• Model for monitoring and academic support system for-schools.
• Model for continuous and comprehensive evaluation programme.
• Model for cooperative learning programme in the classroom.
• Model for improving quality of education in the school.
Check Your Progress
3. What are the basic tools of management?
...................................................................................................................
4. What is Pareto Chart?
17.6 PRE-PLANNING TOOLS

,
In addition to the seven basic tools for pre-planning stage, seven, comparative newer,
quality tools are also used at this stage. They are - Affinity Diagram, Tree Diagram,
Matrices, Interrelationship Diaoraphs, Radar/Spider Chart, Force Field Diagram, 51
1
Total Quality Management and Benchmarking. In this section these tools ~the mode of their construction and
their utility in education particularly in educational planning have been briefly
.discussed.
17.6.1 Affinity Diagram

The principal of a school, in order to develop a school improvement plan, was
engaged in brainstorming session with a small group consisting of students, teachers
and a few other stakeholders. Within the stipulated time he/she had quite a large
number of ideas. it became her problem how to organize those ideas into a few
manageable categories. The affinity diagram which clubs apparently disparate ideas
into more similar looking groups of ideas could help hislher in solving her problem. '.
The affinity diagram is used to cluster complex, apparently unrelated data into
natural, meaningful groups. Used with the brainstorming process, affinity diagram
helps the group to arrive at a consensus of grouping large number into quite a small
number of categories ofideas according to their natural relationships. First introduced _
in the 1960s by Jiro Kawakawa, a 1apanese anthropologist, this method taps the
group's creativity and interest in solving the problem collectively .
..
Process of construction: The process as stated below is used to create an
affinity diagram. Usually, the materials required are : sticky notes or cards, marker
pen, large drawing sheets or board.
• Clearly identify the problem in objective terms.
• Use brainstorming process to generate ideas. Record each idea on a sticky
note or card using marker pen so that it is prominent to the participants. Avoid
single word ideas.
• Randomly post the cards/notes on a large work space like a big boars or
drawing sheet. No specific order for posting the cards at this stage should be
attempted.
• While posting the cards, each idea written on the card is to be read a loud so
that the repetition can be avoided to a great extent.
• This process of generating ideas is to continue until the participants have
exhausted all ideas.
• Silently and without any discussion, sort the items into natural groupings. The
items can be grouped and regrouped by anyone at any time. It is very important
that no one talk during this step.
• Once the groupings are determined, discussion is allowed. Minor changes may
be made when the participants clarify their understanding.
• Once the groupings are finalised, create a header for each group of ideas.
• Divide large groupings into sub-groups, if needed, and create subheadings.
• Draw the final affinity diagram connecting ideas to the header cards (Fig. 17.9).
Educational uses:
The affinity diagram is culmination of brainstorming process. Therefore, any problem
that requires brainstorming need affinity diagram for comprehensive visualisation of
the components or solutions of the problem. Examples of some such problems may
be:
52
I
• Reasons for students to drop out of school. Tools of Management
• Reasons for poor and irregular pupils' attendance.

• Why large number of students are not performing well in English.
• Strategies for improving community participation in school activities.
• Improving school climate for making it learner friendly.
Reasons for high rate of drop-out
Student Classroom School

or [ Family [' Process Climate
Learner
Not Don't take Not Unsafe

motivated care of interesting building
to learn children
Language is Crowded
Cannot difficult to and narrow
understand Engage
children to follow classroom
school
language in other Teacher IS
work Poor
harsh
Frequently sanitary
fall ill Do not conditions
provide NoTLM •
adequate is used.
Not able to
materials Poor inter-
travel a long <,
distance to Contents personal

No support are not
school for study at relations.
related to
Do not have home life of the
proper dress learner
to wear
Fig.17.9: Affinity Diagram for the Reasons of High Drop-out Rate
Studies have shown that participating in the exercise for developing affinity diagram
stimulates both left and right brain thinking and actually encourages creativity on
everyone's part. Since there are no wrong answers, all participants' ideas CO'...Ht.
The exercise which is very much focused on the issue as well as on time allows for
comprehensive thinking concerning the issues, brings into fore the non-traditional
connections among ideas and issues, often engages people discussing issues they
normally might not discuss and it also allows breakthroughs to emerge naturally
(Bernhardt, 2002).
17.6.2 Tree Diagram

A tree diagram, also known as systematic diagram, tree analysis, analytical tree
and hierarchy diagram, is a planning tool used to break down broad categories
logically and linearly into finer and finer levels of detail Developing a tree diagram
helps us to think step by step, from generalities to specifics. Further, a systematic
53
1
. .
Total Quality Management and linear branching of broad issues to identifiable components or actionable items
helps to yield successful attainment of objectives. A tree diagram is used when
• . an issue is known or being addressed in broad generalities and one must move
to specific details to achieve the"objectives.
• analysing the process in de¥l.
"-. probing for root cause of a problem.
• evaluating implementation issues for several potential solutions. •
• as a communication tool, to explain details in a logical manner to others.
Process of construction: A tree diagram is usually constructed through following
steps:
1.. Assemble a small group of persons, usually 6 to 8 persons; who are quite
knowledgeable about the issue and are capable of following up the action plan.
.
,
1L State the issue (problem or goal) in a box and place itthe far left (for a horizontal
tree) or at the top ( for a vertical tree) of the work surface ( flip chart or
drawing sheet).
1lL Ask a question that will lead to next level detail like, "How can this be
accomplished?" or, "What are the components?" or, "What causes this?"
IV. Continue this process to get details of further specific components or action
points or causes for subsequent levels until you reach the most basic components
or causes are identified.
v. Do a "necessary and sufficient" check of the entire diagram as well as for each
level. Findout answers ofthe questions, such as "Are all the items necessary
for attainment of the objective?" and "If all the items were present or
accomplished, would they be sufficient for the attainment of the objective?"
Educational uses: The tree diagram is suitable for planning any intervention for
quality education. Once the problem is defined or an issue is identified, through the
tree diagram a comprehensive list of actions or activities can be developed. Almost
all the issues/problems of education require the tree diagram. Some of its uses are as
follows:
• Improvement oflearning climate of school/classroom.
• Enhancing teachers' capacity for facilitating learning.
•• Increasing parent and corrununity involvement.
• Increasing efficiency of textbook development, production and distribution.

\
• Enhancing the efficiency of the monitoring system.
54
I
Tools of Management
Better
I
School
climate
Improving
the work
environment
.
, Enhancing
Enhancing
elementary
school knowledge
teachers' of content
performance and
processes
Improving
system of
reward and
recognition
Fig.17.10: Sketch ofa Tree Diagram
17.6.3 Matrices
A matrix (plural. matrices) is a simple chart in a tabular form that shows the
relationship of various factors along one side (horizontally) with other factors listed
along the other side (vertically). Data are presented in tabular form and can be
subjective or objective, which are presented by single letter or word, different types
of symbols, with or without numerical values.
Five differently shaped matrices are possible depending on how many groups are to
be compared. They are:
• L-shaped ( relating 2 groups/variables)
• T-shaped (relating 3groups/variables)
• Y-shaped (relating 3groups/variables )
• C-shaped (relating 3groups/variables)
• Xsshaped (relating 4groups/variables)
Another form of matrix, called 'roof-shaped' matrix is used to relate one group/
variable to factors within itself In educational planning, mostly the first form relating
55
,~-. ,
.•..
.
1
Total Quality Management two groups/variables i.e. the L-shaped matrices are used: Example of such a matrix
is given in Fig.17 .11 in which the State Department of Education has compared five
different teacher training packages developed/available from different sources/
agencies in terms of six criteria Both word and numerical ratings have been used.
Finallyl, the packages have been ranked basing on the totals of numerical ranks
given each criteria.
Cost Acceptability ElTectivenes Acceptability Time to Time to Total Rank

by the s by start implement
Alternative
Agencies
organization teachers
.
Teacher Moderate Low Moderate High Low Lowest 16 3

Association 3 I 2 3 3 4
State Resource Low Highest High Highest Lowest Low 22 1
Unit (Best) 4 4 3 4 4 3
Engaging National High High Highest High Low Moderate 17 2
.. Consultants
Reputed
Institutions
High
2
2
3
Moderate
2
Moderate
4
2
3
Moderate
. 2
High
3
I
High
2
1
10 4
Standard Package Highest Low Low Low Moderate Moderate 08 5

available in the I 1 1 1 2 2
market
Low-4 Highest- 4 Highest-4 Highest- 4 Lowest-4 Lowest-4
Rating Moderate High -3 High -3 High -3 Low - 3 Low - 3
-3 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2 Moderate-2
High-2 Low -1 Low -1 Low - 1 High - 1 High 1 -
Highest-l
"
Fig. 17.11: A Matrix of Teacher Training Packages with Criteria of Selection
Those who are working in education are very familiar with the use of matrices as
they are extensively used in almost various aspects of educational planning and
decision making. The matrix ismainly used, among several other uses, forprioritising,
identifying responsibilities, and communicating through use of symbols.
Process of construction: Following are the steps of constructing a matrix:
• A representative group consisting of six to eight individuals with "somepersons

among them with, the knowledge of matrices is to be formed.
• Decide on how the matrix is to be used.
• Identify the subjects of comparison like individuals, objects, processes, strategies
of solving a problem, major tasks or activities for ajob etc. and put them on the
left side of the matrix.
• Identify the quality characteristics ( i.e. the dimensions of comparison) and
place them on the top ofthe matrix.
• Develop a system for evaluating/measuring/rating on each quality criteria in
relation to the suhjects to be evaluated/rated. These may be in terms of
qualifying words J ike low, moderate, high and very high, excellent, etc. or in
form of letters or pictorial symbols.
• Determine the relationship between a quality characteristic and all the subjects.
The value agreed on by the group is then placed in the appropriate cell jf' 'he
matrix.
• Continue until the matrix is completed.

56
7
o Decide on a point system for converting value judgments to a numerical value. Tools of Management
Place the numerical values in the lower right corner of each cell in the matrix.
• Total the numbers across each row.
• Rank the subjects. One that gets the highest numeric value gets rank 1and the
next highest rank 2 and so on.
Educational uses:
The use of matrix in educational planning is very popular. Starting froin the opening
of anew school to performing any new or routine activitieswe employ matrix although
formally not by its name. Selection of site for the new SChool,choice of design for
the school building,recruitment of teachers, strategiesfor boosting enrolment, ensuring
regular attendance,selecting appropriate method of teaching, improving pupils'
performance and all such issues in school education require proper planning in which
matrix can invariably be used with good results.
17.6.4 Interrelationship Digraphs

The interrelationship diagraph, also called relations diagram and network
diagram, is a planning tool that shows in pictorial form the cause-and-effect
relationships among the elements of a problem or issue. Let us consider the situation
in which a District Education Officer is feeling frustrated. He has put in his best
efforts to implement a new strategy for school improvement programme in his district
but the results are not very encouraging. Most of the schools did not show any
tangible improvement. In order to probe into the failures, he had assembled a group
of eight persons from among his officials, teachers, parents.and experts. The group
tried to analyse the causes offailure of the programme and came out with what is
called the interrelationship digraph. As you know, the interrelationship digraph is
used when we try to understand links between ideas ,cause relationships in a complex
issue or when a complex strategy is being implemented. Besides searching for causes,
we can also find the interactions among the components of the issue from the diagram
from which we can identify root causes and effects and study these relationships
among other aspects of the issue.
Process of construction: The following steps are used in construction of an
interrelationshipdigraph:
L Identify the issue or problem. Write tj:e statement defining the problem on a
card or sticky note and place it at the top of the work surface.
IL Identify ideas about the issue by brainstorming or take those ideas either from
fishbone or an affinity diagram and place them on cards and arrange the cards
in a circular pattern.
J
lll. Analyse relationships- which idea influences which other idea. Join two related
ideas by an arrow mark. One idea may have relationship with more than one
other ideas.
IV. Determine the direction of the arrow i.e. the position of the arrow head is
crucial since the head indicate to the effect of the idea which is at the other end
of the arrow.
v. Count the number of arrows going in and out of each box and place those
numbers in the respective boxes.
57
7
••••
TotalQuality Management VI. Identify root causes and effects. The root causes have the greatest number of
arrows going out of boxes and root effects have the greatest number of arrows
going into boxes.(see Figure 17.12)
Root Cause
..
Fig. 17.12: Interrelationship nfgraph of Barriers in Implementing School Improvement

Programme
Educational uses: Because of its complexities in construction, it is less frequently

used in educational planning. But with rapid expansion of education at all levels,
more issues and problems are coming up. There would be more and more need for
cause-and-effect analysis and hence the need for this tool.
17.6.5 RaderlSpider Chart

The District Education Officer ofNabarangapur, a district of Oris sa, was reviewing "
the state of quality of primary education of the district. He wanted to have a holistic
picture of the state of primary education of the district. Among other information on
the status of primary education in the district, he found the following indicators of
quality of primary education in his district:
Indicators Percent
Safe and well maintained school building 84.7%
Availability of water and sanitation facility 83.9%
Enrolment 94.9%
Gender Parity Index of enrolment 86.0%

58
I
Female teachers 37.3% Tools of Management
Retention Rate (Cl. I to V) 61.6%

Promotion Rate (CLI to V) 68.0%
Transition Rate (Cl.V to VI) 41.9% .
In order to have a holistic picture, the District Resource Group developed the diagram
called the 'radar chart' (Fig. 17.13 ). From this chart we can have an estimate of
the strong and weak areas of progress.
Quality of Primary Education in Nabarangpur Dist. Orissa in 2006-07
Well maintained building

100,]
I 7 ~O" '\ \
/ ' / I ,
Promotion Rate
\ \/ ./ /
\
\\ ~ ~~~<,
Retention Rate \.,,'_
\ <,
- "~-'-t' --'' .-----

~'-
----------,.
.>
,~"./
~y
~ /
Gender Parity mdex.of Enrolment
-",1-/
Female Teachers
Fig.17.13: Radar/Spider Diagram of the Quality Indicators of School Education
The radar or spider chart is a planning tool that graphically displays the comparative
values of multiple variables in a data set. Apart from radar and spider chart, this
diagram is also known by several names: web chart, star chart, star plot, irregular
polygon, polar chart or kiviat chart.
The chart consists of a sequence of equiangular spokes called radii (plural. of radius),
with each spoke representing one of the variables. The data length of a spoke is
proportional to the magnitude of the variable for the data point relative to the maximum
magnitude of the variable across all data points. Points representing the data values
are serially joined by straight lines which gives the plot a star-like appearance and
the origin of the name of the plot.
The radar chart can be used for several purposes:

• Which variables are dominant?
• Which are weak areas?
• Which observations are most similar? etc.
59
:~
7
Total Quality Management Process of construction of radar chart: The radar/spider chart can be constructed
using the following steps:
1. Make a list of each category or variable in the data set to be displayed.
n. Collect the data for each category or variable to be displayed.
m. Construct the diagram :
• Construct a regular polygon (whose side are of equal length) with as many
sides( or angles)as the number of categories or variables you are including
in the graph.
• Draw lines from '0' the center of the polygonjoining the centre to the
vertices of the polygon (these lines are usually called spokes or radii).
• Label one of these spokes-preferably the vertical one, vv ~l~. [he number
that is equal to the maximum of the reported values. This will be the scale
line.
• Divide each scale line into equal segments matching the units you are
reporting in. Repeat this for each spoke line. Draw lines to connect the
corresponding scale points on each spoke serially.
• Label each vertex (angular points or the outer end-points of the spokes)
of the polygon with the name of one of the elements to be graphed.
• Plot the value points for each variable/element on their respective spokes.
• Join the value points serially with a solid line.
IV. This graph can also be constructed using software programmes such as EXCEL,
LOTUS 1, 2, 3. and such other programmes.
Educational uses: The radar! spider chart is useful in comparing the status of
interventions at different stages of program implementation. It can further be used
by district and state level authorities to have comparative picture of different regions
in respect of different issues of educational programmes.
Examples of some uses ofthe chart in the management of quality of education are:
• Status of basic aspects of organisational climates of school in the state/district.
• Community perception of functioning of schools
• Academic performance by different groups of disadvantaged children.
• Comparing education districts on the major criteria of school effectiveness.
• Measuring status of schools within an education district on regular conduct of
eo-curricular activities.
17.6.6 Force Field Diagram

In the Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan, the activity approach of teaching-learning is being
promoted in the primary schools. But a District Education Officer could not observe
desired change in the classroom transaction processes in all schools inthe district.
He called a representative group of resource persons, teachers, parents, supervising
officials and did a simple exercise. He explained the desired changes to occur in the
classroom transaction and then asked the group to brainstorm on two issues: What
are the forces factions helpingthe efforts to change and those which inhibit or obstruct
60
7
the change. In summarising the outcomes ofthe discussion he isolated the two
categories of responses and diagrammatically presented the summary: He produced
what is known as 'force-jield diagram'.
Force-field diagram orforce-jield analysis is a managerial tool used to identify
the forces that either promote or inhibit change in the system. This is based on the
fieldtheory ofKurt Lewin, the 20tl1.Centuty gestaltian psychologist. The basic premise
on which this analysis rests is that change is the result of a conflict between opposing
forces. While there are some who welcome change and are quite proactive, there '
are others who oppose the change because they are either too comfortable with the
status quo or are afraid of the unknown associated with change. In order that change
takes place, the driving forces must overcome the restraining forces. From the
management point of view, the driving forces are to be reinforced and the restraining
forces have to be countered, reduced or directed elsewhere.
Adoption of Activity.;based Approach
.. Present
Situation
Driving Forces Restraining Forces

Most senior teacher are not interested
State Government supports
Parents are opposing
Adeauate funds provided
Poor academic support
Strong resource support
r' Weak monitoring
Good training programme
~ Teacher associations are apprehensive
Support by good curricular provisions ..•
Equilibrium Line
Fig.17.14: Force-Field Arialysis of the Adoption of Activity-based Approach
Process of construction:Following steps are usually used to develop force-field

analysis/diagram:
L Write the topic clearly at the top of the work space (flip chart or board) and
draw lines underneath topic as in Fig.14.
lL On the top of the right half of the space write "Driving Forces" or "Forces
For' and on the top of the left half write "Restraining Forces" or "Forces Against".
DL Let the participants identify the key arguments/forces for and against the issue.
Sometimes, the participants are divided into two groups - one group advances
the arguments in favor and the other against the issue.
IV. When all forces have been recorded, the group or subgroups should review
each of the forces/arguments listed and brainstorm on the ideas for.strengthening
the driving forces and reducing the restraining forces.
v. Once an item is finalised draw an arrow underneath it with arrow head pointing
to the middle vertical line.
VI. If the group members desire, then they can rank each force on both the sides in
the diagram, rate those on difficultyto change, prioritisingthe actions to strengthen
61
I
.Total Quality Management the driving forces and reducing the opposing forces. Sometimes, the length of
the arrow is made shorter or longer depending on their importance as indicated
by ranking or rating.
Educational uses: For its relatively lesser complexity, it can be used in most of the
situations. Some such situations jn
~
education. For example are as follows:
• Reducing incidence of early dropouts.
• Community involvement in school activities.
• Making High School Certificate Examination
-,
optional.
• Introducing competency-based evaluation.
17.6.7 Benchmarking
The principal of a school observed, while reviewing the performance of students in
the final school graduation examination that during last three years20% of the students
appearing at the final examination are performing at the mastery level (i.e. securing
more than 80% in average). While the expectations of the mastery learning strategy
is that more than 80% of the students would attain mastery level, the performance of
the school was much below the stipulated standards.
With the desire of improving the performance status of students, he set out by fixing
annual targets for the next five years. He did not go about it blindly fixing the absolute
mastery target. He set a"committee eight members which included teachers and
knowledgeable persons. The committee gathered information from the four best
performing schools of the district/state and also from three schools which were of
equal performance status with that ofthe school by actually visiting those schools.
After averaging the performance of both categories of schools and rigorous analysis
of the ground realities ofthe school, the committee fixed the target of bringing 60%
of students to the mastery level of performance with average yearly increase of
12%. This process briefly describes the process of'benchmarking,
Benchmarking, first developed by Rand Xerox in 1979, is a process of creating
the best possible standard to emulate and to compare with others. The term
'benchmarking' was first used by cobblers to measure one's feet for shoes. They
would place foot on a "bench" and mark the size ofthe feet to make the pattern for
shoes. Also referred to as "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking",
it is a process used in management, and particularly in strategic management, an
organisation evaluate their processes and compares those with similar processes
of other organisations against an indicator or a set of indicators created as standard
of performance. The process ofbencumarking involves analysis of a situation by
• Identifying what the best to date is, what the average ofthe best is that has
been accomplished in three to five other situations similar to yours, and what
your situation is relative to the challenge; both realistic and stretch targets for
the improvement objective can be established during this process.
• Visiting and studying systems and processes used by others that have been
identified as being the best. (Latta & Downey, 1994, p.95)
Process of construction:There is no single benchmarking process that has been
universally adopted. The first book on benchmarking process by Kaisar Associates
ofU.S.A. in 1988 suggested a 7-step approach. But there are others who have
proceeded with 12-step approach. However, the following steps may be used for
62 the benchmarking process in education:
1
• Identify the problem area to be benchmarked. Tools of Management
• Select a benchmarking team; usually 6 to 8 members who are well versed with
the problem and some of them are thoroughly conversant with the benchmarking
process.
• Train the group members in benchmarking.
• Identify the internal and external partners/customers involved in the problem.
• Identify institutions that are leaders in the area/district/state. Identify at least 3
to 5 best performing institutions in your district or districts similar in condition
to yours.
• Let some group members visit those institutions with an action plan prepared
earlier.Verykeen observation, recording the conversations and photo-recording
of different aspects and processes of the institutions are very much essential.
.
, • Compare your institution's performance with those visited. Analyse, discuss,
imagine creatively so as establishing far reaching, yet viable goals for
improvement of your institution.
• Establish a target for the improvement objective, and establish annual milestones
by which to gauge weekly, monthly and annual progress.
Educational uses: In education, all the situations can be benchmarked. With the
implementation of national programmes of District Primary Education Proj ect
(DPEP) and Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan(SSA), benchmarking has become a regular
practice while preparing perspective plans and annual work plans for every district.
Therefore, a familiar process for district and state level functionaries. However,
issues may be chosen depending on their importance and priority for benchmarking
as the process requires quite a considerable amount of fund.
Check Your Progress
5. Enumerate any three of newer quality tools that could be used for the pre-
learning stage.
6. What is interrelationship diagraph?
...................................................................................................................
. .
....................................................................................................................
63
I
17.7 INTEGRATIVE QUALITY TOOLS
Besides the three group process tools, we have discussed about 14 tools which
are, individually or in combination, used during pre-planning stage of total quality
management. In this section we shall discuss about four tools which integrate many
of the other quality tools which are essentially used in preparation of a plan and
guiding implementation. The four integrative tools discussed in this section are:
• Action panning,
• Activity networks,
• Plan-do-check-act cycle, and
• Hoshin planning.
Let us discuss each tool for our understanding.
17.7.1 Action Planning

Action planning is a process utilised by a group to identify the essential components
of an improvement plan and to document these components in the form of a formal
plan.
Very often we see that good plans gets awry during implementation due to absence
of any agreed upon action plan. Action planning is the process that guides the day-
to-day activities of an organisation or project. It is the process of planning what
needs to be done, when it needs to be done, by whom it needs to be done, and what
resources or inputs are needed to do it. It is the process of operationalising your
strategic objectives. Simply saying, it spells out in detail about the actions to be
taken, the time schedule of actions, the required resources- both human and material,
requirement of fund and the group or agency to perform the action. That is why it is
also called operational planning.
Most action plans consist of the following elements:
• a statement of what must be achieved (the outputs or result areas that come
out of the strategic planning process);
• a spelling out of the steps that have to befollowed to reach this objective;
• some kind of time schedule for when each step must take place and how long
it is likely to take (when);
• a clarification of who will be responsible for making sure that each step is
successfully completed (who);
• a clarification of theinputs/resources that are needed.
All of these are dealt with again inp/anning activities step-by-step. If you go
through an action planning process, then you should end up with a practical plan to
enable you to resource and carry forward the steps needed to achieve your
objective(s) a small and contribute to your long-term goal.
Process of developing an action plan: The action planning for an organization or
a project can be developed by a group using the following steps:
64
-.•-.~.
/
L Constitute a small group consisting of 6 to 8 members. The group should be Tools of Management
representative ofthose who have direct involvement with the problem.
lL Analyst>+:ledata relating to the problem utilising quality tools like brainstorming,
affiniry diagram, interrelationship digraph, force-field analysis and any other
tools required. If the analysis has already been done, the group needs to review
the analysed data. .
~
m. Conduct an analysis of resources and constraints (may use force- field analysis).
IV, Identify alternative solutions to the problem and select the quality characteristics
to be used in determining which of the potential solution strategies the best is.
Select the quality best possible alternative (may use matrix analysis).
v. Identify and select activities for implementing the solution strategy (develop
flowchart).
VI. List activities in the sequence they must be completed along with the details of
person/group responsible for action, resource needed, time schedule (starting
and completion time), cost, and evaluation (outcome expected).
Vll. Finalise the review and follow up action programme.
The details of the action plan an is usually reflected in a table. Different groups may
develop the table as per their requirement. But it holistic, concise, and clear to the
users/implementers. A sample plan is shown in Figure 17.15.
Result Area:
Person/Group/Agency Time Frame Expected

Activities Responsible for Start Completion Cost outcome
implementation
,,
, Fig.17.15: Format for Activity Planning
Educational uses: As is evident from the foregoing discussion, activity planning

involves use of multiple tools in planning for complex and composite issues. In
education, in developing institutional plans, sub-district and district level plans for
issues like school development, teacher empowerment, academic activities,
community empowerment activity planning procedures can be employed for
qualitative planning. Since it involves multiple tools and weighs all possible approaches!
strategies, it is time consuming and cost intensive Therefore, it should be used properly
in planning selective issues having large coverage in terms of operational area, required
time duration, magnitude of resource requirement and extent of expertise available.
17.7.2 Activity Diagrams

Complex projects require a series of activities, some of which must be performed
sequentially and others can be performed in parallel with other activities. This
collection of series and parallel tasks can be arranged to form a network of activities.
An activity network is, therefore, a model showing the tasks that need to be
accomplished in order to get a job completed. The tasks are arranged in a sequential
manner beginning from the starting point and ending at the finishing point indicating
the completion of the job. The network also shows time required for completing
each activity. The activity network is used when:
• Planning any project or activity which is composed of a set of interdependent
actions/tasks. 65
7
Total Quality Management • Time, costs, and quality are important factors and tasks related to the job must
begin and finish in a specific sequence and in a timely fashion.
• It is required to calculate the earliest date the job can be completed and the
ways of changing this.
• It is required to identify and address risk to in completing a project in time.
• Group members are required to be communicate the process of the programme
of action to others. ~
• Monitoring the progress ofthe activities at any point oftime while the project
is under way is required ..
Broadly there are two categories of network diagrams:
• Bar chart or gantt charts
• Arrow diagrams, also known as PERT charts
Gantt charts Of the two categories of network diagrams, Gantt chart is simpler to
understand, and construct. Let us take a hypothetical job having seven interdependent
tasks (A,B,C,D,E,F, ,and G) and the time required for completing each task given
is shown in the following table. Further, since the tasks are interdependent, the
immediate predecessors have also been given.
From the chart we can easily see that the tasks A,B,and C commences from the
start at a time simultaneously. And the tasks E and F commence only after completion
oftaskB.
Table 17.7.2 Tasks of the Project
Task Duration Immediate

(in months) Predecessors
A 3 -
B 4 -
C 6 -
D 5 A
E 1 B
F 6 B
G 7 C,D,E
U sing the data in Table 17.7.2 the Gantt Chart has been drawn which is shown
below:
Tasks Duration in months
2 3 4 5 678 9
66 Fig. 17.16: Gantt Chart ofthe Data given in Table 17.7.2
/
Tools of Management
Arrow diagrams: The arrow diagram or the program evaluation and review
technique (PERT) is a network model that demonstrates a more integrated picture
of interdependencies of the activities. PERT was developed in the late 1950s for
the U.S. Navy's Polaris project in which thousands of contractors were engaged. It
has the potential to reduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.
An example of a simple PERT chart based on the data given in the Table 17.7.2 is in
Fig 17.17.
D(5)
A(3)
Q C(6)
.G)~7)
B(4)
. ~G)
Fig.17.t7: PERT Chart for Data in Table 17.7.2
Now let us understand the PERT chart more closely.
• The diagram is consisted of arrows and nodes or milestones (indicated by

circles). An arrow indicates an activity or work that consumes time, money or
resources. Although the arrow represents flow oftime (left to right) it is not
drawn to scale and hence its length is not proportionate to the amount oftime
or difficulty of the task.
• The point indicating the completion of one task and commencement of the next
immediate successive task is called a node, a milestone or an event and is
usually indicated by a circle or a box within which the number indicating the
event is displayed.
• An event or activity is unique and can occur only once in a network.

• All work flow is from left to right; therefore, looping backward or forward is
not possible.
• Two events cannot be connected by more than one activity (arrow)

• Paths in a network are identified by the events through they pass. In the Fig. 17
there are four paths as follows:
~ 1-72-74-75
iI) 1-74-75
ill) 1-7 3 -7 4 -7 5
iv) 1 ~3 75
• Events and activities serve as constraints on succeeding events and activities.

For example, activity G cannot begin until all the three preceding activities C,D
and E have been completed.
67
7
'Iota. ',tu ity Management • The path that takes the longest time (adding the activity time of the activities on
the path) is called the critical path. tor example, in the Fig. 17.17 the path
indicated by 1-72 -7 4 -75 takes 15months to be completed which is the
maximum time taken by any of the rest three paths, and thus it is the critical
path for the project under consideration. The critical path determines the
minimum timerequiredfor.projectcomp'ction.
Process of construction ~f arrow diagramms: For the construction of both the
Gantt and PERT charts the following steps are used:
1. Constiicte a small group of 4 to 6 teachers who possess adequate knowledge
of the project and will be involved in implementation.
Let the group brainstorm and identifyallthe component activities/tasks/milestones
of the project that must be undertaken and completed.
lll. Determine the proper sequence of the activities clearly specifying the immediate
preceding activity or activities of each activity.
IV. Decide on the unit of time to be used (i.e., hours, days, months .etc.).
v. Estimate the time to complete each activity.
VI. Decide which of the charts (Gantt or PERT) is suitable for the requirement.
While there is no hard and fast rule for the choice, usually Gantt is preferred for
small or medium projects while PERT ispreferred for large and complex projects.
Vll. Draw the required activity network diagram.
V1ll. Discuss in the group and fmalise the diagrams.
There are numerous variations in the form and analyses of the network diagrams
depending on the level of complexity of the project and hence, construction
procedures also vary accordingly.
Educational uses of arrow diagrams: Activity networks can be used whenever
planning is required for any activity. Preparation of annual district plans of education
for different levels, Arranging eo-curricular events like sports 'events, competitions,
celebrations, annual scheme of academic activities, conducting examination are
some activities, for example, planning for which the activity network shall be of
great use. It not only helps in implementation of activities, it also helps in monitoring
the activities in time.
17.7.3 Plan.,Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle

The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle as per its title is a four step process when
combined with full use of other quality tools, is a power tool of total quality
management. It is easily understood and also easy to use tool. All the types of basic
tools can be used to complement and strengthen the utility of this tool. While the
tools discussed so far are either used at the pre-planning stage and/or at the planning
stage, PDCA is useful both at the planning and implementation stages. Further it has
possibly widest range of use in the sense that it can be used in the simplest of problems
to the most complex problems.
The PDCA was made popular by Dr. Edward Deming, regarded as the quality
guru of the Total Quality Management(TQM) movement. He used to refer it as
Schewart Cycle. Later he modified PDCA to Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycle.
68
1
Process of construction of PDCA cycle: Tools of Management
The following are the steps for developing the PDCA cycle:
Form a small group with 6 to 8 members who have knowledge and familiarity
with the project and a few with the knowledge of PDCA cycle.
D. Let the grow match the planning process with the reqpirements and complexity
level ofthe identified problem.
m. Start with the activities of PDCA cycle. At each step the group has to combine
different quality tools depending on the coritext and complexity of the problem.
• PLAN: Analyse and modify the problem if necessary. Decide or improve
previously decided targets and objectives. Assess the availability of
resources and plan for it. Collect and analyse data and prepare the plan
or develop an improvement plan using appropriate quality tools. Prepare
in advance the schedule and tools for monitoring.
• DO: Implement the plan with continuous monitoring. Always refer to
baseline data while monitoring. Make minor adjustments wherever.needed.
• CHECK: At regular intervals determine the progress made with reference
to targets fixed. Document that you have learnt about the supporting
system, procedures and processes.
• ACT: The group along with the functionaries of the organisation is to
decide together as to whether abandon the strategy, modify it, strengthen
it, or continue without any modification.
• PLAN: After the completion of one full cycle update the plan based on
the lessons learnt and then continue with the cycle.
Educational uses of PDCA cycle: The PDCA cycle can be used in planning
and implementing any strategy in education. In all the issues that have been given
under the use of previous tools, PDCA can be usefully employed.
With focus now shifting to quality education, it becomes imperative to use a process
so that planning, implementation, monitoring and suitable modifications at appropriate
moment of the programme implementation can be taken care of continuously. This
is precisely the hall mark ofthe PDCA cycle.
17.7.4 Hoshin Planning

Hoshin planning is based on the philosophy of focusing on doing the one thing for
achieving the long term vision or improvement activity. The Japanese words hoshin
meaning shining metal, compass, pointing the direction; kanri means management
and direction, management where as the words nichijo kanri can be interpreted as
daily (fundamental) management for the entity/organisation. Thus, hosliin process is
a systematic planning methodology for defining long-range key entity objectives.
These are breakthrough objectives that are long-range typically extend two to five
years with little change. (Breakthrough objective is that which aims at a radical and
dramatic improvement in one or more organisational competency.) Second the hoshin
process does not lose sight of the day-to-day 'fundamental' measures required to
run the organisation successfully (Kenyon,1997).
The HoshinKanri was first developed by Dr. YojiAkao, a Japanese planning specialist
in early 1970s and Hoshin planning process was first introduced in Hewlet Pacard
69
I
Total Quality Management Company of USA in 1976 and produced instant success.Hoshin process has the
following underlying beliefs:
• It is better to do one priority thing right the first time rather doing numerous low
priority things right. 'If everything is a priority, then nothing is.'
• Rather be pro active and empower and excite every one in your organisation
rather than be reactive and cpntinue to do similar things.
• Create a community of learners and leaders rather than continuing with
stereotypes.
In other words, Hoshin believes in continuous quality improvement with determination
rather loosing in doing several things in a routine manner.
Process of Hoshin planning: Hoshin planning process is useful in developing a
new strategy or modifying the existing strategy using the following broad steps:
1 Establish a customer-focused vision by collating the input and involvement of
representatives of all stakeholder groups.
ll. Let a focus group identify, analyse, and select one or two top priority problems
that are solvable.
ill. . Take one or two problems and benchmark them.
IV. Analyse alternative solutions that have strength in realising the breakthrough
objectives.
v. Review the existing policies and strategiesin relation to attainingthe breakthrough
objectives.
Vl. Hold a series of free and open discussion, brainstorming sessions with the
representatives of all possible stakeholders regarding the targets, solution
strategies, and policies and regulations for implementing them. The process
continues till representatives from all sections of stakeholders have been involved.
vu. With the lessons learnt from the above exercises, follow PDCA process in
order to develop plan- at least an annual plan and ifthere is more interest a five
year perspective plan.
vm. Continue with PDCA cycle till the improvement targets have been met.
Briefly, the Hoshin process emphasizes on:
• Breakthrough objective focus.
• Development of plans that adequately support the objective.
• Continuous improvement through incorporation ofPDCA cycle.
• Involvement of all stakeholders.
• Communication.
Educational uses: Like the PDCA, Hoshin planning, its principles and concepts
can be useful in any educational setting or organisation which is seriously engaged in
continuous quality improvement.
70
I
Check Your Progress Tools of Management

7. List four integrative tools which are individually or in combination used during
the pre-planning stage. ~
.....................•..............................................................................................
8. What is action planning?
•
17.8 LET US -SUM UP
Three categories of quality tools have been discussed in this unit. They are group
process tools, basic quality tools or statistical processing tools, and integrative
tools. The three basic-tools that have been discussed here can be used as preparatory
processes for any other basic tools. Among these three tools, while brainstorming
and nominal group techniques are more open and free flowing, focus group discussion
is more structured and is widely preferred in solving edu~ational problems.
The seven basic tools - histogram, Pareto charts, scatter diagram; trend or run
chart, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram and flow chart- are basic in nature
that each tool provide vivid and accurate picture of actual picture of educational
issues. Besides, these tools help the educators in identifying the real issues, focus on
• specific issues and help to diagnose and evaluate key problems of education. The
visuals in shape of graphs and diagrams help common users to understand the
intricacies of the issues involved. .
• The seven newer type basic tools - affinity diagram, tree diagram, matrices,
interrelationship digraphs, radar/spider chart, force-field diagram and
benchmarking extend the scope of analyses of the earlier basic tools. These
are mostly used as the pre-planning tools and provide more and qualitatively
better insights into the issues.
• The four integrative quality tools - action planning, activity diagrams, plan-do-
check-act (PDCA) and Hoskin Planning are composite and integrate several
basic tools and group processes in orderto make educational planning more
comprehensive. While all the four tools are essentially planning tools, these
tools can also be used fo~implementation, monitoring and evaluation especially
the last two tools combine all these functions ..
71
1
1. Discuss the relevance oftools of management in the context oftotal quality
an
management in educational institution.
2. Select any integrative quality tools and discuss its relevance in the context of an .
elementary schools. ~
3. Discuss the role of pre-planning tools in TQM in a college setting.
17.10 REFERENCES
Besterfield, Dale H. (2004). Quality control (7th.Edn.) , New York: Pearson
Education.
Bernhardt, Victoria L. (2002). The school portfolio toolkit: A planning,
implementation, and evaluation guide for continuous school improvement.
Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
.
,
Delbecq, A.L. and Van de Ven,A.H. (1971). A group process model for problem
identification and programme planning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,
17, 326 - 328.
Downey, C.J., Frase, L.E., and Peters, J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press. _-e,
Friendly,Michael (2008). Milestones inthe history of thematiccartography, statistical

graphics, and data visualisation. h ttp i/. Zwww.math.yorku.ca/S'C SI Ga 11e ryl
milestone/milestone.pdf.
Fryman, Mark A. (2001). Quality and process improvement.

Goldstine, H. (1972). The computer from Pascal to VonNeumann. Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Ishikawa, K. (1985). What is total quality control? The Japanese way. Eriglewood
Cliffs, New jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kaisar Associates (1988). Beating the competition: A practical guide to
benchmarking. Washington D.e.: Kaisar Associates.
Kenyyon, David A.(1997). Strategic planning with Hoshin process. (http://

www.qualitydigest.comlmay97/htmllhoshin.html)
Latta, R.E and Downey, C.J. (1994). Toolsfor achieving TQE. California: Corwin
Press.
Osbome, A.E (1963). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative
problem solving (3rd.Edn.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Sterneckert, Alan B. (2003). Critical incidence management
Stewart, D.W. (1990). Focus group: Theoryandpractice. NewburyPark, CA:
Sage.
Vedros, K.R. (1979). The nominal group technique is a participatory, planning
model in adult education. Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee.
Wheeler, Donald 1. (1999). Understanding variation: The key to managing chaos

(2nd.Edn.). Knoxville, TN: SPC Press.
72
I
Tools of Management
1. a. Brainstorming
b. Nominal Group Techniques

c. Focus group discussion
2. Brainstorming has all the potential of generating ideas for bringing about
continuous development of educational system and process at all.levels. Some
examples of the educational problems require brainstorming for generating
solutionare :
a. What is the method of recruiting effective teachers for the elementary
schools ofthe state?
b. How to ensure regular attendance of all enrolled children in school?
c. Strategies for enhancing community involvement in school activities.
.. d. Ways of improving quality oflearning achievement of students .
3. There are seven basic tools, these are:
(a) Histogram, (b) Pareto charts, (c) Scatter Diagram, (d) Trend charts, (e)
Control chart, (f) Cause-effect diagrams, and (g) Flow charts.
4. A Pareto chart is a type of chart which contains both bars and a line graph. The
bar display the value in descending order, and the line graph shows the
commutative totals of each category, left to right. The chart was name for
Vilfredo Pareto.
5. ~ Affinity diagram
it) Tree Diagram
ill) Matrices
iv) Inter-relationship Diagraph
v) Rader/ Spider Chart

vi) Force- field Diagram
vii) Benchmarking
6. The interrelationship diagraph also called relation diagram, network diagram,

is a planning tool that shows in practical form the cause -and effect relationship
among the elements of a problem or issue.
7. The four integrative tools are:
a. Action planning
b. Activity network
c. Plan-do check -act cycle, and

d. H0~!:-J.rlPlanning
8. Action planning is an process utilised by a group to identify the essential

components of an improvement plan and to document these components in the //
form of non plan. Most action plan consist of the following elements. 73
I
• a statement of what must be achieved( the output or result areas that
come out ofthe strategic planning process).
• a spelling out of the steps that have to befollowed to reach this objective;
'"
• some kind of time schedule for when each step must take place and how
long it is likely to take (when);
• a clarification of ~ho will be responsible for making sure that each step is
successfully completed (who);
• a clarification of the inputs/resources. that are needed.
74
/
UNIT 18 STRATEGIES FOR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
Structure
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Objectives
18.3 Strategies for Total Quality Education
18.3.1 Clarifying purpose and mission
18.3.2 Structure through systems thinking
18.3.3 Building interpersonal relationships
18.4 Implementing TQM in Education

18.5 Let Us Sum Up
.
, 18.6 Unit End Activities
18.7 References
18.8 Answer to Check Your Progress
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Quality,equality and quantity have constituted the elusive triangle of Indian Education
System. Of the three, ..•vhile issues of equality and quantity are considered as external
to education, quality is most central to all forms of education. Any education without
quality is no education at all: it will not be able to fulfill its promises and will also do
immense harm (Naik, 1975).
Since independence, India has made significant progress in all aspects of education;
particularly the quantitative expansion of education at all the level has been quite
phenomenal. But, the quality of education continues to be the matter of concern.
Caught between the individual and social aims of education, the quality considerations
focused more on teacher and subject- centered approaches relying heavily on the
teacher centred approach of school and classroom management. The student was
expected to be a passive receiver of the instructions. Emphasis was given on the
product rather than on the process of education. The quality of education is mainly
assessed by the outcomes and rarely by the processes.
In the changed scenario the facilitation oflearning is more important than directly
imparting information to the learners. Therefore, quality of education depends on
the type of educational management that nurtures, facilitates and sustains the quality
oflearning. In this context, the implications of the total quality management (TQM)
in education are worth studying.
You have already studied about quality education in the earlier unit. In this unit, we
shall discuss the strategies to enhance quality oflearning through the principles of
TQM.
18.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the Unit you should be able to :
• list different strategies for quality improvement in education. 75
/
TotalQuality Magement • aware of the role of strategies for quality education,
• discuss the different strategies of ensuring quality education.
• describe the processes of implementing quality education programmes.
18.3 STRATEGI~S FOR TOTAL QUALITY EDUCATION
As is clear in the Downey's Quality Fit framework, (Refer sub-section 16.13.4)

the sir 1ttGY building for the total quality management in education involves three
basic aspects and they are :
• Stating clearly the purpose and mission of the organization.
• E".suring proper structural characteristics with system thinking.
• Establishing strong relationship among all stakeholders.
We shall discuss all the three basic aspects in the following sub-sections:
18.3.1 Clarifying purpose and mission

The first step needed to initiate the total quality management in an organization is to
clarify the purpose and mission for which the organization is created. In this context
four quality premises have to be addressed: focus on the customer, shared mission
and vision, constancy of purpose, and continuous improvement. Let us discuss each
.premise in details.
i: Customers and their needs: In any organization, the customer is the most
important person who needs our careful attention. Customers should not be
considered as interruption in our work.
In a school, for example, a teacher's customers are students whereas he/she is a
customer of the principal. In the traditional framework, students serve the teachers
who work for the principal. But, in the quality fit framework this sort of organization
is just the reverse of traditional framework. Students are our primary customers.
You can not conceive an educational institution without the students. Any educational
activity conducted in schools ismeant to serve the students' needs. Similarly, the
teachers' main customers are students closely followed by their parents. Again,
teacher is a customer of the principal who in turn is a customer of the district educatisa --.
officer or management.
-~
......•.
School as an organization has both internal and external customers depending on

whether they are within or outside the school system. Besides students as the prime
customers, parents, teachers, support staff, administration authorities, etc., are the
internal customers of the school. Students as adults, institutions of higher education,
vocational or technical institutions, business and industry are some examples of the
external customers of the school.
In the framework of the total quality management the customer is the boss in both
the top-down or bottom-up approaches. The involvement of the customer in the
management is important. The customers are involved in partnerships, setting,
giving real-time feedback, and allocating resources. Since students are our most
important customers, meeting their needs is our first and foremost responsibility. To
serve them effectively, we should know them thoroughly:
(a) Who are our customers?
76 (b) What our customers want?
I
(c) How well we are meeting their needs? and Strategies for Quality
Improvement
(d) How we are improving the ways we meet these needs?
One way of maintaining the customer focus is, as Kano suggests, enhancing the
quality of the organization, i.e. the school or any educational iristitution in our case
(Lillrank & Kano, 1989). He points ourthat quality is defined by customers.'
expectations arid excitement. When our need are met beyond the expected level,
we feel excitement which has immense multiplier effect. If our students are excited
about being in our schools and experience joy in their learning and the teacher feel
satisfaction and happiness in their work, then it is easier to sustain quality of our
education system.
Through we are more concerned with needs of our customers, it is also important to
take the needs of the service providers or suppliers into consideration. As you know,
each of us is a customer at the same time a supplier. For instance, a teacher is a
• customer of the principal or the district education officer while acting as
the main
.
, supplier for the students. In the quality movement, we have to help our suppliers to
help us in meeting the customers' needs. This is rarely done in the existing school
environment. For instance when we are unsatisfied or disgruntled with a product or
service being provided, how .often do w.e help that supplier to serve us meet our
needs better? When suppliers are not meeting our needs, spending time to help
them may be beneficial to us in the long run,
ii. Shared mission and vision: In the total quality framework every organization
must have its mission and \ ision to achieve The mission statement exprcs S ~ ." ,,-
intent with our customers and draws the focus of our actions. Ami ..sion ~r?:-:::,~~,!
of an educational organization may have four basic elem nts. The) me, , -.s.
• Who are the customers of the ..rganization (who receives the service)?
• Who delivers the service to the customers (who are the suppliers)?
• What is the purpose of our service (what customers' needs are met)? .
• What are the basic means to achieve our purpose (how

.
do we achieve the.
service or product)?
Fromthe above stated basic elements we can say that a mission statement of an
educational organization describes the aims, general actions to achieve those aims
and criteria for making the choices for actions. A mission statement is achievement-
oriented which we try to accomplish for our customers, the students. Each institution,
department, professional group and even individual in the organization need to have
separate mission statements.
Sample Mission Statements

• It shall be the mission of the school to develop the skills, attitudes, and
motivation in our students using contextual materials and experiences
so that they will become' responsible citizens and be capable of making
positive contributions to society.
• My mission is to offer instructional leadership that provide experiences

that facilitate the growth of each student to fulfill the district mission.
Once a mission is established, then a vision is needed to make the mission an ever-
evolving reality realizing the ever-changing nature of the customers' needs. Visions
look beyond what we are doing today to what we want to be doing in the future.
77
I
Toral Quality Management Visions are about imaging the foture to create new possibilities. A vision statement
includes the following:
• Where do we want to be in future?

• What will we look like at that time?
• What will we be doiJg differently?
Sample Vision Statement
• Shahid Memorial School is dedicated to providing the highest quality

educational program with the cornerstones of value learning, self-worth
among students and staff, quality performance among students and staff,
and transition for students to a productive and responsible participation
in society at large.
• Five year from now, the district is committed to bring all out of school
.
,
children within the school going age to the schools through massive
community involvement and'ensure quality education to all.
Although it is relatively difficult task to help others to develop shared vision statements,
it is worthwhile to have such participation in developing visions for the organization.
It develops ownership of the vision and can inspire all concerned have a distinct
·course of action as they move to actualize their vision. Institution's vision, therefore,
need to be collaborative with direct involvement of all stakeholders. The task of
synthesizing multiple vision directions in a collaborative effort requires six leadership
qualities. They are as follows:
•
•
Foresight, so that we can determine how the vision fits into the evolving school
environment in future.
- ,
• Hindsight, so that the vision does not violate the traditions and culture of the
society around the school. .
• A worldview within which to interpret the impact of possible new developments
and trends.
• Depth perception, so that vision can be seen in appropriate detail and
perspective.
• Peripheral vision, so that the possible responses of stakeholders to a new
direction can be comprehended.
• Revision, so that all visions previously synthesized are constantly reviewed as
the environment changes.
(Downey et al., 1994 pp.42-43)
Shared vision is more important in the sense that it binds all stakeholders together
around a common identity and sense of destiny (Senge et al., 2000).
iii. Constancy of purpose. Deming (1982) in the first of his famous 14 points
advocated to create constancy of purpose toward the mission of the organization
(school system). After the mission statements are fmalized in an organization, it
is important to reflect the statements i~ our action or plans . Keeping the
mission alive ismore difficultthan creatinga mission statement.Ithelps in focusing
the energy of staff members. Having a sense of mission or constancy of purpose
means each member of the staff is passionate about the aim of the organization
78 and a commitment to ensuring that decision.
I
Downey (1993) suggests several strategies for maintaining a constancy of purpose Strategies for Quality
towards the mission: Improvement
• Ask in every situation whether this action, activity, thought.' or behavior

contributes in some way to assign value to our students and their learning.
• Have staff members and other stakeholders answer the question for each
decision point of how the decision facilitates the fulfilling of the mission ..
• Search out opportunities in all discussions to coach and influence others to
think about and act on the mission.
• Revisit the mission and vision statements regularly to revitalize employee
commitment, and have individuals check their work groups and their own
activitiesfor alignment with the mission.
• Have all work groups prepare and review mission statements in alignment with
the systemmission-groups such as administration, management, teams, teaching
faculties, department staff, grade-level groups, and interdisciplinary teams.
• Have groups identify critical success factors that will create opportunities to
bring about the mission and vision.
• Orientation of new employees for preparing their own mission and vision
statements. Place mission statements in documents such as yearlytargets, annual
reports, newsletters, letter heads, and name cards;
• Critique agendas for meetings for value to the mission. Debrief meetings and
ask whether the discussion and the proposed actions helped us to reach our
mission and vision.
• Ensure that management board meetings start with a focus on learning and the
student performance activities of work groups are in line to the mission and
VISIon.
• Establish yearly process goals and strategies tied to the mission and vision.
Of all the strategies, the most important is the way the main or core educational
leaders express their belief and personal commitment to the organization's mission
and vision. This behaviour would influence others to a great extent.
iv.. Believes in continuous improvement: In Downey's Quality Fit Framework,
continuous improvement or as many experts term it as 'continuous quality
improvement (CQI)' is a powerful idea that recognizes change as a continuous
process and accordingly quality improvement is also a continuous process.
CQI is an approach to quality management that builds upon traditional quality
assurance methods by emphasizing the organization and systems. It focuses
on "process" rather than the individual; it recognizes both internal and external
"customers"; and it promotes the need for objective data to analyze and improve
processes.
Deming's fifth of his 14 points is to improve constantly and forever the system.
Constantly andforever are the two key words on which he stressed. For him
quality is a never-endingj ourney. CQI is a management philosophy which contends
that most things can be improved. This philosophy does not subscribe to the theories
that "if it ain t broke, don'tfix it." At the core ofCQI is serial experimentation (the
scientific method) applied to everyday work to meet the needs of those we serve
and improve the services we offer. CQI requires that we need to change our mental
models constantly (Senge, 1990).Mental models or paradigms are the way we set 79
/
Total Quality Management rules or regulations that define our thinking. Some of the paradigm shifts that quality
brings to school system are as follows.
CQI PARADIGM SHIFT

OLD PARADIGM NEW PARADIGM
Technology/machine resources- People as valuable resources
Narrow tasks, simple tasks Broad tasks, multiple skills
External control: Self-control: teams and ' o
mandated procedures Departments
o .
Hierarchical, autocratic style Flat organizations, partjcipative style. "
0., "
Competitive
"
Cooperative
Alienation: "It's only ajob" Commitment: "It's my job"
c
Low risk taking" Challenge, c~eativity, and high risk t~king
Maintain the status quo- don't Continual improvement and .:
rock the boat innovation ,'
..
Avoid or resist change
Stay on top of change
Core concepts of CQI: The following are the core concepts of cot. ,.
• Quality is defined as meeting and/or exceeding the expectations of our customers,
o Success is achieved through meeting the needs of those we serve.

.
• Most problems are found in processes, not in people. CQI does noi seek to
blame,. but rather-to improve processes. ' ~ .
• Unintended variation in processes can lead to unwanted variation in outcomes,

arid therefore we seek to reduce or eliminate uriwanted variation.
• 'It is possible to achieve continual improvement through small, incremental

changes using the scientific method.
• Continuous improvement is most effective when it becomes a natural part of

e
the 'Yay everyday work is done,"
Core steps in continuous improvement: We shall follow certain steps to ensure

continuous improvement of quality of education. The mainsteps are as follows:
•
••
•• U ncferstand the needs of the people who are served by the system:
"
.' '.
• Identifyand define measures of success. Find the bestpractices in your district,
or institution and set that as a benchmark for others. '
. '
• Brainstorm potential change strategies for producing improvement.
• Plan, collect, and use data for facilitating effectivedecision making.

. .
• Apply the scientific method to test and refine changes ...
Shewart's Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) or its popular variation Plan-Do-Check-

Act (PDCA) is the most widely used basic model for CQI .Each step can be
80
I
r 0 '
improved with process charts, data charts, and team brainstorming. Following this Strategies for Quality
Improvement
simple model we can implement any CQI programme effectively. (For detail
, please refer to section 17.7.3 of Unit 17).
o ~8.3";2 Structur~ through systems thinking

The quality movement has' based in systems thinking, a powerful concept, into the
'educationalmanagement. A system is a dynamic and complex based entjty,interacting
~ a structured functional unit. Senge, defines a system as " any perceived whole
, whose elements 'hang together' because they continually affect each other over
time" (Senge et aI., 2000). Deming (1991) is of similar view and described it as "a
network of functions or activities within an organization that works together for the
<rimofthe organization". ., "
. ,
. The word.vsystem" is derived from the Greek verb sunistanai which originally
meant "to cause to stand together." As this origin suggests, the nature of a system
"
includes the perception with which the observer causes the system to stand together.
Within every educational district, community, school; or classroom, we can notice
.
.
,
dozens of systems: the policy of operfing of schools, deployment of teachers, school
, governance; curriculum development,' management of school discipline, conduct of
",~xan1inations.are all examples of.systems functioning, In thisconsideration, as .
Sengeet al:(2000) state, "every child's life is-a system, and every educational
. practice is asystem" (i,.7S). This statement ISin accordance with the philosophy of
,the quality ~ovement. : .., " '. . " ,
. . ~ '. J
Skyttner (2009) ~uinmariZ~.;;the nl!ii~characteristics-of a system:

• Q ".. '. • co.
• Interdependence of objects and their attributes -independent elements can , '

•• Q • • ". Cl...· 0.".
.". "",
, ..' •• 0
~ver constitute. a .system. ' '.' ',' , .' ' ~ '

. . '. ...
'. . (
(, ,
• ' '.H6lisrh ~emergent properties not po~si~le.to detect,byana:lysisshould be possible

", to define bya holistic app~oach., ' " . . . ' .
•• 0 " Goal seeking -systemic Interaction must result in some goal or 'fi~al state.
. . ... ' . 0,0:. " . o. •• 0 .
•. lnputs and outputs ', ina dosed, sYstem.'inpUts.are.determined onceand
constant; in an ~pensystein'adilitiof1al.:inp.~1i?
ard admitted fromrhe environment,
• 'T;an~fo~at~~~ oJi~f'~tS int~ '~utP~ts.:
.are obtained.: . ' '.'.:~.
i~sis t~e'," process
,
by Which the g~IS '
..
.
0 .' .: ". • ,.' " • '
.'. . . ...
/ <- "
' ..'
• Entf0py - the amount of disordero'r.randomne~s present in any-system .. ,,' ", , ,

• Q • '. • • ~. c '. • ." • • ",
• Regulation - a method offeedback is necessaryfor the system to operateas '

per expectations. .' '.' . .
~.
• Hierarchy - complex
. ".
wholes are rriade up of smaller subsystems.
. •
. . . :
• '11',
.
'
• Differentiati?n - specialized units perform specialized functions.' "

.
• Eguifinality - altemativeways of attaining the same objectives (convergence).
• Multifi~alitY- attaining alte~ative objecti~es from the

"
same ~puts (&~e;g~nce). ,
Systems thinking is the ability to understand (and sometimes to predict) interactions

and relationships in complex, dynamic systems: the kinds of systems we are
suIToumi~d by and embedded in (Senge etal., 2000). System approaches require
changes in the usualthinking from.. ,
81
1 \
Total Quality Management • Straight line to circular causality.
• Independent to interdependent relationsuips.
• External to internal focus.
• Knee-jerk, short-term, fragmented problem solving to proactive, long-term,
holistic solution seeking.
~
• Thinking something is wrong with a person to acknowledging a problem in the
system.
Peter Senge oftl.c Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has been the most
influential contributor to the study of systems and systems thinking He points out
several important ideas regarding systems thinking:
• The world is independent and dynamic with multiple events happening
simultaneously.
• The focus of systems thinking is on patterns of events and the structures
generating behavior.
• The most important effects are often delayed.
• The emphasis needs to be on internal locus of control of people and leadership
in terms ofinfluence.
• In solving problems, there are no final right answers, but there are better answers.
(Senge, 1990)
Senge et al.(2000) suggests that systems thinking is shaped by four components:
l. Events: Whatjust happened? Critical event or events that engage us for
finding a solution is the starting point of the process of system thinking. Quick
responses to these events are not the solution to the problem, because they
only constitute the tip of the iceberg of the major portion of which remains
hidden from the sight. "
11. Patterns/Trends: What's been happening? What is the history of the

event that has just taken place? We have to study the pattern of the system
behavior and the trend of events for quite a long period which may throw light
on the nature of the real problem.
lll. Systemic Structure: What are the forces at play contributing to these
patterns? Solving the problem means changing the pattern of events that are
indicative of the problem to grow to the present state. Behind each pattern of
behavior is a systemic structure - a set of unrelated factors that interact, even
though they may be widely separated in time and place, and even though their
relationships may be difficultto recognize. When studied, these structuresreveal
the points of greatest leverage: the places where the least amount of effort
provides the greatest influence for change. These are not necessarily the points
of highest authority; they are the places where the ingrained channels of cause
and effect are most susceptible to influence.
Many of these systems have developed over time as the result of habitual
approaches to chronic problems. Study of the patterns would bring such
unintended yet influential structures to the fore.
N. Mental Models: What about our thinking that allows the situation to
82 persist? Systems often take their shape from the values, attitudes, and beliefs
)'
of the people in them. That's because our mental models, our theories about Strategies for Quality
the way the world works, influence our actions, which in turn influence the Improvement
interactions of the system.
Each element of the systemic structure is based on a set of attitudes and beliefs.
Some of them have remained unchallenged, even though they are misleading or
counter productive, because they are unseen. Bringing them safely to the surface
and inquire about them is a significant part of systems thinking.
• Focus on optimization: Close to the concept of systems thinking is
optimization of organizations' functioning. Deming (1991) emphasized that in
order to obtain quality the system must be optimized i.e. to perform at its highest
possible level.During the process of optimization not all departments or divisions
in an educational organisation or an education system can be optimized. He
believes that it is the obligation of the department or division in the school
system to contribute its best to the system, not to maximize its own production
or service. Some components of an education system may need to operate at
a loss to optimize the entire system. Optimization for everyone should be thy
basis for negotiation between any two people, divisions, or groups in the
education system.
There are many examples of how optimization and sub-optimization can work
in an educational system. For example, for giving more time for learning in the
school or college, the availability of classroom time is optimized while other
activities like sports and cultural functions are suboptirnized at times. To achieve
this, the institution can take et cumber of steps for further optimizing several
components while suboptirnizing other components of the system.
Once the faculty members and others realised that not every unit can be
optimized, they will identify numerous areas where they can begin to work.
The key is to determine what they wish to optimize.
• School as a rational organization: A rational organization is one in which
the activities of the institutions are related to its goals and one that is able to
relate internal activities to its purposes (English, 1987). Any institution desirous
of maintaining quality need TO be a rational institution. Are our schools, colleges
or other educational organisation fall into the category of rational institutions?
The goals ofmost of our schools are nebulous because of various reasons,
one being that the groups that control schools desire ambiguity as a matter of
continuing to control them thus perpetuating the irrationality of the schools. A
rational education system establishes long-range plans for movement toward
system's mission and vision. Such plans will have the following minimal
components: .
• Mission: General purpose, beliefs, and educational goals of an educational
organization on which all programmes and services are built.
• Critical analysis: Collection and analysis of vital data of all facets of the
organization which is used to define the status and future ofthe organization.
• Assumptions: Assumptions about the visions of institutions in future are helpful
in bridging the gap between needs and action goals in the planning process.
• Components: Means of grouping goals for the purposes of communication
and management,
• Objectives: Statement of results that are measurable and that have time
constraints. Objectives are written for each goal. As objectives are attained,
goals are accomplished. 83
7
Total Quality Management • Evaluation: Each objective should be evaluated and the evaluation
procedures should be developed at t],p time the objective is written.
• Action plans: Actions to be taken that will help achieve the objectives: Each .
. ".
objective will have one or more activities.

• Monitoring: Systems for assessing the status of activities, analyzing the results,
and reporting outcomes.
• Stakeholders' involJement : All stakeholders in a ~ystem are tepresented in
the plan development.
• Linkage documents: All documents in a system are aligned to the plan.
• Establishing integrated webbed structure: This systems thinking process i,
is also influenced by the type of organizational structures. In the traditional

education systems the organizational structure is hierarchical as shown in the
figure 18.1 below.
Traditional Hierarchical Structure

of Management
Fig. -18:1 : ,Traditional Hierarchical Structure of Management

.
Hierarchical structures is usually top-down in' command, disconnected and
fragmented. '
. .." .
In suchastructure, the levels of employees or institutions are well defined and the
.. flow of communication is from one level to the next immediate level (higher or lower).
Such a system 'of management levels creates barriers for free flow of information
,and free interaction among employees' at ditrerent levels is not easy, Hence, involvement
and commitment of the stakeholders are rarely ensured. Most of our educational
'organisations and even education system use hierarchical system that is typically
paternalistic and dependent.
,Senge( 1990) suggests an integrated, webbed organizational structure. Such structures

are fluid and share power( figure 18.2). Irrespective of one's position in the system
; he/she can share arid communicate freely with any other members of the organization
to solve problems.
WEB STRUCTURE OF
. SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT
84
__ -.- F::..;i:2.g.:
18.2: Web Structure ofSvstems Manazemenr _ _ _
I
There are several advantages of the integrated web structure. Important among Strategies for Quality
them are as follows: Improvement
• Flexibility without lowering morale- people are not primarily concerned with
rank and position.
• One can serve in various teams without worrying about whether the assignment
is appropriate to status. ~
• The inclusive, webbed structure takes full advantage of staff skills and talents.
• It flattens the organization so that staff can be rotated, resulting in fewer
promotions and demotions.
• There is greater flow of information.
• There is more direct, free-flowing, integrated communication.
Transition or switching over from a dependent hierarchical structure to an
interdependent web structure is not easy. For years every one in the education
• system, the teachers and students, have been comfortable in dependency roles.
.. Quality leadership challenges us to become interdependent leaders. We share power
and become equal colleagues with others to solve system's problems and to fulfill
the mission. Such a transition is difficult but not impossible. But it is an exciting
journey when administrators, staff, parents, students, and external customers come
together in a systemic way to fulfill the institutuion's mission. Each member becomes
a highly competent, best-in-the- field person working collaboratively with all the
others- a dream team (Downey, 1992).
Using adhocracy approach: Adhocracy is a way of doing something different
than you are doing now. There are several critical attributes of an effective adhocracy
(Waterman, 1990). An effective adhocracy
• Requires broad participation.
• Cuts across conventional lines and boundaries.
• Directly confronts ineffective communication.
• Encourages a team effort.
• Requires trust and integrity.
• Minimizes mindless bureaucracy.
• Works only when the leaders expect it to work.
Focus on process: Focusing on the process rather than on the product or output
has been unequivocally advocated in the quality movement. Improving the process
is the personal responsibility of every employee of the school system. Each of us can
add value to the learning of children through our processes.
Deming expressed strongly that the goal must focus on quality issues, not on the
number produced. In school learning, the achievement scores have been the
indicators of quality education. Every thing in the school has become test-driven. If
these tests arenot measuring the important learningfor students,the student is probably
being harmed. Therefore, ensuring quality in the learning process is more important
than the achievement scores which can be obtained even without excellence in
learning.
The process unlike product demands continuous efforts. Ensuring quality means
monitoring process at appropriate points to improve its quality. Sashkin and Kaiser 85
"T'
/
Total Quality Management (1991) have proposed five qualitycheck points where the processes can be
improved:
User point:. We need to know as to how well our service useful to our customers
in meeting their need in real life. For our students, this would mean following them
into society to see how well their education is.coming to their help in solving their
real life problems. Only wheg we know customer needs, wants, and expectations
the desired transformation processes be designed.
Distribution point: This check point is the final inspection prior to customer use.
Process of actual production or service delivery:. The use of statistical process

control here to assess quality in the process becomes very important. Using best
practices in our educational institutions with a focus on curriculum and instructional
delivery would be valuable.
Incoming quality assurance: As we receive our products from suppliers and
vendors, we should check the quality of the product. In education, textbooks, and
other teaching-learning materials and facilities can be checked during their production
for quality. So far as non-material inputs are concerned those can be checked with
appropriate measures, such as the competence of new staff can be checked through
diagnostic tools and specifying areas of growth.
Supply point: The main intention is to work with suppliers to improve their products
and services before they reach us. This is comparatively easier in case of suppliers
of instructional materials and textbooks. But the main suppliers to the education
system are parents who are providers of children with whom we work. Working
with parents will help them to prepare their children before they come to our school,
and while they are in our schools.
Those who manage each of the five quality checkpoints effectively, as a part of a
complete, continuous, and constant process will successfully attain quality in all
fimctions of the education system.
Understanding variation: Knowledge of variation is one ofDeming's (1991)
four areas of profound knowledge. Variation occurs in every sphere of our life and
is unavoidable. In our schools the variations are observed in the performance of
students, teachers, provision of materials and resources and in all other aspects.
Enhancing quality is implied by minimizing variation.
Shewhart first recognized the importance of understanding and measuring variability
in a process (Sashkin and Kaiser, 1991 ).Deming(1991) pointed totwo types of
errors that arises while attempting to improve results by the study of variation. There
are two types of causes of variation- causes common to all variations, and causes
specific to particular variation. One type of error is committed when we treat the
outcome as a result of special cause of variation when it actually is due to the
common causes. The second error is caused when we attribute the variation due to
common causes when actually it is due to special causes. Common cause problems
of variation are recurrent while special causes are not.
Reduction of variation in any aspects enhances quality of that aspect. There are two
ways to remove or control the causes of variation. First, we want to identify and
eliminate the special causes by bringing them into a state of statisticalcontrol. Second,
we need to work on improving the processes by reducing common causes - causes
that still exist when the process is in statistical process control. /'
For control of the common cause rework, using contingency plans or asking people
86
I
to work harder will not work. Giving people new tools or changing the procedures Strategies for Quality
Improvement
might help. Whereas the special causes can effectively be controlled by using
contingency plans.
Encouraging data orientation: To deal with variations in systems, the quality
movement has a process called statistical process control (SPC). A number of
'quality tools' have been in use for SPC and ensuring quality of processes. (Ref.
Unit 17).
18.3.3 Building Interpersonal Relationships

Thethirdmajorleveragepoint in Downey's qualityfitframeworkisbuildingmeaningful
interpersonal relationships among all types of stakeholders and employees in our
education system. In developing a mission and a vision for our schools, we must
involve all stakeholders. Providing support to teachers while they are interacting
with students should be our priority. When we are engaged in transforming our
schools to quality schools, we need to mobilize the students, teachers, staff,
administrators, parents and community members to work in unison for providing
better opportunities for learning. Here mobilization means building meaningful
interpersonal relationships to bring about the desired changes in our schools.
• Mobilizes the employees. Employees in a quality organization function together
on their own initiatives to achieve the mission objectives. They are coordinated and
interdependent members in contrast to the employees of the traditional educational
organizations who are mostly either totally dependent or isolated and independent.
In order to transform the organization into a quality educational institution, its
employees have to be motivated to become interdependent.
Possibly, the following three actions conducted in right manner can bring about such
changes:
First, provide adequate training in interdependency cutting across the divergent
functions within an organization. The training inputs must include among other things
the basic premises and beliefs of quality, the nature and use of quality tools and
processes the understanding of which would help the employees to incorporate
those into their actions as they work together to solve real problems in the schools.
Second, an environment of mutual respect among employees must be established.
This would help in the occurrence of equitable treatment in the area of policy
development. A sense of fairness and appreciation should also be reflected by
developing regard for all employee contributions to the common purpose of the
organization. Finally, cross-fimctional teams of employees in an organization need
to be established. This will facilitate adequate access to one another, other teams,
available resources, and a shared information base that will allow them to make
decision at the lowest level possible in the organization.
Encouraging interdependent employees: Once the mobilization of employees
to become collaborative and interdependent is initiated, the educational organization
should encourage simultaneously the interdependent behaviors among them. At
this point we must distinguish among the three terms- dependence, independence
and inter dependence. Where administrators are autocratic and think that whatever
they do and think are always right, then the employees would be unmotivated and
in need of constant inspection of their work. They would be looking to the top for
any decision and direction. This creates an environment of dependency. In the long
run, the employees either become totally dependent or due to extreme frustration
they try to break the shackle of dependency and try to be independent. By seeking
independence through further dependent behavior one cannot be interdependent. 87
.,'
7
Total Quality Management Covey(1989) suggested development of seven habits mid employees that manifest
//
.0
in consistent behavior. Theyare:
i. Be proactive: Being proactive means taking responsibility - the ability to "
choose the response to a situation. Proactive behavior is a product of conscious
choice based on values rather than reactive behavior, which is based on feelings.
We may choose to be preactive by identifying mid clarifying our basic values
without being defensive, protective or offensive.
ii. Begin with end in mind:. The fundamental application of this habit is to
begin each day with an image, picture, or paradigm of the end of our life as
our frame of reference, By being proacti ve and using our imagination mid
conscience, we can vividly visualize our ultimate potential.
iii. Putfirst thingsfirst: It is the "Just do it" part of reaching interdependence.
It is the practice of self-management that impacts a person's personal mid
professional life.
iv. Think win-win: Win-win is a frame of mind and heart that constantly seek
mutual benefit in all human interactions. The concept of win-win is one in which
all parties involved in an issue arrive at amutually satisfactory resolution. It is
opposed to compromise wherein all parties involved in an issue had to give up
something. It is possible in a system that supports it - you can't talk win-win
mid reward win-lose. In any event, win-win is the creation of a third alternative
that seeks better solution to a problem. /
v. Seek first to understand, then to be understood: Seek first to understand
involves a paradigm shift since we usually try to be understood first. Empathetic
listening is key to effective communication. It focuses on learning how the
other person sees the world, how they feel. The essence of empathetic listening
is notthat you agree with someone, it's that you fully mid deeply understand
the person emotionally as well as intellectually.
vi. Synergize: Simply put synergy means, "the whole is greater than the sum ofits
parts." Together, we can accomplish more than what we can achieve individually
together, Synergizing is becoming truly interdependent.
vii. Sharpen the saw: It is renewing of four dimensions of your nature - physical,
spiritual, mental mid socio-emotional, All the four dimensions of your nature
must be used regularly in wise mid balanced ways. People in high performing
teams make time for such experiences and incorporate them into their weekly
activities. They are as follows:
• Creating organizational culture of'shared values and beliefs.
Interdependence, the hallmark of quality organization, is possible within a
culture of fairness, openness, trust, mid respect for dignity of others. To
create and sustain a clear standards or norms for behaviors and conflict
managements must be collaboratively developed and incorporated into
the organizational culture. Sashkin mid Kiser (1991) support the creation
of a culture based on shared beliefs. The development of an understanding
of an effective team environment is the first step in developing
interrelationships among the group members leading to interdependence.
• Understanding ;;;qJioyeesmotivation. Leaders must have knowledge
of the strategiesof motivating people intrinsicallyas opposed to extrinsically.
Employees should be encouraged to become self-motivated in the areas
88 of skill development, skill improvement, and quality improvement ofide4s
,
/
and processes. Any organizational reward should be gained from this Strategies for Quality
premise and not be generated on performance .. The rewards and Improvement
recognitions should be based on those generating intrinsic motivation and

not extrinsic motivation. .
Divergence of personalities in a group striving to become a team can have
adverse effect on the group. A sensitive leader tries to assist group members
in transforming their need for extrinsic praise, rewards,
~ and. motivation to
meet their self-esteem and worth needs to learning how to have these
. , needs met intrinsically.By honoring individuals with trust, the leader can
empower them becoming innovative. As a person become innovative
divergent in his or her thinking, 'he or she will begin to make systems
improvement. ' J
• Recognizing failures in the system. Rather than believing that most

problems are a result of employee behavior, the quality movement
recognizes that most failures are attributable to system problems.
Performance evaluation of the system and not that of teachers and other
.. employees ia advocated by quality movement. A school transforming its
evaluation system from an individualized inspection model to a system
model subscribes to the Deming concept of improving the process not the
person.
• Provision for a community of learners. Establishing a community of
learners is achieved by providing ongoing education and training to intemal
and external customers and learning teams in a continuous efforts to
improve the system. Deming(1982) has identified a worker's education
and training as critical to the well-being of the employee and the
organization.
Whenever teams are actively engaged in constant improvement and taking·

action for change, they are learning the task at hand from one another
. and from their own actions. The notion of continuous learning is one that
every team and individual in an organization must strive to make a part of
his or her core being and practice in his or her behaviors every minute of
everyday.
• Provides for constant communication andfeedback. More and more
ongoing communication among management and employees effects
improvement in the organization.Communicationbecomes essentialamong
all stakeholders to solve intricate problems. The following ideas about
communication are important in building quality organizations:
i) Communication must be interactive so that stakeholders' ideas and

concerns can actively impact the direction the organization is taking.
il) One way communication by letters, memoranda, news letters are
becoming highly ineffective.
iii) Open communication removes reservations and misunderstanding from

the participants.
iv) Interpersonal communication behaviors can make or mar the environment
of trust and openness which is necessary for a group to transform into a
high performance team.
-.I
- 89
/
Total Quality Man .-ement Some basic tenets for effective communication management are:
• ensure that each member of the team has a ~!~anceto be heard, develop a
shared knowledge base, go slow to go fast, listen with respect.
Check Your Progress

5: How do the interpersonal relationship will be build up ?
6. List any three advantages ofthe integrated web structure .

..
--
18.4 IMPLEMENTING TQM IN EDUCATION

The decision regarding the implementation of the TQM in our system of education
has to be taken by the policy makers. But there has been clear trend towards
improving quality of education and making it learning centric is quite pronounced in
the National Curriculum Framework, 2005 and other recent efforts . Whether or
not we totally adopt TQM in education system of our country, we need to be aware
of the ways of implementing it so that it can be useful for infusing quality elements
into our system. In this section we discuss briefly the process of implementing TQM .
from the beginning.
• Before ann education system decides to start implementing TQM , it is highly

recommened that the policy makers, the decision makers, the members of top
management and administration, teacher's representatives, opinion leaders
- :sfUciythe basics of the movement in detail. Being a learner first is a critical
attribute in deciding about quality.
• Know who the customers are, direct and indirect, as well as internal and
external.
• Work on a shared mission and then on shared vision.

• Work on improving customers' services with internal customers. Particular
emphasis should be placed on improving the conditions ofteachers and other
employees, services and staff, the primary service providers and so on.
• Move the employees to refocus from themselves as customers to other
customers- especially our studen~s.
• Modeling from senior officers is critical. Model behaviors shown by the top
90 managers/administrators shall have direct effect on others in the organization.
1
.• Decide and finalize using a collaborative approach regarding the essential guiding Strategies for Quality
Improvement
features on the three main points of quality i.e. Purpose, Structure and
Relationships for the respective education systems.
• Plan elaborately for each main point in the light of the Quality Fit Framework
which have been discussed briefly in this unit.
While implementing quality ideas in our education system, itis important to remember
what we know about change. Scholtes (1988) identifies several aspects of change
as they relate to our quality endeavors:
Keep in mind the laws of organizational change.
Things are the way they are because they got that way.
Unless things change, they are likely to remain same.
Change would be easy if it was not for all the people.
• People do not resist change, they resist being changed .

..
• Break down barriers.
• Identify informed networks.
• Build a critical mass.
• Treat change like a courtship.
• Anchor the change.
At the end let us see what Downey et al.(1994) had to conclude. The question for
us now is, do we begin? It means a long-term commitment to bringing about
meaningful reform in our educational organisations. But not doing it well could mean
another decade where quality is lost to increased productivity. Just another fad-
quality. Let us hope not. There are too many important quality premises to sacrifice
another opportunity, go for it. (p 122)
Check Your Progress
b) Check your answer with that given at the end of this unit.
7. What are the process of implementing TQ M in your organisation.
,
18.5 LET US SUM UP .,'
..
• The concept of quality in terms of customer's satisfaction has been reflected in

all definitions by all those associated with the Total Quality Management. The
dimensions of quality and quality education as per the basic premises of quality
education have been drawn.
,/
• The famous 14 points ofDeming about quality and its educational implication, I
91
/ /
I
Total Ouali-y Management along with the premises about quality given by two eminent quality gurus-JlI!JIl
and Crosby have also been presented 111lJ similarity of views of the three quality
gurus have been discussed.
• Basing on the premises of quality education, particularly on the Deming's 14 -
Points, dimensions of'Downey's (1997) Quality Fit Framework with its three
leverage points- Purpose, Structure, and Relationships have been presented.
~
• Under strategy for TQE, the conceptual discussions have been made under
three sub sections - Clarifying purpose and mission, Strucure through systems
thinking, and Buildingmeaningful relationships.
• Finally a short presentation on the implementation ofTQM in education have
been attempted. .
1. Select any strategy and use it in your organisation for quality education.
2. Develop a strategy for implementing TQM in teaching-learning situations in
your school or college.
18.7 REFERENCES
Besterfield, D.H., Besterfield-Michna.C; Besterfield, G.H., and Besterfield-Sacre,

M. (2003). Total quality management (3rd• ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
British Standard Institution (1991). Quality vocabulary Part 2: Quality concepts
and related definitions. London: BSI.
Covey, S.R. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective people. New York: Simon
& Schuster.
Crosby, P.B (1984). Quality without tears. Singapore: McGraw Hill.

Deming, W.E. (1982). Out of the crisis. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Deming, W.E. (1991, March). A system of profound knowledge. Paper presented
at the Quality Seminar, Santa Clara, California.
Downey, C.J. (1992, September). Can the Lone Ranger join the dream team?
Quality Network News, AASA,Arlington, Vancouver.
Downey, C.l, Frase, L.E., and Peters J.J. (1994). The quality education
challenge. California: Corwin Press.
Feigenbaum,A.V (1991). Total quality control (yd. ed.). New York: McGraw
Hill.
Johnson, R. and Winchell, W. (1990). Management and quality. Milwaukee, WI:
American Society for Quality Control.
Lillrank, P. and Kano, N. (1989). Continuous improvement: Quality circles in
Japanese industry Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Miller, D. (1993, August). Total quality management and the curriculum audit
seminar. Paper presented at the National Academy of School Administrators
Workshop, American Association of School Administrators, Gurnee, Illinois.
92 Mishra, S. (2006). Quality assurance in higher education: An introduction.
/
Bangalore: National Assessment and Accreditation Council, and Commonwealth Strategies for Quality
ofLeaming. Improvement
Naik, J.P.(1'7/ 5). Equality, quality and quantity: The elusive triangle in Indian
education. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Owlia, M.S. and Aspinwall, E.M. (1996). A framework for the dimension of quality
in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4~2), 12-20.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Y.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985). A conceptual model of
service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49,
Fall, 41-50.
Pfeffer, N. and Coote, A. (1991). Is q1!ality goodfor you? A critical review of
quality assurance in the welfare services. London: Institute of Public Policy
Research.
Pirsig, R.M. (1974). Zen and the art of motor cycle maintenance. New York:
Vmtage.
..
Sashkin, M. and Kaiser, K. (1991). Total quality management.
Seabrook,NewYork: Ducochon.
Scholtes, P.R. (1988). The team handbook. Madison, WI: Joiner.
Senge, P. (1990). Thejifth discipline. New York: Doubleday.
Senge, P.,Cambron-McCabe, N., Lucas, T., Smith, B., Dutton, 1., and Kleiner, A.
(2000). Schools that learn. London: Nicholas Brearly Publishing.
Shewhart, W.A. (1931). Economic control of quality of manufactured product.

New York: D. Van Nostrand.
Skyttner, L. (2006). General systems theory: Problems, perspective, practice.
New York:World Scientific Publishering Company.
Waterman, R.H. Jr. (1990). Adhocracy: The power to change. New York:
W.W.Norton.
Watts, R. A: (1987). Measuring software quality. Oxford: National Computing
Center.
Weisbord, M.R. (1987). Productive workplaces: Organizing and managing for
dignity, meaning, and community. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
1. Ref. section 18.3

2. Quality may have several dimension. Garvin listed as many as nine dimensions
of quality. They are -Performance, Features, Conformance, Reliability,
Durability,Service,
3. Juran 1974, recommends a ten steps approach in quality improvement. These
are as follows:
L Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.
ll. Set explicit goals for improvement.
lll. Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems, 93
7
rotal Quality Management select projects, appoint teams, designate facilitator).
V. Carry out projects to solve problems.

vii. Give recognition and reinforce success ..
IX. Communicate results.
x. Keep records of changes.
Xl. Build an annual improvement cycle into all organizational processes.

4. a) the definition of quality is conformance to requirement
b) the system of quality is prevention
c) the performance standard
d) the measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.

5. Ref subsection 18.5.3
6. There are several advantages of the integrated web structure. Important among
them and as follows:
• Flexibility without lowering morale- people are not primarily concerned

with rank and position.
• One can serve in various teams without worrying about whether the
assignment is appropriate to status.
• The inclusive, webbed structure takes full advantage of staff skills and
talents.
• It flattens the organization so that staff can be rotated, resulting in fewer

promotions and demotions;
• There is greater flow of information.
• There is more direct, free-flowing, integrated communication
7. Ref. sub-section 18.6
.
r
~4
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1
UNIT 19 ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES
Structure
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Objectives
19.3 Agencies Associated with School Education

19.3.1 Advisory Bodies at School Education
19.32 Examining Boards at School level
19.3.3 Others Agencies
19.4 Bodies at Higher Education Level

19.4.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)
19.42 State Councils of Higher Education
19.4.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
19.4.4 All India Council ofTechnical Education (AICTE)
.. 19.4.5 Distance Education Council (DEC)
'19.4.6 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)
19.4."7 Bar Council of India (BCI)
19.4.8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
19.4.9. Rehabilitation Council ofIndia (RCI)
19.4.10 Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR)
19.4.11 Council of Architecture (CoA)
19.4.12 In'stitute of Company Secretaries ofIndia (lCSI)
19.4.13 Institute of Cost and Works Accountant ofIndia (lCWAI)
19.4.14 National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI)
19.14.15 Association ofIndian Universities (AIU)
19.5 Let Us Sum Up
19.7 References
19.1 INTRODUCTION
You might have come across in the colleges/universities/professional education
institutions/ school's admission notification regarding their grade by NAAC or
recognition by AICTE, NCTE, CBSE, ICSE and so on. These agencies orbodies
are responsible for accreditation/recognition ofthe institutions. India's commitment
to progress immediately after attaining independence system has led to rapid
expansion at both the school and higher education levels. The quantitative growth
of educational institutions, the student enrollment and the number of teachers in a
short span of time led to the dilution of quality of education at all levels that is input,
process and output. Similarly increase in the participation of private and international
partners in education and use ofICTs in education have led educational institutions
in the country to provide services to a good qualify and also comparable to its
international counterparts. In this context, the education system confronted with
many questions such as: -
• What are the determinants of quality in education?
95
• How to measure or assess an instifution objectively?
/
Total Quality Management • Who will assess the educational institution?
• What are the different bodies associated with it at the national level?
• What are the major challenges faced by them?
These are sonie questions and you may be thinking of many more in this aspect.
In this present unit we will be discussing about them and their role in quality education
either at the school education or higher education.
19.2 OBJECTIVES

• list various agencies involved in total quality management;
• discuss the role of various agencies involved in improving the quality of school
education; and
.. • discuss the role of various agencies involved in improving the quality of higher
education.
19.3 AGENCIES ASSOCIATED WITH SCHOOL

EDUCATION
Youhave studied about various national bodies in the Course MES 042 :Dimensions
of Educational Management. Many of those bodies/agencies are associated
with quality control and/or quality assurance at the school and higher education
levels. In this section you shall study various bodies engaged in quality assurance of
school level education. They are advisory bodies, examination bodies, and other
miscellaneous bodies.
19.3.1 Advisory Bodies at School Education

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is anational
level advisory body for school education in the country. The NCERT undertakes,
supports and finds educational research and offers training in research
methodology. Developmental activities in school education include development
and renewal of curricula and instructional materials for various levels of school.
education and making them relevant to changing needs of children and society. The
innovative activities include development of curricula and instructional materials in
the area ofpre-school education, formal and non-formal education, vocational
education and teacher education. These also include the domains of educational
technology, population education, inclusive education and other important areas.
The N CERT and its regional institutes of education are involved in pre-service and
in-service training ofteachers at pre-primary, elementary, secondary and higher
secondary levels. Vocational education, educational technology, guidance and
counseling, and special education are the areas with in which NCERT is associated.
NCERT through its various departments of the National Institute of Education
(NIE), Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs), Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) and Pandit Sundarlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational
Education (PSSCIVE) are engaged in various extension activities in all the States
and Union Territories of the country.
(
NCERT publishes textbooks for different school subjects for classes I to XII and
96 also workbooks, teachers' guides, supplementary readers, research reports, etc.
I
In addition, it publishes instructional materials for teacher educators, teacher trainees Role of Different Agencies
and in-service teachers. These materials are adapted/ adopted by various state
governments for school education. The textbooks are published in English, Hindi
and Urdu. Besides, it publishes educational journals in the area of school education
and teacher education in English and Hindi languages.
NCERT interacts with international organizations such,as UNESGO, UNICEF,
UNDP, and World Bank in specific educational problems and arranges training
programmes for personnel from other countries. N CERT is one of the centers of
APEID.1t also acts as the Secretariat of the National Development Group (NDG)
for educational innovations. In this way the NCERT acts as a major agency for
implementing the bilateral cultural exchange programmes entered into by the
Government of India with the governments of other countries in the fields of school
education and teacher education.
State Council of Educational Research And Tr~ining(SCERTs), States
Institutes of Education (SIEs) and State Institutes of Educational
Management and Training (SIEMATs): States have various bodies/agencies
for advisory, regulatory and accreditation purposes concerning school education.
Institutions like SIE, SCERT , SIEMAT, etc are responsible for quality education
in institutions under their jurisdiction.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): It has provided an alternative
school education opportunities to all those students who could not avail formal school
education due to one of the other reason.
As an apex body, NIOS functions as a resource organization for all the States and
Union Territories in the country. NIOS has also the responsibility to expand the
open distance learning system (ODL) at the school level throughout the country. It
has been playing the lead role in developing a network of open schooling channel in
the country and as a result ten State Open Schools have come up. The National
Consortium of Open Schooling (NCOS) set up by NIOS has an important role in
the promotion and development of open schooling in the country.
The NIOS provides opportunities of continuing education to the learners through
its basic education, secondary education, senior secondary education, vocational
education and life enrichment courses.
The NIOS provides opportunities to learners to choose vocational subjects in
combination with academic subjects at both the secondary and senior secondary
levels. There is unique blending of academic courses with the vocational courses so
that learners can make a choice about whether to pursue both or one of the streams.
State Open Schools (SOSs): A number of states have established open schools to
cater to educational oppurtunities for all those who cannot afford formal school
education due to one or the other reason. The SOSs have been assigned regulatory,
accreditation, examination and quality assurance role, in respective states.
19.3.2 Examining Boards at School Level

Being in the concurrent list, education in the country is controlled by both the states
as well as central governments. Therefore provision and maintenance of the quality
in educational institutions is the responsibility of the respective states and central
governments. The constitutional position of education under centre as well as
respective state governments has given the administering authority for education in
the country to Government of India at different levels, starting from primary school
97
1
Total Quality Management education to university level education and research. Therefore, education is managed
by the various apex bodies created by the government. There are various Boards
of education which affiliate schools and conduct examinations. The role and functions
of some of the examining boards are discussed as follows:
i) The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): It is an apex body of
education under the supervision of Ministry of Human Resource Development
(fvfHRD). Government of India. The CBSE acts as a controlling agencies for entrants
for various professional courses. The CBSE was established to achieve certain
interlinked objectives in the direction of quality initiatives in education in general and
examination cum certification in particular. The CBSE is an examination body for
secondary and senior secondary school certification. It conducts entrance
examinations, for various professional courses like medical, dental, engineering. It
also looks after the functioning of schools accredited to Central Education System.
It also affiliates schools, thus has control over the central education system. All the
schools of Delhi, Union Temtories, states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim falls
under the j urisdiction ofCBSlir But the jurisdiotion of CB SE also goes beyond the
national boundaries. The objectives of the CBSE are as follows:
• . Prescribe norms and guidelines for examinations and conduct public
examinations at the 'end of secondary and senior/higher secondary stages ..
• Grant qualifying certificates to successful students of the affiliated schools.
• . Fulfillthe educationalrequirements of children of people employed intransferable
jobs .:
• prescribe and update the course of instructions of examinations.

• Affiliate institutions for the purpose of examination and raise the academic
standards of the country.
The prime focus ofthe Board is on:
• Innovations in teaching-learningmethodologies for student-friendlyand students-
centered paradigms.
• Reforms in syllabus and evaluation methodologies.
• Skill based learning by includingjob-oriented and job-linked inputs in existing
and newer courses.
• Regular in-service training programmes for teachers and educational
administrators in current and crucial issues related to pedagogy, affiliation.
examination and rela!ed aspects. '
ii) Council oflndian School Certificate Examination (CIS~.E): It has been
established as an apex organization to control the system ofISCIICSE education in
India. It is aBoard for Anglo-Indian Studies in India. It was established in 1958 by
the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate to ensure that its
examinations become adapted to the educational needs of the country. The main
purpose of setting up this council was to replace the overseas Cambridge School
Certificate Examination conducted by British authorities.
It conducts two examinations' Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE)'
and 'Indian School Certificate' . Indian Certificate of Secondary Education is a K-
10 examination for those studying class X and Indian School Certificate is a K-12
public examination conducted for those studying in class XII. Indian School Certificate
98
1
(Class XII) is treated as equivalent to Senior Examination of the University of Role of Different Agencies
Scotland. This implies that students will no longer be required to obtain' A' level
qualifications or complete bridge courses, while seeking entry to Universities in the
UK and other overseas Universities in the Commonwealth. Indian School Certificate
qualification is the only qualification from India that has been granted this special
recognition. Majority of schools affiliated to the B03.fdare in India and a number of
schools in other countries with non-resident Indian populatiens.
ill) The State Government Boards:
Apart from CB SE and CISCE each state in India has its own State Boards of
Education, which looks after the educational issues at school level in the State. A
school can also get affiliated to the State Government Boards.
iv) National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): the other functions of the
NIOS under advisory, regulatory and affiliating have been covered earlier. It is also
an examining as well as accrediting body and also dev.elops its own curriculum. It
• also accredits institutions fulfilling the required norms and conditions as its study
.. centres for offering its various programmes. Its study centres for secondary and
senior secondary courses are set up in the affiliated schools either by CBSE or state
boards of School Education.
19.3.3 Other Agencies

i) Central Tibetan Schools Administration (CTSA): The Central Tibetan
Schools Administration is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of
Hutna.nResource Development, Government of India established in 1961. The
objective ofCTSA was to establish, manage and assist schools for the Tibetan
children living in India while preserving and promoting their culture and heritage.
The schools are affiliated to CBSE and follow NCERT curriculum. The CTSA
is responsible to assure quality of the schools under its control.
0) Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS) :The Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti is
also an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Govt oflndia that runs Navodaya Vidyalayasthrough the country.
These schools were created to identify and foster talented children from the
rural area ofIndia. These schools are located all over the country, including
Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands except Tamil Nadu.
The objectives of the NVS are as follows:
• serve the objectiv~ of excellence coupled with equity and social justice.
• promote national integration by providing opportunities to talented children,
largely rural, :fromdifferent parts of the country, to live and learn together and
develop their full potential.
• provide good qualitymodem education, including a strong component of culture,
inculcation of values, awareness of the environment, adventure activities and
physical education.
• ensure-that all students ofN avodaya Vidyalayas attain a reasonable level of
competence in three languages as envisaged in the Three Language Formula;
and
• serve, in each district, as focal point for improvement in quality of school
education through sharing of experiences and facilities.
Navodaya Vidyalayas are residential in nature where the students and teachers live
99
-- --- ---------------------------------------------------------
1
Total Qnah y Management on campus. These schools draw their student strength from talented children, selected
on the basis of a merit test, called the Jawalc, Navodaya Vidyalaya Selection Test,
The test is held annually on all India basis and at block and district levels. The NVS
scheme ensures that rural children get high quality education, at par with their
counterparts in cities.
Admissions in Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas art: primarily for children from the
rural areas, with provision of75 percent seats for rural children and 30 percent
seats are earmarked for the children from the urban area. Seats are reserved for
children from the SC and ST communities in proportion to their population in the
district but no: less than the national average. One-third of the seats are for girl
students. Three percent ofthe seats are reserved for disabled children.
Navodaya Vidyalayas, affiliated to the CB SE offer free education to talented children

from Classes-VI to XII. Entry to a Navodaya Vidyalaya is in Class-VI only along
with lateral entry into Class IX and Xl. Each Navodaya Vidyalaya is a co-educational
residential institution providing free boarding and lodging, uniforms, text books,
stationery, to and from rail bus fare to the children. However; a nominal fee @ Rs.
200/- per month is charged from the students of Class IX to XII for Vidyalaya
"
VikasNidhi (school development fund). The fee exemption facility is provided to
the children of the families below poverty line.
ill) Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS) :The Kendriya Vidyalayas (Central

Schools) established in 1965, have come to be known as centres of excellence in
the field of secondary and senior secondary education promoting national integration
and a sense of "Indian-ne ss" among the children while ensuring their total personality
development and academic excellence. The Kendriya Vidyalayas have a four - folds
nussion;
• To cater to the educational needs of children of transferable Central
Government including Defence and Para-military personnel by providing a
common programme of education.
• To pursue excellence and set the pace in the field of school education.
• To initiate and promote experimentation and innovations in education in
collaboration with other bodies like the Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) and the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERn etc.
• To develop the spirit of national integration and create a sense of "Indian ness"
among children.
There is a Quality Council of India and National Accreditation Board of Education

and Testing (NABEn under the Government of India that orient schools on various
aspects of quality education in the country, Conductionoftraining programmes for
teachers, evaluators and administrators at the school education levels in the prime
focus of these bodies. They have only advisory or facilitating functions in the direction
of quality school education.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the main purpose behind setting up ofICSCE in the country?
100
•••••••••••••••• ~ •• * ,,, ••• ~ ••• f···..."...."~
/
I \
Role of Different Agencies
2. Mention the four folds objectives of Kendriya Vidyalayas.
19.4 BODIES AT HIGHER EDUCATION LEVEL

Quality is the benchmark for development of infrastructure, curriculum, human
resources and research alongwith the establishment of centres of excellence,
interdisciplinaryand inter-institutional centres. In the earlier section,you have studied
that institutions providing school education at the secondary senior secondary level
need to be affiliated with an examining board. The same is applicable in case of
Institutionsofferinghigher education.
In the present context, it is mandatory for all the Indian institutions to be recognized
by the appropriate national and for state level statutory bodies established by the
Government of Indiafor compliance to qualitystandards.Accreditationforuniversities
in India is required by law unless it was created through an act of Parliament. Without
accreditation, the government notes "these fake institutions have no legal entity
to call themselves as UniversityNishwavidyalaya and to award 'degree'
which are not treated as valid for academic/employment purposes".
There are various bodies responsible for quality assurance. Atpresent, India has
two government-run accreditation bodies: the National Board of Accreditation
(NBA), constituted by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), an autonomous body
established by the University Grants Commission (UGC).
The various professional councils that are responsible for recognition of courses,
promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to undergraduate
programmes and various awards. Some of the statutory professional councils are
as follows:
• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
• Distance Education Council (DEC)
• Indian Council ofAgricultural Research (ICAR)
• Bar Council ofIndia (BCI)
• National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
• National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
• Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
• Medical Council of India (MCI)
• Pharmacy Council ofIndia (PCI)
• Indian Nursing Council (!NC)
• Dental Council of India (DCI)
101
+
7
loud Quality Management • Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)
• Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
• Veterinary Council of India (VCl)
In addition to these bodies there are agencies not having statutory functions but are
associated with quality aSPfcts. One of them at the higher education level is
Association of Indian Universities (AID). Brief description of these bodies is given
as follows.
19.4.1 University Grants Commission (UGC): UGC is a co-ordinating as well
as a grant giving body for academic purposes to the universities and colleges. As
you know, as per our Constitution education is the subject of both the centre as
well as the states. The "coordination and determination of standards in institutions
of higher education, research and scientific and technical institutions" is exclusively
the responsibility of the centre. To take care of this provision the UGC was established
as a statutory body required to regulate academic standards in addition to allocation
of funds. The National Accreditation and Assessment Council (NAAC) of India is
an autonomous body under the UGC and helps in quality maintenance through
accreditation procedures for universities.
19.4.2 State Councils of Higher Education: Following the National Policy on
Education, some state governments have established State Councils of Higher
Education (SCHE). These councils prepare coordinated programmes of development
of higher education in the respective state. The Andhra Pradesh State Council of
Higher Education (APSCHE) is the first body established by the Government of
A.P. A detailed description of this body has been covered in the Unit 3: Role of
National Bodies of the Course MES 042: Dimensions of Education.
19.4.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC):The was
established by UGC to assess and accredit institutions of higher learning in the
country. It was established in 1992 as a result of recommendations ofN ational
Policy on Education ~1986' which emphasized on the deteriorating quality of higher
education in the country.
The NAAC certifies institutions of higher learning (colleges, universities, institutes,
etc) in the country; however, it does not include the institutes providing technical
education. As discussed earlier, the technical education institutions are accredited
by National Board of Accreditation (NBA), an organization established by All India
Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi. NAAC stresses on quality
assurance, as integral part of the functioning of higher education institutions. The
main functions of the organization are as follows:
• arrange for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions ofhigher

education or units thereof, or specific academic programmes or projects;
• stimulate the academic environment for promotion of qualityofteaching-leaming
and research in higher education institutions;
.
• encourage self-evaluation, accountability, autonomy and innovations in higher
education;
• undertake quality-related research studies, consultancy and training programme;
• collaborate with other stakeholders of higher education for quality evaluation,
promotion and sustenance.
102
7
19.4.4 All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE):The AICTE was Role of Different Agencies
established for ensuring proper planning and coordinated development of technical
education (this ;::",i.udesengineering and management education amongst others)
and for the regulation of proper norms and maintenance of standards. The purview
of A ~~TE covers programmes of technical education including training and research
~1 Engineering, Technology, Architecture, Town Planning, Management, Applied
Arts and Crafts, etc. at different levels. ,

AlCre continuouslystrivesto maintain the qualityoftechnical educationin the country.
The National Board of Accreditation (NBA) of AICTE aims to maintain level of
some of the programmes offered in technical institutions on par with programme
offered in institutions in other countries by inducing a quality auditing system and
establishing a datum for measuring the quality and excellence in engineering and
management education. The NBA periodically reviews and evaluates technical
institutes or programmes and recommends their recognition or de-recognition.
19.4.5 Distance Education Council (DEC): DEC is responsible for coordination
.. and maintenance of standards in open and distance education system in the country.
Established as a statutory body, it strives for coordinated development ofleamer-
centric open and distance learning (ODL) system and ensures high quality education,
meet challenges of access and equity to reach the un-reached. Mission of Distance
Education Council (DEC) is as follows:
• Encourage state governments/conventional universities to establish open
universities/ distance education institutes and create a network of such
institutions.
• Provide financial support and grants and academic guidelines to institutions of

open and distance education.
• Evolve norms, procedures and guidelines in respect of admission, evaluation,
and certification.
• Assess and accredit institutions of open and distance learning to ensure quality.
• Promote convergence of conventional ODL and other systems to facilitate
mobility oflearners through credit transfer/sharing.
The functions ofDEC are as follows:

• develop a network of open universities/distance education institutions in the
country in consultation with the State Governments, Universities, and other
concerned agencies;
• identify priority areas in which distance education programmes should be
organized and to provide such support as may be considered necessary for
organizing such programmes;
• identify the specific client groups and the types of programmes to be organized
for them, and to promote and encourage the organization of such programmes
through the network of open universities/distance education institutions;
• promote an innovative system of University level education, flexible and open,

in regard to methods and pace oflearning, combination of courses, eligibility
for enrolment, age of entry,conduct of examination and organize various courses
and programmes;
• promote the organization of programmes of human resource development for
the open university/distance education system; 103
7
Total Quality Management • initiate and organize measures forjoint development of courses and programmes
and research in distance education technology and practices;
• recommend to the Board of Management the pattern and nature of financial
assistance that may be sanctioned to open universities/distance education
institutions and the conditions that may have to be fulfilled by them to receive
such assistance;
• take such steps as are necessary to ensure the coordinated development of the
open university/distance education system in the country;
• establish and develop arrangements for coordinating and sharing the instructional
materials prepared by different open universities/distance education institutions,
and the student support systems with a view to avoid duplication of efforts;
• evolve procedures for sharing of courses and programmes and for the payment
of royalty or other c arges to the members of the network whose courses and
programmes are used by other members;
• prescribe broad norms for charging fees from students who join various
programmes offered by the network of open universities/distance education
institutions;
• collect, compile and disseminate information relating to the courses and

programmes offered by various open universities/distance education institutions;
• advise State Governments, universities and other concerned agencies on their
proposals to set up open Universities, or to introduce programmes of distance
education;
• appoint Review Committees from time to time to study and assess the
performance of the open universities/distance education institutions participating
in the network on any aspect relevant to the functioning of the network;
• prescribe a broad framework for courses and programmes including their pattern
and structure;
• evolve norms, procedures and practices in respect of admission, evaluation,
completion of course requirements, transfer of credits, etc. of students admitted
to the programmes of the open university/distance education network and for
the award of certificates, diplomas and degrees to them;
"
.' evolve guidelines for the organization of student support services for the open
university/distance education programmes;
• take such measures as are necessary, consistent with the objects of the University
to provide an innovative, flexible and open system of University education, for
the promotion, including introduction and continuation, of courses and
programmes which conform to the standards prescribed by the DEC, to
maintain such standards inthe institutionsofferingdistance education programmes
and to prevent, through such measures as are considered appropriate, institutions
from offering courses and programmes which do not conform to the standards
laid down by the Council;
• Appoint Committees for advisirig and assisting the DEC in the performance of
any of its functions or exercise of any of its powers.
104
~ ~~;P"
..- ... ..:-;
7
Check Your Progress Role of Different Agencies

3. Mention three categories where the open and distance universities CCJIl meet
the needs of the learners.
4. Enumerate any three functions ofDEC.
..
19.4.6 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR): This is an organization

under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education of the Ministry of
Agriculture with the role of developing agricultural technologies, input material, and
critical scientific base for attaining self-sufficiency in food. It is a national autonomous
body. It has been instrumental in the setting up and growth of agricultural universities
iJ1the country.
19.4.7 Bar Council of India (BCI): The BCI is an autonomous body which
governs the legal/law institutions in India. It was constituted under the Advocates
Act 1961 has to lay down the standards of professional conduct and etiquette and
also standards oflegal education. Some of the functions are as follows:
• promote legal education and to lay down standards of such education in
consultation with the Universities in India imparting such education and the
State Bar Councils;
'.. recognize Universities whose degree in law shallbe a qualification for enrolment
as an advocate and for that purpose to visit and inspect Universities or cause
. the State Bar Councils to visit and inspect Universities in accordance with such
directions as it may be given in this behalf;
• to recognize on a reciprocal basis foreign qualifications in law obtained outside
India for the purpose of admission as an advocate under this Act.
19.4.8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE): NCTE was set up
by Government ofIndia in 1973 as an advisory body to the government at the
, Center and the State, on matters related to teacher education. However, on the
I recommendation of National Policy on Education (NPE), in 1986 a statutory body
to look after the teacher education in the country was set up as a first step to produce
effective teacb'ng professionals in the country. On 17August 1995,National Council
for Teacher Education (N CTE) was conferred the status of a stat~tory body in
pursuance to the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993.
105
1
Total OUb ~yManagement The main objective of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated development
ofthe teacher education system throughcc: ~hecountry, the regulation and proper
maintenance ofNorms and Standards in the teacher education system and for matters
connected therewith. One ofthe functions assigned to NCTE is grant of recognition
/ permission to teacher training institutions for running various programmes.
Regulations laying ::!vWll the procedure for grant of recognition to various teacher
training programmes have also been promulgated. The mandate of to the NCTE
covers tiie whole gamut of teacher education programmes including research and
training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary
and senior secondary stages in schools, and non-formal education, part-time
education, adult education and distance (correspondence) education courses. '.
19.4.9 Rehabilitation Council ofIndia (RCI): RCI was set up as a registered
society in 1986 under the aegis of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
(then Ministry of Social Welfare) to standardize and maintain uniform standards of
training of professionals. The Council has the twin responsibility of standardizing
and regulating the training of professional and personnel in the field of rehabilitation
and special education. The objectives of the RCI are as follows:
.
,
• regulate the training policies and programmes in the field of rehabilitation of
persons with disabilities.
/",' ~.
• bring about standardization of training courses for professionals dealing with

persons with disabilities.
• prescribe minimum standards of education and training of various categories of
professionals/ personnel dealing with people with disabilities.
• regulatethese standardsin alltraininginstitutionsuniformlythroughoutthe country.
• Recognize institutions/ organizations/ universities running master's degree/
bachelor's degree/ P.G.Diploma! Diploma! Certificate courses in the field of
rehabilitation of persons with disabilities.
• recognize degree/diploma/certificate awarded by foreign universities!institutions
on reciprocal basis.
• maintain Central Rehahilitation Register for registration of professionals!person.
• recognize Vocational Rehabilitation Centres as manpower development centres.
• register vocational instructors and other personnel working in the Vocational
Rehabilitation Centres.
• recognize the national institutes and apex institutions on disability as manpower
development centres.
19.4.10 Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR): The body established
for medical education, is the body that formulates, coordinates and promotes
biomedical research in India. It funds research institutes in the field entirely and
through grants-in-aid given to non ICMR institutes.
19.4.11 Council of Architecture (CoA): The Council of Architecture (CoA) has
been constituted by the Government of India under the provisions of the Architects
Act, 1972, enacted by the Parliament of India. The Act provides for regisuation of
Architects, standards of education, recognized qualifications and standards of practice
to be complied with by the practicing architects. The Council is charged with the
responsibility to regulate the education and practice of profession throughout India
besides maintaining the register of architects.
106
I
19.4.12 Institute of Company Secretaries ofIndia (ICSI): The Company Law Role of Different Agencies
Board 1960 started in a course in company secretary ship leading to the award of
Government Diploma in company secretary ship. The Institute of Company
Secretaries of India under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956 for taking over
fromthe Governmentthe conduct of company Secretaryshipexamination.The Institute
of Company Secretaries oflndia has established a statutory body in 1981 under
.the Company Secretaries Act, 1980 to develop and regulate the profession of
Company Secretaries in India. Its vision is to be global leader in development of
professionals specializing in corporate governance".
19.4.13 Institute of Cost and Works Accountant ofIndia (ICWAI): The Institute
of Cost and Works Accountants of India (lCWAI) is the only recognized statutory
professional organization and licensing body in India specializing exclusively in Cost
and Management Accountancy .It imparts education and conducts qualifying
examination for Cost and Management Accountants. It also regulates and develops
the profession thereof has chapters situated elsewhere in India and abroad. It also
exercises supervision for the entrants to the profession and to ensure strict adherence
.. to the best ethical standards by the profession,
19.4.14 National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions
(NCMEI): National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI)
has been established through an act of Parliament i.e. National Council for Minority
Educational Institutions Act (2004 ).It provides inter alia, for the rights of minority
educational institutions to seek affiliation to any university of their choice, provided
the relevant law under which such universities are created, allow such affiliation.
Disputesrelatingto the minority status of educationalinstitutionsare alsoto be resolved
by the commission. Thus, for the first time, Article 30(1) of the Constitution, which
gives minorities the right to establish and administer educational institution of their
choice, is being effectively implemented through the NCMEIAct.
19.4.15 Association of Indian Universities (AIU): Association of Indian
Universities (AIU) is an organization to evaluate the courses, syllabi, standard and
credits offoreign Universities and to equate them in relation to various courses
offered by Indian Uni vcrsitics.This is a body comprising the Vice chancellors of all
member universities, with a view to coordinate the work of all universities, establish
equivalence between degrees awarded by Indian and foreign universities, conduct
research on various aspects of university development, organize training and
development programmes for higher education administrators, develop databases
on higher education and publications, represent the universities in national and
internationalforums.
TheAIU is mainly concerned with the recognition of Degrees/Di piomas awarded
by the accredited Universities in India and abroad for the purpose of admission to
higher courses at Indian Universities. The AID is also an implementing agency for
. the agreements signed under the Cultural Exchange Programme executed between
India and other countries in the field of education, insofar as it relates to the recognition
of foreign qualifications (except for medicine and allied courses).
Its opinion as to legitimacy or recognition of any foreign qualification is not binding
upon anyone, as it is neither a statutory body, nor a part of the government. It is in
fact a society registered under the societies act.
In a nutshell ,the Higher Education sector ensures quality of the educational process
with the help of accreditation agencies established for the purpose.As you may be
aware that the main agency which accredits University and Colleges in general
education is the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) established 107
7
Total Quality Management by the UGC in 1994, where is similar function for Technical Education is done by
the National Board of Accreditation (NBA~ set up by AICTE in 1994, and for
Agricultural education by Accreditation Board (AB) set up by ICAR in 1996. Some
of the other professional regulatory bodies have set up their own accreditation
agencies, for instance both the Distance Education Council(DEC) and the National
Council for Teacher EJucation(NCTE). In addition to National accreditation, local
quality inspection of affiliatql colleges are carried out by the affiliating University to
ensure provision of adequate academic infrastructure and satisfactory teaching-
learning processes. Analysis of examination performance of students is also used by
Universities to assess the quality of educational offerings ofindividual colleges.
Check Your Progress

S. What are the main objectives and functions ofNCTE.
'. • ••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••• 0 ••••••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ¥ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,.. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
6. Write any three objectives of RCI
19.5 LET US SUM UP

Role of regulating bodies or agencies have been crucial in the quality education at
any level. This unit aimed at discussing on various points related to this aspect. It
covered the points regarding different agencies associated with quality education:at
school, vocational, higher and professional education in the country.It also discussed
their specific functions as regulation,maintenance, funding/grantsand so on. Similarly
the common issues pertaining to quality education management in the country has
been discussed.
19.6 UNIT-ENDACTIVITIES
1. Select anyone regulatory body responsible for quality elementary education in
your state. Interview few school heads and elementary teachers regarding
guidelines provides to the school regarding quality education. Write a report
based on the information you received by interviews as well as your analysis.
2. Visit a website of a regulatory body for professional education and write a
report regarding its functions in providing quality education in the country.
108
---~ ._-
7
Role of Different Agencies
19.7 REFERENCES
MES 042 Dimensions of Education, Block 1:Role ofNational Bodies, IGNOU,New

Delhi, 2009.
Dhar, TN (Edi); Modules on Quality Dimensions of Elementary Education Under
SSA, NCERT, New Delhi, 2004. i
Parikh K.S., Radhakrishna R.(2002), India Development Report 2002, New Delhi
:Oxford University Press.
Mathur, S.S. (1990). Educational Administration and Management. Ambala Cantt:
The Indian Publication.
Department of Education( 1997) District Primary Education. Programme
Guidelines; Ministry of Human Resource Development.New Delhi: Government
of India.
Agarwal, Y.P(1997) Database on Elementary Education in India: Scope, Coverage
and Issues. In N.V.Varghese (edited), Module on District Planning in
Education.NIEPA. New Delhi.
Government of India (1992) National Policy on Education:1986 (Revised Undertaken

in 1992),New Delhi: Department of Education.
Government of India (1992) Programme ofAction: 1992,New Delhi: Department of

Education
Government of India (1993) CABE Committee on Decentralised Management of
Education, New Delhi: Department of Education (Chairman: M. VeerappaMoily).
Darak, Kishor, G. (2008) Community Participation as Resource in Elementary
Education, Paper presented at National Seminar on Community and School
Linkages: Principles and Practices (March 17-19, 2008), New Delhi: NUEPA
Gaysu, R.Arvind(2008) Locating Community in School Education: Emerging
Perspectives and Practices to Empowered Participatory Governance, Paper
presented at National Seminar on Community and School Linkages: Principles and
Practices (March 17-19,2008), NUEPA, New Delhi.
Government of India(undated) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan- Framework for
Implementation. Ministry ofHRD, Department of Elementary Education and
Literacy, New Delhi.
Govinda. R. & Diwan, Rashmi (2003) Community Participation and
Empowerment in Primary Education, New Delhi: Sage Publications.
http://www.nos.org/
http://www.cisce.org/
http://www.cbse.nic.inI
http://ctsanic.inI
www.navodayanic.inl
http://www.kvsangathan.nic.inI
http://www.aicte.emet.inI
109
Total Quality Management http://www.dec.ac.in!
http://www.icar.org.in!
http://www.ncte-india.org/
http://naacindia.org/
http://rehabcouncil.nic.inlhoine.htm
http://www.mciindiaorgi
http://www.pci.nic.in!
http://www.dciindia.orgi
www.cchindia.com
http://www.studentsguide:inIspecialized-research-institutesl central-coucil-of-indian-
medicine-new-delhi.html
.. http://www.ugc.ac.in!
http://www.nba-aicte.ernet.inlacc_doc.htm
http://www.icwai.org/icwailindex.asp
http://www.coa.gov.in!
http://www.aiuweb.orgi
www.icsi.edu
http://education.newkerala.comlindia-educationlBar-Council-of-India.html
1. The main purpose of setting up overseas Cambridge School Certificate

Examination coducted by British authrities.
2. The four folds ofK vs are :
• To cater to the educational needs of children of transferable Central
Government including Defence and Para-military personnel by providing
a common programme of education.
• . To pursue excellence and set the pace in the field of school education.
• To initiate and promote experimentation and innovations ineducation in
collaboration with other bodies like the Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) and the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) etc.
• To develop the spirit of national integration and create a sense of "Indian
ness" among children.
3. a. Those who reside in remote ares and do not have access to the higher
education
b. Those who can not join regular courses due to financial and other
constrains.
c. Professional aspriring for additional qualification.
110
I
The functions ofDEC are to: (any three) Role of Different Agencies
4.
• develop a network of open universities/distance education institutions in

t!1ecountry in consultation with the State Governments, Universities, and
other concerned agencies; \
• identify priority areas in which distance education programmes should be

organized and to provide such support as may be considered necessary
for organizing such programm~s;
• identify the specific client groups and the types of programmes to be

organized for them, and to promote and encourage the organization of \,
such programmes through the network of open universities/distance,

education institutions.
5. The main objectives of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated

development of the teacher education system throughout the country, the
regulation and proper meintenance of norms and standard in the teacher
.
, education system. One of the fuction assigned to NCTE is grant of recognition!
permisson to teacher training institutions for running various programmes.
6. a) Regulate the training policies and programme in the field of rehabilitation

of persons with disabilites.
b) Bring about standardisation of training courses for professionals dealing •

with person with disabilities.
c) Regulate these standards in all training institutions uniformly througout the

country.
'.
111
7
UNIT 20 QUALITY CONCERNS AND ISSUES
FOR RESEARCH
Structure
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Objectives
20.3 Status of Research in Educational Management
20.4 Issues and Concerns for Research in Educational Management
20.4.1 Research in Educational Management
20.4.2 Priority areas of research in educational management
20.5 Educational Institutions and Research in Educational Management
.. 20.6 Quality Dimensions in Research of Educational Management

20.7 LetUsSumUp
20.9 References
20.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 19, you have studied different agencies/bodies associated with issues of
management in the field of higher education. One of the objectives of research in
educational management is to generate knowledge on the basis of experiences and
discovering truth from further improvement. Even NPE - 1986 focused on
strengthening research and development in its recommendations. In this unit, you
would study various aspects of research in educational management and the issues
related to improvement of the quality of research in educational management.
Focus has also been laid on priority areas of research in educational management
and the role and responsibilities of institutions associated with the research in the
field of educational management.
20.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the status of research in educational management;
• appreciate the issues and concerns for research in educational management;
• discuss the nature and scope of research in educational management;
• identify the priority areas of research in educational management; and
• explore the quality indicators of research in educational management
20.3 STATUS OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT
In our country educational management is usually not an area of priority in the past
112 in Universities and other higher education institutions. The total focus of management
/~
was into business and other corporate sectors. Therefore, it was not a subject of Quality Concerns and
priorityin the education sector.But the situationis changing with the recommendations Issues for Research
ofNPE-1986 where emphasis has been laid on the need for professionalisation of
educational management. In view of improving the quality of education, it is quite
essential to have a review and analyse research in educational management for
various resources, such as
• Developing clear understanding of managerial difficulties.
• Understanding issues and concerns related to service.
• Developing a conceptual framework for the benefit of educational structure.
• Identifying difficulties in bringing effectiveness in management system of
education.
Analysis of research in educational management
Success of implementation of any policy would be a function of its management
process. It would be an essential requirement to examine the studies that have
already been done by experts and researchers. Table 20.1 presents classification of
researches in educational management in the first three surveys of Research in
'. Educational Management.
Table 20.1: Classification of Researches in Educational Management
S.No Survey I Survey 11 Survey III
1 Education authority or Educational History and
agencies agencies development of
educational
institutions
2 Inspection and Inspection & Administration &
supervision supervisron organization of
institutions
3 Different branches of .Stage of education Supervision and
education teaching methods
4 Educational problems Organization and Wastage, stagnation
such as compulsory planning and dropout
education, wastage &
stagnation
5 Organization and Organisational Psycho-social,
planning climate and teacher factors/aspects of
. morale teachers
6 Organizational behaviour Policies and Special institutions
reforms, teachers Studies on
problems and universal elem.
attitudes etc. education, medium
of instruction,
effectiveness if
N.C.C.
programmes,
manpower,
nutrition for pre-
scholars, etc.
7 Education policy,
reforms, teacher's
participation in school
administration, teacher
organizations etc.
Source: Fourth Survey of Research in Educational management a trend report,NCERT
113
Publications.
1
Total Quality Management To get a clear picture of the researches, it is essential to have an understanding of the
various aspects of the analysis of the content of research. Table 20.2 presents
analysis of content of abstracts provided in the first three surveys of educational
management in the surveys of Researches in Education by NCERT, India.
l
Table 20.2: Analysis of Content of Abstracts of Research i~ Educational
Management
S.No Survey J Survey n Survey III
1 Administration of Administrative Academic achievement,
schools agencies behaviour, administrative
I administrative coordination,
climate administrative process,
aggregate approach.
2 Attitude of teachers Attitude of teachers
3 Conditions of pre- Centre-State
I
primary education relations In
education;
classroom climate
" 4 Communication
5 Dropouts Dropouts
6/ Evaluation criteria for Educational
school inspection facilities
7 Evaluation of different Educational
,- educational settings planning
8 Evaluation of Govt. Evaluation Educational Management
, educational policies
9 Evaluation of • Educational status
teacher training • Expenditure on
programmes education
• Educational planning
• Educational structure
• Evaluation of education
structure &
management practices
• Educational facilities
• Educational agencies
• Educational forecast
• Effective
communication
• Educational
environment
• Institutional
" Environment
• Home Environment
• Examination
Committees
• Admission policy
10 Historical:
evaluation of
education
11 Human relations Human attitude and values
114
1
12 Implementation Inspection • Industrial-polytechnic Quality Concerns and
Issues for Research
institutional collaboration
improvement • Implementation
• Innovation
• Innovations in teaching
methods
~•
Insufficient equipment
• Inefficient functioning
13 Job-satisfaction of Job motivation Leadership aspects of
teachers superviston
14 Leadership role Leadership Leadership training
behaviour programmes
Lack of specialization, staff
Source: Fourth survey of research in educational management a trend report, NCERT, India.
Analysis of the above tables 20.1 & 20.2 will help us to identify the types and
nature of problems and variables studied in the field of educational management. It
• is clearlyevident that large number of studies in the areas of organizational processes
.. and behavioral aspects have been conducted. But there are many more areas of
management which have yet to be explored. Similarly the aspects covered are
unrelated, scattered, thus need indepth research exploration to arrive at indepth and
relevanttrends forpolicymakers for qualityimprovement in educationalmanagement.
The structure and process of management of education is influenced by the

developments arising out ofimplernentation of National Policy ofEducation 1986
and 1992 (revised). It is disheartening to find to see that there has been a decline in
the number of studies on educational management over the years. Analysis the
studies conducted so far could be classified under two broad aspects namely; i)
history and status, planning, special groups and special problems; and ii) goals of
management, decentralization, participation, professionalism, autonomy,
. accountability, structures, behavioral aspects, resources, practices, legal supports
and personnel. .
Check Your Progress

1. State the need of review of research studies in educational management.
2. On the basis of your understanding of researches in educational management

state emerging areas of research in this area .
...................................................................................................................
.. ..................... ........................ ......... .. .. ..~ .

...................................................................................................................
115
7
Total <? .at;' i Management
20.4 ISSUES AND CONCERNS FOR RESEARCH IN
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Research and development are two sides of the same coin. This is equally true for
educational management also. Though many studies have been undertaken in this
area of study during last few decades but there are certain issues that need special
attention for facilitating researchers to undertake quality study in educational
management. The specific issues which need to be addressed for accelerating the
process of research, development and extension in educational management are:
• Developing a pre-requisite for managerial position in the field of educational
management.
• Establishing set of criteria for research in educational management.
• Establishing criteria for undertaking research in educational management.
• Criteria of assessing research findings.
.. • Assessing quality in practice-based research in educational management.
• Initiatives related to applied research in the field of educational management.
• Explore understanding on the use of different modalities for research in
educational management.
• Lack of thrust area under researches in the management in educational field

and at the same time neglect of key areas like systemic management, strategy,
philosophical foundation in the research studies in the area of educational
management etc.
• Absence of due orientation of researchers in conducting research studies in

.• Lack of quality research studies in the area.
• Minimum professional support system for undertaking research in educational
management.
• Developing need based professional approach to research studies in the

• Assessment of the validity,adequacyreliabilityof,researchfindingsin educational
management.
• Due consideration in research methodology is another crucial issues in

It has been observed that large number of research studies are in the areas of process
of organization or behavioural aspects whereas there are hardly any researches in
other aspects. At the same time, it is evident that many such studies in the
organizational behaviour area are influenced by the availability of standard research
instruments.
20.4.1 Research in Educational Management

Management of education at different levels aims at maximising output in terms of
learningachievement of children.Functionaries associatedwith effectivemanagement
education should be adequately trained in the changed senario. Educational
116 management nlanninz is quite diffe=»r fr()m inrlll<:tri~l """l"\"~ementplanning. It
I \
demands strategic approaches for the national development and reconstruction. This Quality Concerns and
is considered to be in initial stages. Research and development in educational Issues for Research
management has not been given due priority yet. As you may be aware of that
research in educational management requires certain special ability, aptitude and
interests on the part of researcher but in our country, this is one of the neglected
area. Research in this field should include utilization aspects and cater to the need
of excellence. i
20.4.2 Priority areas of research in educational management

Some broad areas of research which need immediate attention for continuous updation
'.
and up gradation of institutions and its functioning in the field of educational
management are as follows:
• Systemic planning for educational management at different levels.
• Assessment and accreditation of educational institutions.
t. Performance of management in different kinds of educational institutions.
• Disciplinary approaches in management of education.
• Effectiveness of implementation approaches and reform processes and practices
in the field of education.
• Educational planning at different levels.
• Functioning of state level boards/councils/universities in the management of .
education.
• Alternative and innovative forms of education for inclusive growth.
• Delivery strategy/mechanism of school boards and councils.
• Functioning ofNGOs and other institutions in educational planning and
management.
• Management of change and quality in education.

• Globalization and its impact on educational administration and management in
the country.
• Reforms in educational system and its management in 21 st Century.
• Policy research in educational management and administration at all levels.
• Management of school education and quality parameters.
I
• Functioning of national and state level institutions at the grassroot level

functionaries.
• Decentralization of educational programmes and policies.

•
.
Innovations in educational management at different levels.
There are many more areas which required immediate attention of researchers in the
field of education management. Practically it is not possible to listthe whole. National
resources must be utilized effectively for bringing out a desired change in the field of
education through systemic planning and its execution.
117
/
b) Check youranswers with those given at the end of this unit.
3. State three limitations in the areas of educational management in our country.
~
...................................................................................................................
4. What are the new dimension of research in educational management?

........................................................................................ , .
20.5 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND RESEARCH

IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Large numbers of educational institutions are associated with research and innovations
in educational management. Though different institutions have their own goals but
they are interdependent and interrelated. Pertaining to the development of systemic
management in education, the basic thrust of research in educational management is
to ensure institutionalsustainabilitywith high quality.National institutions likeNational
University of Educational Planning andAdministration(NUEPA),National Council
of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), University Grants Commissions
(UGC), National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU) and international organizations like UNICEF, UNESCO,
World Bank, etc, focus on research and extension in educational management and
associated with the development of bench mark in quality assurance and accreditation
system.
Research and innovations provide vision and help us to move towards achievement
ofthe goals. Focusing on research and innovations in the field of educational
management should be the major concerns of all academics and educational
administrators, planners and implementers. Certainly this aspect linked to innovations
in curriculum, in institutional management and in teaching learning strategiesas well.
The reality is that today institutional focus on quality research and its integration
needs reviewing. Exploiting the creativity of students and their research potentials is
a real challenge. Supporting and motivating students to bring innovations in the design
and development of their thoughts should be given priority in all educationalinstitutions
for thy development of better system of management in the field of education.
Facilitating research in educational management
Today there is an increasing in demand for trained human resource. for quality
research and development in educational institutions. National level institutions like
NCERT, NUEPA, IGNOU, UGC, DEC, etc., can play a major role in preparing
individuals and institutions to meet the demand of the society. These institutions
118
'-=~
-:t
7
provide financial assistance to other institutions and individuals for undertaking quality Quality Concerns and
research for meeting the challenges of effective management of educatioIialinstitutions. Issues for Research
Promotion of research in educational management is essential for improving quality

offunctioning and mode of delivery system. Certain common strategies to facilitate
researchin educational management are as follows:
• Ensuring participation of faculty in developmental programmes, workshops and
conferences for up-dating and up grading their knowledge and skills in
undertaking research.
• Providing financial assistance to faculty in exploring
I
new ideas in the field of
educational management and administration.
• Encouraging provision of grants and other facilitieswith academic, administrative
and financial autonomy to the educational institutions to undertake research' in
•• Motivating students, research scholars and other stockholders to undertake
•. research in different aspects of educational management.
• Focusing more on functions like planning, organization and coordination of
educational institutions,
• Reorienting the research strategies towards developing excellence in educational
management.
• Promoting training and orientation of functionaries associated with functioning
of educational management and administration.
\
'. Understanding the significanceof research in the fieldof educational management.
• Developing collaboration with N GOs and other organizations for promoting
research ill educational management.
• Promoting research centers for exploring knowledge.
• Focusing on research based teaching learning processes which can certainly
facilitate vertical integration.
• Identifying the priority areas of research in educational management with the
view to improve systemic strategies .
. Check Your Progress
5. Mention the role of national level institutions in providing support to undertake
research on educational.management.
...................................................................... ~ .
6. Listthe benchmark for improving quality of research in educational management.
119
1
20.6 QUALITY DIMENSIONS IN RESEARCH OF

EDUCATION~L MANAGEMENT
Quality of research in educational management and administration is an index of
development of education. Assessment of research quality must be in accordance
with appropriateness of methodology, contribution to the growth and development
of institutional and individuals, and cost effectiveness.
A research study in the field of educational management needs to be evaluated in
terms of its value forpractitioners and policy makers, and its contributionto knowledge
as well.
Quality indicators in research and development
National level organizations and institutions like NUEPA, UGC, DEC, NCERT,
etc., should effectively collaborate with one another and develop modalities for
improving quality of research in educational management and administration. At the
same time they can develop some indicators for improving quality of research and
development in the area of educational management. Some of the dimensions are :
• Continuous professional of the faculty who undertakes and uses product of
research.
• Motivation to faculty for undertaking innovative practices under educational
practices (practice-based research in educational management.
• Potential value for use of research product i.e. focus on being of use.
• Respond to the need of target group and focus on appropriate specification.
• Link to development with reference to the design of appropriate research
questions.
• Development of computers and value for people.
• Development of partnership, collaboration and engagement with institutions.
• Accepting the viewpoint of practitioners and policy makers:
• Originality in terms of nature of work and efficiency in terms of valuejudgment.
Check Your Progress
Note: a)· Space is given below for writing youranswers.

7. List the dimensions of research in educational management.
120
....l: -. ~. l'~"...,.--,,~
, '
I
,8. State the indicators of research in educational management for improving its Quality Concerns and
quality. Issues for Research
.....................................................................................................................
20.7 LET US SUM UP

Research is an important aspect of quality practice in every field of education. It
aims at contributing to knowledge and bringing development for strategies,techniques
and functioning of institutions and organizations. The thrust of this unit is to facilitate
institutions in undertaking quality research projects in the field of educational
management in one hand and exploring priority areas which need immediate attention
t on the part of researchers, policy makers and administrators for strengthening services
r. in the field of educational management and administrations.

I. Critically discuss the indicators for improving the quality of research in
educational Management.
2. Discuss the scope of educational management in Indian context.
3. Explain the role of national institutionslorganizations in facilitating research in
20.9 REFERENCES
Koul, L. (2007) Methodology of Educational Research. Vikas publishing House
Pvt Ltd., New Delhi
Crowl, T. K. (1996) Fundamental of Educational Research. Mc cr,ewHill Company.
NCTE (2004) Some Specific Issues and Concerns of Teacher Education, National
Council for Teacher Education, New Delhi.
Menon, M and Rama, K. (2006) Quality Indicators of Teacher Education, National
Assessment and Accreditation Council, New Delhi
Mukhopadhya, M. et. al, (1988) Research in Educational Management - A Trend
Report; Fourth Survey of Research in Education 1983-88 (Vol. II)
,http://www.ugc.ac.inI
http://www.nuepa.org/
http://www.education.nic.inlcd50years/g/Z/9J/OZ9J0301.htm

1. • Understand ing of researcheron the area of research.
• Developing analytical framework for the proposed study.
• Searching the need for the proposed study.
121
• Providing~~sic f<:mndationfor the study.
7
Total Quali. \ Management 2. a. Operational aspects of educational management.
S>. Professional development of functions associated at various level of
c. support services/ and its integration for effective implementation.
~
4. Limited scope on the
• Development of new research tool/instruments.
• Motivational aspect of researcher in educational management. "
• Low priority to research and development in educational management.

5. • Providing financial support to institutions for undertaking research.
• Offering scholarship to researchers.
.. • Exploring new scope in the field of educational management.

6. Ref. subsection20.S.1
122
I
B1ock-l Management of Curriculum
Unit-1 Classroom Management (Instructional Management)

Unit-2 Curriculum Transaction .,
Activities
B1ock-2 Management of Financial Resources

Unit-I 1 Management of Administrative Resources
B1ock-4 Management ofInfrastructure

Unit-IS Utilization ofInfra-structural Resources

Unit-I 8 Strategies for Quality Improvement
Unit-I 9 Role of different Agencies

Institutional Management

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"tmr llRQ q;)- ~ ~ "!IID ~ t atR 3ffijf

"Education is a liberating force, and in

Classroom Management (Instructional Management) 5

Curriculum Transaction 29,

Management of Academic Resources 69

Management of Curricular & Co Curricular

Course Preparation Team

Dr. Vardhini Bhattacharya Ms. Vijeta Banwari Prof. Vibha Joshi

The second block examined management of financial resources, here we

1.3 Concept of Classroom

1.4 Need for Classroom Management

1.5 Concept of Classroom Management

1.6 Schools of Thought on Classroom Management

1.7 Components of Classroom Management

1.8 Other Determinants of Classroom Management

1.9 Indices of Effective Classroom Management

1.10 Discipline and the Management ofMisbehavior in Classrooms

1.11 Let Us Sum up

1.12 Unit EndActivities

1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

• explain the concept of classroom;

1.3 CONCEPT OF CLASSROOM

1.4 NEED FOR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

3) Why do we say that classroom situatiooo are complex?

1.5 CONCEPt OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

management. This is because classroom management implies the provision of

As you have understood so far,the twin features of effective classroom management

1.6.1 Authoritarian School

1.6.2 Permissive School

1.6.3 Behavior Modification School

1.6.5 Scientific School

1.6.6 Folklore School

1.6.7 Limit Setting Approaches School

1.6.8 Cognitive Behaviorism School

1.6.9 Humanistic School

1.6.10 Discipline Oriented School

5) .Define 'time on task' .

iv) scientific D) classroom management through

1.7 COMPONENTS OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

1.7.1 Pre-active phase

1.7.2 Interactive Phase

10) Why is it necessary to spell out classroom norms?

1.8 OTHER DETERMINANTS OF CLASSROOM

1.8.1 Punctuality in starting the lesson

1.8.2 Seating arrangement

1.8.3, Outside Disturbances

1.8.4 Student Talk

1.8.5 Filling Time

1.8.6 . Closing Time

important slot of classroom management.

1.8.7 Teacher Confidence

1.8.8 Class Size

1.8.10 'Age of the Learner

1.8.11 Caste/ Community

1.9 INDICES OF EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM

Check your progress

Note: a) Space is given below for writing your answers.

ii) A mathematics class is in progress, unexpectedly, there is a mike blaring

v) The chemistry teacher presents 5 chemical equations on the blackboard

1.10 DISCIPLINE AND THE MANAGEMENT OF

So far in this unit, we have given importance to viewing classroom management

15) Briefly write the key ideas of the LEAST model.