Boiler - Design of Pressure Parts & Structures

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Boilers - Design Of Pressure Parts And Structures
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX30202 M.Y. Naffa’a
Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels
Boilers Design Of Pressure Parts And Structures
Contents Pages
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
SPECIFICATIONS .............................................................................................................. 2
MATERIALS ....................................................................................................................... 3
CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL

COMPONENTS................................................................................................................... 5
Design Conditions ..................................................................................................... 5
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (Par. PG-21) ................................................ 5
Operating Temperature (Par. PG-27.4, Note 2).............................................. 5
Saudi Aramco Requirements...................................................................................... 5
Calculation of Wall Thickness.................................................................................... 6
Boiler Tubes - 5-in. maximum diameter.......................................................... 6
Drums, Headers, and Piping........................................................................... 9
CALCULATING COMPENSATION REQUIRED FOR OPENINGS IN SHELLS
AND HEADERS (PAR. PG-32)..........................................................................................13
Shape of Openings (Par. PG-32.2)..........................................................................13
Size of Openings (Par. PG-32.3)...............................................................................13
Spacing of Openings (Par. PG-38.2).........................................................................14
Compensation for Openings (Par. PG-32).................................................................14
Groups of Openings......................................................................................14
Calculation of Ligament Efficiency................................................................15
Single Openings of Relatively Small Size (Par. 32.1.3) ..................................21
All Other Openings .......................................................................................21
Calculation of Required Compensation for Openings ................................................24
Multiple Openings.........................................................................................29
Design of Transition Sections ...................................................................................31
Transition Between Sections of Vessel Shells (Par. PW-9.3) .......................31
CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF END CLOSURES ..........................33
Dished Heads (Par. PG-29) ....................................................................................33
Required Thickness of Dished Heads ............................................................33

Additional Design Requirements ...................................................................34

Flat Heads and Covers..............................................................................................36
Required Thickness of Flat Heads .................................................................36
CALCULATING THE CAPABILITIES FOR FUTURE OPERATIONS ............................40
Causes of Metal Loss in Boilers................................................................................40
Internal Corrosion or Erosion .......................................................................40
External Sulfur Corrosion .............................................................................40
High Temperature Oxidation.........................................................................41
Calculation of Boiler Capabilities..............................................................................41
Boiler Tubes .................................................................................................41
Drums, Headers, and Piping..........................................................................41
DETERMINING THE DESIGN AND TESTING REQUIREMENTS OF THE
BOILER STRUCTURE.......................................................................................................43
Boiler Loads.............................................................................................................43
Weight of Contents.......................................................................................43
Additional Loads ..........................................................................................44
Boiler Internal Pressure ............................................................................................44
Normal Operating Pressure ...........................................................................45
Maximum Design Pressure............................................................................45
Negative Internal Pressure ............................................................................46
Work Aid 1 DESIGN OF BOILER TUBES calculation sheet .......................47
Work Aid 2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES.......................................................48
Work Aid 3 DESIGN OF DRUMS, HEADERS, AND PIPING
calculation sheet............................................................................................49
Work Aid 4 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY CALCULATION SHEET .............51
Work Aid 5 Inherent Compensation Calculation Sheet ..................................52
Work Aid 6 REQUIRED THICKNESS OF DISHED HEADS
calculation sheet............................................................................................53
Work Aid 7 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Calculation Sheet .........54
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................56

Table of Figures Pages
Figure 1 Design Of Boiler Tubes ............................................................................... 8

Figure 2 Typical Steam Drum.................................................................................... 9
Figure 3 Design Of Drums, Headers And Piping .......................................................11
Figure 4 Temperature Coefficient Temperature, °F ...................................................12
Figure 5 Groups Of Openings - Typical Patterns.......................................................15
Figure 6 Groups Of Openings - Typical Patterns.......................................................18
Figure 7 Calculation Of Ligament Efficiency - Triangular Pitch.................................19
Figure 8 Efficiency Of Diagonal Ligaments...............................................................20
Figure 9 Calculation Of Inherent Compensation........................................................22
Figure 10 Chart Showing Limits Of Sizes Of Openings With Inherent
Compensation In Cylindrical Shells..............................................................23
Figure 11 Limits Of Available Compensation ............................................................26
Figure 12 Typical Arrangements Of Nozzle Reinforcement.......................................27
Figure 13 Calculation Of Requird Compensation ......................................................29
Figure 14 Required Compensation Between Openings ..............................................31
Figure 15 Typical Transition Sections.......................................................................32
Figure 16 Torispherical Head....................................................................................33
Figure 17 Required Thickness Of Dished Heads .......................................................35
Figure 18 Flat Heads And Covers .............................................................................36
Figure 19 Calculation Of Thickness Of Flat Heads....................................................38
Figure 19 Calculation Of Thickness Of Flat Heads....................................................39
Figure 20 Calculation Of Maximum Allowable Working Pressure .............................42
Figure 21 Typical Fan Performance Curve ................................................................46

Boilers-Design Of Pressure Parts And Structures
INTRODUCTION
This module provides information on the mechanical design of the major components of a boiler.
These are mainly the pressure parts of the steam and water system. The design of the boiler
structure is also covered.
The information in this module will assist the participant in completing typical tasks, such as:
• Calculating the required thickness for a new boiler tube.

• Checking the adequacy of a new connection to a steam drum.
• Determining the adequacy of an existing boiler component for a new operating condition.
• Determining the pressure for a leak test of the boiler enclosure.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

SPECIFICATIONS
The design of water-tube boilers is discussed in Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification 32-
AMSS-021, Water-Tube Boilers. The most important requirement of this specification is that
boilers shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code - Section I Power Boilers. Although there are no Saudi Aramco specifications for
firetube or electric boilers, these boiler types are also covered by ASME Section I. Under normal
conditions, these boilers would also be purchased in accordance with ASME Section I. Thus, for
practical purposes, all of Saudi Aramco's boilers are covered by Code requirements.
Boilers generating steam at a pressure of 15 psig or less may be designed in accordance with
ASME Section IV Heating Boilers, which has less restrictive rules. (Of course, it is also
permissible to design these low-pressure boilers in accordance with Section I.) Section IV will
not be covered in this course.
ASME Section I contains many requirements covering the design, materials, and fabrication of
power boilers, including their inspection and testing during construction. The entire Section I
document is approximately 300 pages long.
WARNING: The material presented in this module is intended to assist the participant in the
design of pressure parts for Saudi Aramco boilers in accordance with the Code. It can also assist in
determining the adequacy of existing designs. This material covers typical design details found in
Saudi Aramco boilers, but it does not cover all possible applications. It is not intended
that this module replace the Code. It is essential that the Code be carefully reviewed to ensure
that all applicable requirements are met.
ASME Section I is divided into many parts. The largest two parts are applicable to all boilers.
Part PG covers general requirements for all methods of construction, and Part PW covers
welding. Other parts of Section I cover requirements for specific types of boilers, for example,
watertube, firetube, electric.
Well-established procedures have been developed for the design of most boiler pressure parts.
These are contained in Section I of the ASME Code. These procedures are known as "design by
rule" and require the following:
• Determination of the loads.

• Choice of a design formula.
• Selection of an appropriate design stress for the material to be used.
In unusual situations when there are no appropriate rules for the design of a particular boiler
component, a hydrostatic deformation test of a full-sized sample ("proof test") can be used to
demonstrate that the component is acceptable. Such a proof test would rarely be carried out by
an operating company.

MATERIALS
Most materials used in boilers are ferritic steels. In general, materials permitted by the Code are
listed in Table PG 23.1, which is found in the Appendix to Section I. This table includes
allowable stress values for each material up to its maximum temperature limit. The table also
includes any additional information needed by the boiler designer for each material being used.
The actual material specifications are covered in Section II of the ASME Code. These
specifications are essentially identical to the specifications of the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM). Materials purchased in accordance with the ASME specifications have an
"SA" designation, while ASTM materials have an "A" designation. Thus, A-106 and SA-106
seamless carbon steel piping are identical. Purchasing material in accordance with the "SA"
specifications ensures that it is authorized for use in boilers. However, since a Code stamp is not
always required, materials with both the "SA" and "A" designations are found in Saudi Aramco's
boilers.
Material specifications include enough information to adequately define the material being
purchased. This can include the following:
• Ordering information.
• The manufacturing process.
• Heat treatment.
• Surface finish.
• Chemical composition.
• Tensile strength and yield strength.
• Hardness.
• Testing.
• Marking for identification.
When the purchaser orders by specification number, the supplier certifies that the material
complies with that specification.
The choice of materials is mainly based on an economic balance between the cost of the material
and its strength at the operating temperature. However, the use of the following materials is
restricted by the Code to certain applications:
• Stainless steels. These materials are very susceptible to chloride-induced stress corrosion
cracking. They may therefore be used only in what the Code calls “steam-touched
services,” such as superheaters. They may not be used in water services, such as the steam
generating tubes, because the water may contain chlorides.
• Carbon steels. Graphitization occurs in some carbon steels after long service at
temperatures above 800_F. This can severely affect the strength and ductility of these
steels, particularly in the heat-affected zones of welds.

• Cast iron and nonferrous materials. These materials are not used for the main boiler
pressure parts. Their use is limited to some specific applications listed in Par. PG-8 of the
Code.
For most plant applications, materials used in boiler repairs or modifications will be the same as
those used by the boiler manufacturer in the original construction. If these materials have been
unsatisfactory, consideration would be given to using better materials in boiler repairs. For
example, 1 Cr-1/2 Mo superheater tubes might be replaced by
2 1/4 Cr-1 Mo tubes (SA213 T22 rather than SA213 T12).

CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS
Design Conditions
The two most important conditions that affect the design of a boiler pressure part are the
operating pressure of the boiler and the temperature of the part. Please note that references in
brackets ( ) in this module refer to the appropriate paragraph in Section I of the ASME Code.
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (Par. PG-21)
This is the maximum pressure at which the boiler is allowed to operate. It is expressed in gauge
pressure (psig).
The only time this pressure may be exceeded is when a safety valve is discharging. The safety
valves must be designed so that the pressure does not increase by more than 6% when discharging
is occurring.
For forced-flow steam generators, this pressure may vary through the boiler because of the
pressure drop caused by the steam-water flow.
Operating Temperature (Par. PG-27.4, Note 2)
This is the maximum temperature that the pressure part is expected to experience under normal
operating conditions. The allowable stresses of the material are based on this temperature.
For tubes that absorb heat, this temperature is defined as the mean tubewall temperature (sum of
outside and inside surface temperatures divided by 2). The minimum design operating
temperature for these tubes is 700°F. Calculation of tubewall temperatures is discussed in MEX
105.09.
For tubes and other components that do not absorb heat, the design operating temperature is the
fluid temperature, but not less than the saturation temperature.
Saudi Aramco Requirements
Specific requirements relating to the design of pressure parts for Saudi Aramco boilers are
contained in the following four paragraphs of 32-AMSS-021:
• All boiler pressure and heat transfer parts shall have a minimum of 1.5 mm (1/16 in.)
corrosion allowance (CA) (Par. 2.8).
• Minimum tubewall thicknesses (Par. 5.4.2).

- Boiler bank tubes: 4.8 mm (3/16 in.).

- Superheater tubes: 3 mm (1/8 in.) seamless alloy steel.
• Maximum tensile strength of tube materials may not exceed 112,500 psi (Par. 5.4.3).
• Headers shall be hot-formed seamless (Par. 5.3.5).
Calculation of Wall Thickness
Two procedures are used to determine the required wall thickness for cylindrical components.
Boiler Tubes - 5-in. maximum diameter
The following equation is used for the design of tubing up to and including a 5-in. outside
diameter. For practical purposes, this covers all the tubes in a boiler. Work Aid 1 contains a
procedure for using this equation. The sample problem in Figure 1 illustrates the use of Work Aid
1.
t= PD + 0.005D + e + CA
(Par. PG-27.2.1) (Eqn. 1)
2S + P
where : t = Minimum required thickness, in.

Because tubing is often ordered by a nominal wall thickness, care must be taken
to ensure that the tube actually has this minimum thickness after the
manufacturing tolerance is taken into account. Many specifications include a
12.5% tolerance on the nominal wall thickness. In these cases, the minimum
wall thickness is determined by Eqn. 1, the required nominal wall thickness is
determined by dividing the minimum thickness by 0.875. The next heavier
commercially available wall thicknes tube shall be selected.
P = Maximum allowable working pressure, as discussed above, psi.
D = Outside diameter of cylinder, in.
S = Maximum allowable stress of the metal, psi.

Allowable stresses are listed in Table PG-23.1, which is found in the Appendix to
the Code. The stress value is determined for the operating temperature of the
tube, as discussed above. Excerpts from Table PG-23.1, covering commonly used
materials, are in Work Aid 2.

e = Thickness factor for the expanded tube ends (usually = 0).

This is an allowance for thin-walled tubes that are attached to a drum by
being rolled into a tube seat. (Refer to fabrication processes in MEX 105.03.) See
Par. PG-27.4, Note 4, for the required allowances.
Since Saudi Aramco minimum tubewall requirements exceed the Code
requirements, e = 0.
Also, for tubes that are strength-welded to headers and drums, rather than being
rolled, e = 0.
CA = Corrosion allowance, in.

This allowance for corrosion/erosion is added to minimum required wall
thickness calculated by the Code procedures. It is specified by the boiler
purchaser (Saudi Aramco minimum corrosion allowance = 0.0625 in., as
discussed above). It is not included in any stress calculations (calculations are
made for the "corroded condition").

The following example illustrates the use of Work Aid 1 to calculate the required thickness of
boiler tubes.
Plant Location Shedgum Boiler F-102

Service Part Name
1 2
Component Superheater
Material 2 1/4Cr - 1Mo
ASME Spec. and Grade A213 - T22
Maximum allowable working pressure, P psi = 800
Operating temperature, T _F = 1025
Outside diameter, D (Max. = 5.00 in.), in. = 2.00
Corrosion allowance, CA (usually = 0.063 in.), in. = 0.063
Thickness factor for expanded tube ends, e in. = 0
(usually = 0),
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S psi = 6800
(From Work Aid 2 or Table PG-23.1)
Required thickness for pressure stress, tsr: (By
interpolation)
PD (Eqn . 1)
t sr = + 0. 005 D
2S + P
Component #1:
[0.111] [0.01]
800 2.0
tsr = + 0.005 (2.0) in. = 0.121
2 6800 + 800
Component #2:
tsr = + 0.005
2 + in. =
Total required thickness, tr = tsr + e + CA in. = 0.184
Min. wall thickness, tmin per 32-AMSS-021, par 5.4 in. = 0.125
(boiler tubes= 0.188 in.)
(superheater tubes = 0.125 in.)
Min. req'd thickness, t (greater of tr or tmin), in. = 0.184
Actual minimum wall thickness used, in. = 0.197
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If nominal wall thickness is specified,
Required tnom = t/0.875 = tnom, in. = 0.210
Actual nominal tubewall thickness used, in. =
FIGURE 1 DESIGN OF BOILER TUBES

Drums, Headers, and Piping
For the design of all other cylindrical components, the following equations are used. These will
cover all components in a boiler, except for the tubes. Work Aid 3 contains a procedure for using
these equations. Figure 3 illustrates the use of Work Aid 3.
A typical steam drum is shown in Figure 2. The shells of steam drums and other cylindrical
components are often constructed of plates with two wall thicknesses. A thicker section is used
in the zone where there are a large number of openings for the attachment of the many boiler
tubes.
FIGURE 2 TYPICAL STEAM DRUM

t= PD + CA
2SE + 2yP
(Eqn. 2)
or, (Par. PG-27.2.2)

PR
t= + CA
SE - (1 - y )P ( Eqn . 3)
where: t = Minimum required thickness, in.

If this component is manufactured from pipe ordered by its nominal (or
average) wall thickness, the manufacturing tolerance on wall thickness
must be taken into account. Many specifications include a 12.5%
tolerance on the nominal wall thickness. In these cases, after the
minimum wall thickness is determined by Eqn. 2 or 3, the required
nominal wall thickness is determined by dividing this minimum thickness
by 0.875. The next heavier commercially available wall thickness pipe
shall be selected..
P = Maximum allowable working pressure, as discussed above, psi.
D = Outside diameter of cylinder, in.
R = Inside radius of cylinder, in corroded condition, in.
Allowable stresses are listed in Table PG-23.1, which is found in the
Appendix to the Code. The stress value is determined for the operating
temperature of the tube, as discussed above. Excerpts from Table PG-23.1,
covering commonly used materials, are in Work Aid 2.
E = Efficiency of longitudinal welded joints or of openings between
joints, whichever is lower. (Par. PG-27.4, Note 1)
= 1.00 for seamless or welded cylinders.
= The calculated efficiency of ligaments between openings (see
Work Aid 4).
CA = Corrosion allowance, in.
This allowance for corrosion/erosion is added to minimum required wall
thickness calculated by the Code procedures. It is specified by the boiler
purchaser (Saudi Aramco minimum corrosion allowance = 0.0626 in., as
discussed above). It is not included in any stress calculations
(calculations are made for the "corroded condition").
y = Temperature coefficient, from Figure 4.

boiler cylindrical components (Par. PG-27.2.2).

Service Part Name Steam Drum
Given:
1 2
Component Tube Plate Shell Plate
Material CS CS
ASME Spec. and Grade SA 515-70 SA 515-70
Outside diameter, D in. = 78.228
Or, Inside radius, R (in corroded conditions), in. = 36.03
Maximum allowable working pressure, P psi = 800 800
Operating temperature, T _F = 520 520
Corrosion allowance, CA (usually = 0.0625 in.), in. = 0.0625 0.0625
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S psi = 17,500 17,500
(From Table PG-23.1),
Efficiency of ligaments (From Work Aid 4), E = 0.459 1.00
Temperature coefficient (From Figure 4), y = 0.4 0.4
Required thickness for pressure stress:
Component #1:
PD =
tsr = 2SE + 2yP 2 +2
PR 800 36.03
or: =
SE - 1 - y P 17,500 0.459 - 1 - 0.4 800
in. = 3.816
Component #2:
PD (800 )(78, 228 )
t sr = =
2 SE + 2 yP 2(17 , 500 )(1. 0 ) + 2( 0. 4 )(800 )
PR ( )( )
or : =
SE - (1 - y )P ( )( )- (1 - )( )
in. = 1.756
Minimum required thickness, tr = tsr + CA in. = 3.879 1.818

Actual vessel wall thickness, t in. = 4.015 2.007
(105 mm) (52 mm)
FIGURE 3 DESIGN OF DRUMS, HEADERS AND PIPING

900 1250
and 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 and
Below Above
Ferritic 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Austenitic 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7
Alloy 800 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7
800H 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7
825 0.4 0.4 0.4 ... ... ... ... ...
Values of y Between Temperatures Listed May be Determined by Interpolation.

For Nonferrous Materials, y = 0.4
Source: Par. PG-27.4, Note 6
FIGURE 4 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT TEMPERATURE, °F

CALCULATING COMPENSATION REQUIRED FOR OPENINGS IN SHELLS AND

HEADERS (PAR. PG-32)
Boiler drums and headers have many openings. Most of the openings are used to connect the
drums and headers to the pipes and tubes that circulate water and steam through the boiler. Other
openings are provided for access into the drums and headers for inspection and maintenance.
Additional small openings are required for various purposes, such as instrument connections and
connections for taking samples.
The effects of these openings on the design of the drums and headers are discussed below.
Shape of Openings (Par. PG-32.2)
Openings are preferably circular, elliptical, or obround (an opening formed by two parallel sides
and two semicircular ends). Openings of other shapes may be used if adequately designed, but the
Code does not provide calculation procedures to cover their design.
When the long dimension of an elliptical or obround opening exceeds twice the short dimension,
the compensation across the short dimension must be increased to provide against excessive
distortion.
Size of Openings (Par. PG-32.3)
The rules in the Code cover compensation for openings of the following sizes:
• For vessels up to 60-in. diameter: 1/2 the vessel diameter, but not over 20 in.
• For vessels over 60-in. diameter: 1/3 the vessel diameter, but not over 40 in.
Openings may be of any size, but openings larger than listed above may require special attention.

Spacing of Openings (Par. PG-38.2)
The distance between the centers of two adjacent openings must be at least 1 1/3 times their
average diameter.
Compensation for Openings (Par. PG-32)
In general, the material removed from a drum or header wall to create an opening must be
compensated for by adding material to the base wall thickness. For cylindrical shells, the
following three methods are used to determine the amount of compensation required. Each
method is discussed below. The choice of method depends on the type of opening.
• Groups of openings.
• Single, relatively small-sized openings not requiring additional compensation.
• All other openings, which require compensation to be calculated individually.
Groups of Openings
These are usually arranged in a definite pattern, such as tube holes (Par. 32.1.2).
Typical arrangements of openings are shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5 GROUPS OF OPENINGS - TYPICAL PATTERNS
These openings are usually designed by determining a ligament efficiency (E) for the vessel wall
between the openings. The procedure for calculating ligament efficiency follows. This ligament
efficiency is then used in the wall thickness calculation procedure
(Work Aid 3).
The ligaments for groups of openings that do not form a definite pattern are designed in a similar
manner (Par. PG-53). Openings in irregular patterns are generally not found in Saudi Aramco's
boilers.
Calculation of Ligament Efficiency
The following procedures are used to determine the ligament efficiency of groups of openings that
are arranged in a definite pattern. The pattern determines which of the following procedures is
used. Work Aid 4 can be used to carry out this procedure. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the use of
Work Aid 4.
In the following procedures, dimensions on the vessel shell are determined at the midpoint of the
wall (in corroded condition). This affects circumferential and diagonal dimensions (pt, p'), but has
no effect on longitudinal dimensions.

1. Openings parallel to the vessel axis (PG-52.2).
A. Equal pitch of tube holes on every tube row, with square or rectangular pattern.
p-d
E=
p (Eqn. 4)
(Fig. PG-52.2)
where: E = Longitudinal efficiency of ligament.
p = Pitch of tube holes, in.
d = Diameter of hole in shell, in.
B. Unequal pitch of tube holes on any tube row.
p 1 - nd
E=
p1 (Eqn. 5)
Fig.
(
PG-52.3)

where: E = Longitudinal efficiency of ligament.

p1 = Longitudinal pitch between corresponding holes in a repetitive
pattern, in.
n = Number of holes within the length p1.
d = Diameter of hole in shell, in.
2. Openings transverse to vessel axis (PG-52.3).
The strength of these ligaments must be at least half the required strength of the ligaments
parallel to the vessel axis. See Pt in Fig. PG-52.2, above. The calculation procedures are
the same as described above.
3. Holes along a diagonal, with tube rows in a triangular pattern (PG-53.4).
Ligament efficiency is determined from Figure 8 (FIG. PG-52.1.). This is a function of the
longitudinal efficiency of a tube row (as calculated above) and the ratio of the diagonal pitch
to the longitudinal pitch.
If the intersection of these two values on the diagram falls above the line of equal efficiency,
the longitudinal efficiency is weaker than the diagonal efficiency. The longitudinal efficiency
is then used.

The following examples illustrate the use of Work Aid 4 to determine the ligament efficiency of
groups of openings in a vessel wall that are arranged in a rectangular pitch.
Plant Location Sample Problem Boiler (From Par. PG-52.2)

Service Part Name
Given:
1 2
Component Name Equal Pitch Unequal Pitch
Location of ligament
Diameter of hole in shell, d in. = 3.281 3.281
Longitudinal pitch of tube holes, p in. = 5.25
Longitudinal pitch between corresponding
holes in a repetitive pattern, p1 in. = - 12.00
Number of holes within the length, p1 in. = - 2
Transverse pitch, pt in. = 4.75 4.75
Diagonal pitch, p' in. = - -
Solution:
E = longitudinal efficiency of ligament
A. Equal pitch (Eqn. 4)

p-d
E= = 5.25 - 3.281
p 5.25 E = 0.375
B. Unequal pitch (Eqn. 5)
p 1 - nd 12.0 - 2 3.281
E= =
p1 12.0 E = 0.453
C. Transverse pitch
pt - d
Et = = 4.75 - 3.281
pt 4.75 Et = 0.310 0.310
Minimum Et = E/2 = 0.188 0.277
E. Minimum spacing of openings (p, pt, p'):

1 1/3 x 3.281 = 1 1/3 d, in. = 4.374 4.374
FIGURE 6 GROUPS OF OPENINGS - TYPICAL PATTERNS

The following examples illustrate the use of Work Aid 4 to determine the ligament efficiency of
groups of openings in a vessel wall that are arranged in a triangular pitch.
Plant Location Boiler

Service Part Name
Given:
a) b)
1 2
Component Name Figure a Figure b
Diameter of hole in shell, d in. = 4.031 4.0156
Longitudinal pitch of tube holes, p in. = 11.50 7.0
holes in a repetitive pattern, p1 in. = -
Number of holes in the pattern, p1 in. = -
Transverse pitch, pt in. = -
Diagonal pitch, p' in. = 6.42 6.547
Solution:
D. Diagonal pitch
1. Longitudinal efficiency: 7.0 - 4.0156 =
p-d 11.50 - 4.031 7.0
E=
p 11.50 = 0.649 0.426
E
2. Ratio of diagonal to longitudinal pitch: 6.547 =

p' 7.0
= 6.42
p 11.50 = 0.558 0.935
3. From Figure 8 (Fig. PG-52.1) E = 0.37 0.426

(Point A) (Note)
E. Minimum spacing of openings (p, pt, p'):
= 1 1/3 d, 5.373 5.353
Note: Point B is above line of Equal Efficiency, Use longitudinal efficiency.
FIGURE 7 CALCULATION OF LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY - TRIANGULAR PITCH

USE PHOTOSTAT
FIGURE 8 EFFICIENCY OF DIAGONAL LIGAMENTS

Maximum Size of Openings in a Group
The diameter of all openings in the group being considered must not exceed that for which
inherent compensation has been provided in the vessel wall. Inherent compensation can be
determined by the procedure in Work Aid 5 and is based on the final drum wall thickness. Figure
9 illustrates the use of Work Aid 5. The maximum size opening covered by this inherent
compensation is found from Figure 10 (Fig. PG-32). Compensation for openings larger than
permitted by the chart must be determined individually, as discussed below.
Single Openings of Relatively Small Size (Par. 32.1.3)
For openings that satisfy certain conditions, calculations of compensation are not required. These
fall into two categories:
A. Small openings where:

1. The inside diameter of the shell is greater than four times the diameter of the
opening, and:
2. The connections are 2-in. pipe size or smaller.
For example, a 1.5-in. diameter opening in a header with an inside diameter
greater than 6 in. meets these requirements.
B. Other single openings that satisfy the test for inherent compensation, as described in
Work Aid 5.
All Other Openings
Compensation is determined on an individual basis. Included are openings for access, and piping
connections for water and steam inlets and outlets to the drums and headers. Many of these
openings are large in size.

The following example illustrates the use of Work Aid 5 to determine the maximum size of an
opening for which compensation has been built into the vessel wall (Par. PG-32.1.2).
Plant Location_________Shedgum__ Boiler F-102

Service Part Name Steam Drum
Given:
1 2
Component Name Tube Shell Plate
Plate
Material CS CS
ASME Spec. and Grade A 515-70 A 515-70
Maximum allowable working pressure, P psi = 800 800
Outside diameter of vessel, D in. = 80.314 78.228
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S psi = 17,500 17,500
Actual (final) thickness of the wall, tact in. = 4.134 2.047
Less corrosion allowance, -CA in. = 0.063 0.063
Minimum thickness for pressure stress, t in. = 4.071 1.984
Solution:
1. Determine K, a stress factor which relates the internal pressure forces in a vessel to the
strength of the vessel wall.
PD (800 )(80 . 314 )

=
(1) K = 1. 82 St 1. 82 (17 , 500 )(4. 071 ) 0. 496
K =
(800 )(78 . 228 )
=
1. 82 (17 , 500 )(1. 984 ) K = 0. 990
(2)
2. Determine (1) Dt = (80.314) (4.071) Dt 327
=
(2) = (78.228) (1.984) 155
=
3. From the Chart in Figure 10 (from Fig. PG-32), for K and Dt, determine (d), the
maximum diameter opening for which the wall has inherent compensation.
Maximum d = 8 in.
d, in. = 8.0 (Max) 3.2
For openings larger than d, required compensation must be calculated on an individual basis.
FIGURE 9 CALCULATION OF INHERENT COMPENSATION

(Extracted from Fig. PG-32. For values of Dt > 300, see Fig. PG-32.)
FIGURE 10 CHART SHOWING LIMITS OF SIZES OF OPENINGS WITH INHERENT

COMPENSATION IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Calculation of Required Compensation for Openings
1. Determine the area of the opening for which compensation is required (PG-33.2).
A = d (tr x F) (Eqn. 6)
where: A = Total cross-sectional area of compensation required in any given

plane, sq. in.
d = Diameter of the finished opening, in any given plane, in.
tr = Calculated required thickness of the vessel wall to meet the design
conditions, in.
F = A correction factor which takes into account the variation in pressure
stresses occurring in different planes with respect to the axis of the
vessel.
= 1.00 for most cases.
= Value from Fig. PG-33 for integrally reinforced openings in
cylindrical shells. This varies from 1.00 in the plane of the
longitudinal axis of the vessel to 0.50 in the plane that is
perpendicular to this axis. This reflects the fact that the longitudinal
pressure stress is 1/2 the circumferential stress.
note: As previously discussed, all calculations are based on the corroded condition.
2. Limits of Metal Available for Compensation (PG-36).
The metal available for compensation of an opening is illustrated in Figure 11. The
compensation must fall within the rectangle ABCD, which surrounds the opening.
3. Metal within these limits, as shown in Figure 11, that is in excess of the required thickness
calculated by the Code may be considered to have reinforcing value.
A. Metal in vessel wall
A1 = (t - Ftr) (x - d) (Eqn. 7)
B. Metal in nozzle wall
A2 = 2(tn - trn) y (Eqn. 8)
C. Metal added as compensation (continuously around the nozzle) when it is

welded to both the vessel and the nozzle (a reinforcing pad). The metal
provided in the attachment welds is also included.

Typical arrangements of nozzle reinforcement are shown in Figure 12. Refer to the Code
for details of nozzle design (Par. PG-36).
The example in Figure 13 illustrates the calculation of the required compensation for an
individual opening.
4. Strength of Compensation.
The strength of the metal supplied for compensation must be considered. If metal used for
compensation (such as the nozzle wall) has a lower allowable stress value than that of the
vessel wall, the effective area of compensation must be reduced by the ratio of the allowable
stresses.
No credit may be taken if the allowable stress value of the compensation is higher than that
of the vessel wall.
The allowable stress value of deposited weld metal is the same as the base metal. If two
components with different allowable stress values are welded together, the weld takes the
allowable stress value of the weaker component.

x
tn
A B
y d Available
Compensation
t tr
y Area to be
trn
Compensated
D C
FIGURE 11 LIMITS OF AVAILABLE COMPENSATION

FIGURE 12 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF NOZZLE REINFORCEMENT

The following example illustrates the calculation of the required compensation for an opening in
a vessel wall.
Assume that a 4-in. diameter opening, as shown below, is to be added to the shell section of a
steam drum equivalent to Shedgum Boiler F-102. The indicated dimensions are in the corroded
condition.
Vessel Wall: t = 1.944 in. (From the example in Figure 3)

tr = 1.756 in.
Nozzle: d = 4.125 in.

tn = 0.687 in.
trn = 0.155 in.
FIGURE 13 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED COMPENSATION
Solution
Required compensation
A = d x (tr x F) (Eqn. 6)
= 4.125 x 1.756 x 1.00
= 7.244 in.2
Limits of compensation (From Figure 11)
x = the greater of:

2d = 2 (4.125) = 8.25 in.

or,
d + 2 (t + tn) = 4.125 + 2 (1.944 + 0.687) = 9.387 in.
therefore, in this example x = 9.387 in.
y = 2.5 tn = 2.5 (0.687) = 1.718 in.
Available compensation
A1 = (t - Ftr) (x - d) (Eqn. 7)
= (1.944 - 1.756)(9.387 - 4.125) = 0.989 in.2
A2 = 2(tn - trn ) y (Eqn. 8)

= 2(0.687 - 0.155)(1.718) = 2.660 in.2
Total available compensation = A1 + A2 = 3.649 in.2
Since the available compensation is less than the required compensation,
a reinforcing pad is required.
Additional reinforcement required
Ar = A - (A1 + A2)
= 7.244 - (3.649) = 3.595 in.2
External area available for additional reinforcement
Aa = (x - do) y
do = d + 2tn = 4.125 + 2(0.687) = 5.50 in.
Aa = (9.387 - 5.5)(1.718) = 6.687 in.2

(vs. 3.595 in.2 required)
Conclusion: There is adequate area to accommodate the required reinforcement.
FIGURE 13 CALCULATION OF REQUIRD COMPENSATION
Multiple Openings
A. Compensation for adjacent openings can be used only once. When any two adjacent
openings that require compensation are located close enough together so that their limits of
compensation overlap, the total compensation provided must still equal the sum of
compensation required for each opening.
B. Two adjacent openings must have a distance between centers at least equal to 1 1/3 times
their average diameter.

C. When a shell has a series of openings in a definite pattern, the net cross-sectional area within
the shell wall between any two openings must meet the following requirements. This area is
represented by (5, 6, 7, 8) in Figure 14.
- This area must equal at least 0.7F times the area obtained by multiplying the center-to-
center distance between the openings by the required thickness of a seamless shell (tr).
This area is represented by (1, 2, 3, 4) in Figure 14. The correction factor F was
discussed above.
- Any compensation that is not fused to the shell wall is not included in this minimum
area calculation. The nozzle wall shown in this Figure 14a is not directly fused
(welded) to the shell and is not included. If the nozzle were attached with a full
penetration weld, as in Figure 14c, the entire nozzle wall would be included in this
calculation.

FIGURE 14 REQUIRED COMPENSATION BETWEEN OPENINGS
Design of Transition Sections
Transition Between Sections of Vessel Shells (Par. PW-9.3)
As noted earlier, the shell of a vessel may be constructed of plates of unequal thicknesses. The
heads of the vessel may also have a different thickness. Transition sections are required at these
joints in some cases to avoid high-stress concentrations. These are when the difference in plate
thicknesses is greater than 20% or 1/8 in.
For example, for the following joints:

2.50 to 2.00 -- transition required (greater than 20% difference)
in. in.
2.30 to 2.00 -- transition required (greater than 1/8 in. difference)

in. in.
1.00 to 0.90 -- transition not required

in. in.
The transition consists of a uniform tapered section with a minimum slope of 3:1 (length:offset).
A 4:1 transition section is used in many Saudi Aramco boilers.
Typical transition sections are shown in Figure 15.

FIGURE 15 TYPICAL TRANSITION SECTIONS

CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF END CLOSURES
Two types of end closures are commonly used on boiler drums and headers: dished heads and flat
heads or cover plates. These will be covered separately. The end closures described here do not
use added stays or braces to increase their maximum working pressures.
Dished Heads (Par. PG-29)
Three general types of dished heads are used: hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and torispherical.
Torispherical heads are often used for large diameter heads, such as steam drums. Hemispherical
heads are often used on smaller diameter vessels and headers. The dished heads described here all
have the pressure on the concave side.
Torispherical heads consist of a segment of a sphere, encircled by a part of a torus which makes
up the knuckle portion of the head. See Figure 16.
t
L
Segment
of a Sphere Radius of Head (L)
LŠD
D
Radius of Knuckle (X)
X • 3t
X • 0.06D
Thickness at Knuckle t'
t'
t' r • 0.9 t r
Part of
a Torus
FIGURE 16 TORISPHERICAL HEAD
Required Thickness of Dished Heads
• For a blank dished head, which is a segment of a sphere:
t = 5PL (Par. PG-29.1) (Eqn. 9)

4.8S

where: t = Minimum required thickness of head, not including any corrosion

allowance, in.
P = Maximum allowable working pressure, psig.
L = Inside radius to which the head is dished, in corroded condition, in.
S = Maximium allowable stress of the metal, psi.
• For a blank full-hemispherical head:
t = PL for t < 0.5 in. (Par. PG-29.11) (Eqn. 10)

1.6S
t= PL
or: 2S - 0.2P
for t > 0.5 in. (Eqn. 11)
Work Aid 6 contains a procedure for using these equations. Figure 17 illustrates the use of Work
Aid 6.
Additional Design Requirements
• The radius to which the head is dished (L) shall not exceed the outside diameter of the
flanged portion of the head (D). See Figure 16. (Par. PG-29.2)
• The corner radius of a dished head (x) has the following minimum requirements:
x ³ 3t and x ³ 0.06D (Par. PG-29.13)
Where t is the total thickness of the material in the head.
• The required reinforcement, or compensation, for openings in dished heads is the same as
for vessel walls, as previously discussed. (Par. PG-29.4)
An exception is made for flanged-in manholes or access openings, which have the following
requirements:
• Where the flanged-in manhole or access opening exceeds 6 in. in any dimension, the
thickness of the head shall be at least 15% greater than that calculated for a blank head.
(Par. PG-29.3)
• The calculated thickness of the head shall be based on a head radius (L) which is at least
80% of the diameter of the shell (D). (Par. PG-29.5)
• The thickness of a full-hemispherical head with a flanged-in manhole or access opening shall
be the same as for a head dished to a segment of a sphere, as calculated above.(Par. PG-
29.12)
dished heads (Par. PG-29).


Service
Given:
1 2
Part name Steam Drum
Type of head Torispherical
Material = CS
ASME Spec. and Grade = SA 515-70
Maximum allowable working pressure, P psi = 800
Operating temperature, T °F = 520
Inside radius of dished head, L, in corroded
condition (L < D), in. = 57.543
Inside corner radius of head, x in. = 11.81
Outside diameter of head, D in. = 80.276
Corrosion allowance, CA (usually = 0.063 in.), in. = 0.063
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S
(From Work Aid 2 or Table PG-23.1), psi = 17,500
Required thickness of head for pressure stress (segment of sphere) (Eqn. 9):
5PL
tsr = 4.85
5 800 57.543
Comp. #1: tsr = 4.8 17,500
in. = 2.740
5
Comp. #2: tsr = 4.8
in. =
Required thickness of full-hemispherical head for pressure stress:
PL
tsr = 2S - 0.2P (Eqn. 11)*
Comp. #1: tsr = 2 + 0.2

in. =
Comp. #2: tsr = 2 + 0.2 in. =
Minimum required thickness, tr = tsr + CA in. = 2.803

Actual wall thickness, t in. = 2.874
(min)
Minimum inside corner radius of head,xmin in. = 8.6
(x > 3t, x > 0.06D)
* For full-hemispherical heads with thickness less than 0.5 in., use t = PL/1.6S (Eqn. 10).
FIGURE 17 REQUIRED THICKNESS OF DISHED HEADS

Flat Heads and Covers
Many types of flat heads and cover plates are used in boilers and are covered by the Code. The
following two types are commonly found in Saudi Aramco boilers: formed flat heads and welded
cover plates. These are illustrated in Figure 18. Other types of flat heads, including noncircular
flat heads, are described in the Code (Fig. PG-31).
FIGURE 18 FLAT HEADS AND COVERS
Required Thickness of Flat Heads
The thicknesses of blank circular flat heads and cover plates of the types shown in Figure 18 are
determined as follows:

thr = d CP/S (Par. PG-31.3.2) (Eqn. 12)
where: thr = Minimum required thickness of flat head or cover, not including any
corrosion allowance, in.
d = Effective inside diameter of the head, as indicated in Figure 18, in.
C = A factor based on the geometry of the head or cover. The appropriate
factor for each geometry is indicated in Figure 18.
P = Maximum allowable working pressure, psig.
For flat cover plates:

m = The ratio of tr/ts.
tr = Thickness required for pressure of a seamless shell or header, not
including corrosion allowance, in.
ts = Actual thickness of the shell or header, not including corrosion
allowance, in.
Formed flat heads are required to meet the following conditions:
th ³ ts (th is usually the same thickness as ts)

d ² 24 in.
0.05 ² th/d ² 0.25
The examples in Figure 19 illustrate the use of these equations.
The required reinforcement, or compensation, for openings in flat heads or covers is the same as
for vessel walls, as previously discussed. (Par. PG-29.4)

The following example illustrates the calculation of the required thicknesses of flat heads. For
the Lower Side Header of Ras Tanura HP Boiler No. 8 check the design of the flat end closures.
The following are excerpts from (Drawing No. B-D56870):
Component Header Formed End Header

Material CS CS CS
ASME Spec. and Grade A - 106 B A - 105-1 A 515-70
Maximum allowable working press., P, psi = 750 750 750
Operating temperature, T, °F = 512 512 512
Maximum allowable stress, S, psi = 15,000 17,500 17,500
Outside diameter of header, D, in. = 8.516
Actual header thickness, tact, in. = 0.906
Less corrosion allowance, -CA, in. = 0.063
Available thickness of header, ts, in. = 0.843
Effective inside dia. of header, di, in. = 6.830
(D-2ts)
Req'd thickness for press. stress, t r, in. = 0.403
FIGURE 19 CALCULATION OF THICKNESS OF FLAT HEADS

Solution
t rh = d CP / S
1. Formed Flat Head
C = 0.13
d = inside dia. of header = di = 6.830 in.
trh = 6.830 0.13 750 /17,500
= 0.508 in.
th = trh + CA
= 0.508 + 0.063 = 0.571 in.
Actual th = ts = 0.843 in.
Check th/d = 0.843/6.803 = 0.124 ok
2. Welded-in Cover Plate
m = tr/ts
= 0.403/0.843 = 0.478
C = 0.33m (Cmin = 0.20)

= 0.33(0.478) = 0.15 (calculated)
= 0.20 (min)
d = di = 6.830 in.
trh = 6.830 0.20 750 /17,500

= 0.630 in.
th = trh + CA
= 0.630 + 0.063 = 0.693 in.
Actual th = = 1.535 in.
FIGURE 19 CALCULATION OF THICKNESS OF FLAT HEADS

CALCULATING THE CAPABILITIES FOR FUTURE OPERATIONS
The design procedures presented in this module can also be used to determine the adequacy of a
boiler for future operations. The two main questions relating to boiler operations are the
following;
• The impact of corrosion of boiler components on current operations. Boilers are often
operated for many years, and even though the corrosion rates are low, the total metal loss
over the years from boiler pressure parts may exceed the design corrosion allowance.
Because of changes in operating conditions (or fuel), it is also possible to experience rapid
corrosion of boiler components after many years of satisfactory operation.
• The suitability of the boiler for new operating conditions. Possible changes in operating
conditions include increasing the operating pressure or the superheater outlet temperature.
Causes of Metal Loss in Boilers
Boiler pressure parts can experience both internal and external metal loss. This loss can occur
during either operation or periods of shutdown. Several possible causes of metal loss are listed
below.
Internal Corrosion or Erosion
Corrosion can be caused by an imbalance in the boiler water chemistry. Erosion can be caused by
high velocity impingement. Metal loss can also be caused by improper acid cleaning during a
turnaround.
External Sulfur Corrosion
This is caused by a portion of the sulfur in the fuel that is converted to sulfuric acid in the
combustion process. Corrosion can occur on the external side of the tubes and drums exposed to
the flue gas in two ways:
• Sulfuric acid vapor in the flue gas can condense on relatively cold boiler surfaces as liquid
sulfuric acid, resulting in "cold-end corrosion." This most often occurs at the exit of the
economizer or in the ducting downstream of the boiler.
• Sulfuric acid from the flue gas can also accumulate in deposits that build up in the boiler
during operation. During extended shutdowns, this acid can cause extensive corrosion of
the exposed tubes and drum sections, particularly the lower (mud) drum. Proper shutdown
procedures include removing the deposits and neutralizing the remaining acid.

High Temperature Oxidation
At excessive tube metal temperatures, the external surface of the tubes can oxidize, resulting in a
layer of oxide scale forming and reducing the tubewall thickness. High tube metal temperatures
are often caused by deposits forming inside the tube and increasing the resistance to heat transfer.
These deposits may be caused by water treatment problems. In the superheater, deposits are the
result of carryover from the steam drum.
Even with clean tubes, tube metal temperatures in the superheater may be excessive for the
materials used. Solutions to this problem may be to revise the superheater design, or to use better
grade materials.
Calculation of Boiler Capabilities
The capabilities of a boiler for future operations can be calculated using the Design Equations 1 -
3. These permit the maximum allowable working pressure of the boiler in its present condition to
be determined. Work Aid 7 contains a procedure for using these equations. The sample problem
in Figure 20 illustrates the use of these equations.
Boiler Tubes
Using Eqn. 1:
P=S 2t - 0.01D - 2e or, = S 2t - 0.01D - 2e

D - t - 0.005D - e 1.005D - tr + e (Eqn. 13)
Drums, Headers, and Piping
Using Eqns. 2 and 3:
P= 2SEt
D - 2yt (Eqn. 14)
P= 2SEt
R + t(1 - y) (Eqn. 15)
where: t = Remaining wall thickness available for pressure stress, in.
(Actual wall thickness, less any allowance for future corrosion.)
R = Actual inside radius of vessel, in. (based on t)

The following example illustrates the use of Work Aid 7 to calculate the maximum allowable
working pressure of cylindrical components in an existing boiler.
Assume that the following data have been obtained for a boiler equivalent to Shedgum Boiler F-
102.
Given:
1 2
Steam Drum Superheater
Component Tube Plate Tube
Material CS 2 1/4 Cr-1Mo
ASME Spec. and Grade A 515 - 70 A213-T22
Operating temperature, T °F = 520 1040
Efficiency of ligaments (From Work Aid 3) E = 0.459 -
Temperature coefficient (From Figure 1) y = 0.4 -
Thickness factor for expanded tube ends, e in. = - 0
Outside diameter, D in. = 79.964 2.00
Or, Inside radius, R (in corroded condition) in. = - -
Original wall thickness, t in. = 4.015 0.197
Actual wall thickness, t' in. = 3.875 0.175
Allowance for future corrosion, CA in. = 0.050 0.050
Available thickness for pressure stress, tr in. = 3.825 0.125
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S psi = 17,500 6400
Maximum allowable working pressure, P:
For Drums, Headers, Piping: (Eqns. 14, 15)
Component #1:
2SE tr 2 17,500 0.459 3.825
P= =
D - 2y tr 79.964 - 2 0.4 3.825
psi = 799.0
or:
2SE tr
P= =
R + tr 1 - y
For Boiler Tubes: (Eqn. 13)
2tr - 0.01D - 2e
P=S
1.005D - tr + e
Component #2:
psi = 780.9
FIGURE 20 CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE

DETERMINING THE DESIGN AND TESTING REQUIREMENTS OF THE BOILER

STRUCTURE
The pressure parts of the boiler also provide its structural support. These parts include the water-
wall tubes, the boiler bank tubes, the steam and mud drums, and the connecting headers.
Boilers are either top- or bottom-supported. Most of Saudi Aramco's boilers are supported at the
bottom by the mud drum and side headers. Since the structure consists of the pressure parts,
containing water or steam, the boiler supports must permit its thermal expansion. One end of the
mud drum is fixed, and the boiler expands horizontally and vertically from this point.
Thermal expansion of the headers and drums can be calculated based on the saturation
temperature of the steam. Thermal expansion of the water walls is based on calculated tube metal
temperatures. Procedures for calculating tube metal temperatures are covered in MEX 105.09.
For example, the design pressure of Ras Tanura HP Boiler No. 8 is
750 psig at the steam drum. This corresponds to a saturation temperature of 512°F. The
tubewall temperatures are approximately 550°F. At these temperatures, the thermal expansion of
the boiler in each direction is about 1 1/2 inches.
Very large boilers are often top-supported. The steam drum and upper headers are suspended
from an overhead structure, with the boiler free to expand downward.
Loads on the boiler wall surfaces are carried by the water wall tubes. These loads include external
wind loads and internal pressure loads, which are discussed below. These loads are transferred
from the water walls to one or two structural beams (called buckstays), which encircle the boiler.
The buckstays also reduce the unsupported span length in the boiler walls, resulting in less
deflection of the walls.
Since the buckstays are located outside of the water wall tubes, they receive very little heat from
the boiler, and they remain close to the ambient temperature. Differential thermal expansion
between the buckstays and the water wall tubes must be accommodated in the design of the
buckstays and their attachment to the tubes.
Boiler Loads
The boiler must be designed for loads due to the weight of the contents and for several additional
loads. These loads are in addition to the internal pressure of the steam system and are briefly
discussed in Par. PG-22.
Weight of Contents
The weight of the boiler's contents affects both the design of the pressure parts and the boiler
structure.

Par. PG-22 requires the hydrostatic head due to the water in the boiler to be considered in
determining the minimum wall thicknesses of the pressure parts. For typical boilers, this could
add about 10 to 15 psi to the design pressure of the mud drum, the lower headers, and the lower
tubes. Since the maximum allowable working pressure of most Saudi Aramco boilers is
considerably higher than the operating pressure, this is not a significant factor in the boiler design.
The weight of the contents of the boiler must also be considered in determining the loads on the
boiler's foundation.
Additional Loads
The following additional loads must be considered in the design of the boiler:
• Weight of the boiler itself.

• Structural loads due to methods of supporting the boiler and its parts.
• Wind loads.
• Seismic loads.
• Thermal loads.
Structural attachments are often welded to pressure parts. When these attachments are welded to
tubes, the maximum permissible loads imposed on the tubes are determined from Par. PW-43 of
the Code.
If these loads increase the average stress in any pressure part by more than 10% of its maximum
allowable stress, Par. PG-22 requires that these loads be considered in the design. Procedures for
calculating these additional loads and stresses are not included in the Code and must be
determined by the boiler structural designer.
Boiler Internal Pressure
Boilers must also be designed for an internal pressure on the flue gas side. This internal pressure
is caused by the forced-draft fan, which delivers combustion air to the burners. In most boilers,
this fan also provides the energy to overcome the losses caused by flue gas flow through the
boiler and exiting to the stack.
Calculation of the pressure losses through the boiler is discussed in MEX 105.10.
The boiler must be designed for the internal pressure in two cases: normal operating pressure and
maximum design pressure.

Normal Operating Pressure
Normal operating pressure is the internal pressure in the boiler furnace section during normal
operating conditions. It is caused by the flue gas pressure drop through the superheater, boiler
bank, and economizer. The calculated flue gas pressure drop is usually listed on the boiler data
sheets.
The boiler must have a pressure-tight, leak-free construction, so that hot flue gas does not escape
through any small openings during normal boiler operations. Escaping hot gases can cause
mechanical damage to the boiler and can also create a safety hazard.
Most Saudi Aramco boilers are constructed with membrane water walls, as described in MEX
105.01. Specially designed seals are provided at all joints between these wall tubes and the drums
and other components.
The boiler enclosure should be tested for leaks before initial operation. The test pressure should
be 1.5 times the normal operating pressure. This is accomplished by running the forced-draft fan
while restricting air flow exiting the boiler. This pressure should be held for at least one hour,
with the boiler enclosure soap tested for leaks during this time. Any leaks found during this test
should be repaired before the boiler is operated.
Maximum Design Pressure
The maximum internal pressure in a boiler occurs if the flue gas exit to the boiler is blocked and
the forced-draft fan continues to run. Internal pressure can reach the maximum static pressure of
the fan, which can be determined from the fan performance curve. A typical fan curve is
illustrated in Figure 21. The system resistance curve, which represents total combustion air and
flue gas pressure drop as a function of boiler capacity, is also shown in Figure 21.

FIGURE 21 TYPICAL FAN PERFORMANCE CURVE
The maximum structural design pressure of the boiler should be equal to 1.5 times the maximum
static pressure of the fan. The boiler manufacturer should be required to provide calculations that
demonstrate that the boiler is adequately designed for this pressure.
Negative Internal Pressure
Some boilers operate with both forced- and induced-draft fans, resulting in a balanced internal
pressure, which is close to atmospheric pressure. In these cases, the forced-draft fan just provides
the energy to overcome the pressure drop through the inlet ducting and burners. The induced-
draft fan provides the energy needed to draw the flue gases through the boiler tubes and into the
stack.
In addition to a positive internal pressure, these boilers must also be designed for a negative
internal pressure, or partial vacuum. This negative pressure would be caused by a blockage at the
inlet of the boiler while the induced-draft fan continued to run. These boilers should be designed
for a negative internal pressure equal to 1.5 times the maximum static pressure of the induced-
draft fan.

Work Aid 1 DESIGN OF BOILER TUBES calculation sheet
The following procedure can be used to calculate the required thickness of boiler thickness of
boiler tubes up to and including 5 inches outside diameter.

Service Part Name
1 2
Component
Material
ASME Spec. and Grade
Maximum allowable working pressure, P psi =
Operating temperature, T _F =
Outside diameter, D (Max. = 5.00 in.), in. =
Corrosion allowance, CA (usually = 0.063 in.), in. =
Thickness factor for expanded tube ends, e (usually = 0), in. =
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S

(From Work Aid 2 or Table PG-23.1), psi =
Required thickness for pressure stress, tsr:
PD
t sr = + 0.005 D (Eqn . 1)
2S + P
Component #1:
tsr = + 0.005
2 + in. =
Component #2:
tsr = + 0.005
2 + in. =
Total required thickness, tr = tsr + e + CA, in. =
Min. wall thickness, tmin per 32-AMSS-021, par 5.4 in. =
(boiler tubes = 0.188 in.)
(superheater tubes = 0.125 in.)
Min. req'd thickness, t (greater of tr or tmin), in. =
Actual minimum wall thickness used, in. =
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If nominal (average) wall thickness is specified, ta
Required ta = t/0.875 = in. =
Actual nominal tubewall thickness used, in. =

Work Aid 2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Work Aid 3 DESIGN OF DRUMS, HEADERS, AND PIPING calculation sheet
The following procedure can be used to calculate the required thickness of boiler cylindrical
components.

Service Part Name
Given:
1 2
Component
Material
Outside diameter, D in. =
Or, Inside radius, R (in corroded condition), in. =
Operating temperature, T _F =
Solution:
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, S psi =

(From Work Aid 2 or Table PG-23.1),
Efficiency of ligaments, E (From Work Aid 4), =
Temperature coefficient, y (From Figure 4), =
Required thickness for pressure stress (Eqns. 2, 3 ):
Component #1:

PD ( )( )
t sr = =
2SE + 2yP 2( )( ) + 2( )( ) =
in. ____________
PR ( )( )
or : =
SE − (1 − y )P ( )( ) − (1 − )( )
Component #2:
PD ( )( ) =
t sr = =
2SE + 2yP 2( )( ) + 2( )( )
____________
in.
PR ( )( )
or : = =
SE − (1 − y)P ( )( ) − ( )( )
=
____________ ____________
Minimum required thickness, tr = tsr + CA in.
Actual vessel wall thickness, t in.

Work Aid 4 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY CALCULATION SHEET

The following procedures are used to determine the ligament efficiency of groups of openings in
a vessel wall that are arranged in a definite pattern. The type of pattern determines which of the
following procedures is used.
Service Part Name
Given:
1 2
Component Name
Diameter of hole in shell, d in. =
Longitudinal pitch of tube holes, p in. =
holes in a repetitive pattern, p1 in. =
Number of holes within the length, p1 in. =
Transverse pitch, pt in. =
Diagonal pitch, p' in. =
Solution:
E = longitudinal efficiency of ligament
A. Equal pitch (Eqn. 4)
p-d
E=
p E = ___________ ____________
B. Unequal pitch
p 1 - nd
E=
p1
E = ___________ ____________
C. Transverse pitch
pt - d = ___________ ____________
E= Et
pt = ___________ ____________
Minimum Et = E/2
D. Diagonal pitch
1. Longitudinal efficiency = ___________ ____________
p-d
E= E
p
2. Ratio of diagonal to longiudinal pitch: = ___________ ____________
p'
= E
p
3. From Figure 9 (Fig. PG-52.1)
=
E. Minimum spacing of openings (p, pt, p'): = 1 1/3 d, in.

Work Aid 5 Inherent Compensation Calculation Sheet
The following procedure can be used to determine the maximum size of an opening for which
compensation has been built into the vessel wall (Par. PG-32.1.2).

Service Part Name
Given:
1 2
Component Name
Material
D
Outside diameter of vessel, in. =
S
Maximum allowable stress of the metal, psi =
Actual vessel wall thickness, tact in. =
Less Corrosion Allowance, CA in. =
t
Net vessel wall thickness, in. =
Solution:
1. Determine K, a stress factor which relates the internal pressure forces in a vessel to the
strength of the vessel wall.
PD ( )( )
(1) K = =
1.82 St 1.82 ( )( ) K = ___________
( )( )
(2) =
1.82 ( )( ) K = ____________
2. Determine:
(1) Dt = ( )( ) Dt ___________
=
(2) =( )( )
Dt
=
3. From the Chart in Figure 8 (from Fig. PG-32), for K and Dt, determine (d), the
maximum diameter opening for which the wall has inherent compensation.
Maximum d = 8 in.
d, in. =
For openings larger than d, required compensation must be calculated on an individual basis.

Work Aid 6 REQUIRED THICKNESS OF DISHED HEADS calculation sheet

The following procedure can be used to calculate the required thickness of dished heads (with
pressure on the concave side).
Service
Given:
1 2
Part name
Type of head
Material
Operating temperature, T °F =
Inside radius of dished head, L, in corroded
condition (L < D), in. =
Inside corner radius of head, x in. =
Outside diameter of head, D in. =
Solution:
(From Work Aid 2 or Table PG-23.1)
Required thickness of head for pressure stress (Eqn. 9)
(segment of sphere)
5PL
t sr =
4. 8S
5( )( ) = _________
Component # 1: t sr = in.
4.8 ( )
5( )( )
Component # 2: t sr = = _________
4.8 ( )
in.
Required thickness of full-hemispherical head for pressure stress:
t sr = PL
2S - 0.2P (Eqn. 11)*
( )( )
Comp . # 1: t sr =
2 ( ) + 0. 2 ( ) = _________
( )( )
Comp . # 2: t sr = in.
2 ( ) + 0. 2 ( )
= _________
Minimum required thickness, tr = tsr + CA
Actual wall thickness, t
Inside corner radius of head, x (x > 3t, x > 0.06D) in.
_________ _________
in. =
_________ _________
in.
in.
* For full-hemispherical heads with thickness less than 0.5 in., use t = PL/1.6S (Eqn. 10).

Work Aid 7 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Calculation Sheet
The following procedure can be used to calculate the maximum allowable working pressure of
cylindrical components in an existing boiler.
Service Part Name
1 2
Component
Material
Operating temperature, T °F =
Efficiency of ligaments (From Work Aid 4), E =
Temperature coefficient (From Figure 4), y =
Thickness factor for expanded tube ends, e in. =
Outside diameter, D in. =
Or, Inside radius (in corroded condition), R in. =
Original wall thickness, t in. =
Actual wall thickness, t' in. =
Allowance for future corrosion, CA in. =
Available thickness for pressure stress, tr in. =
Solution:

Maximum allowable working pressure,
For Drums, Headers, Piping: (Eqns. 14, 15)
Component #1:
2SE tr 2
P= =
D - 2y tr -2 psi =
2SE tr _____________
P= =
or: R + tr 1 - y + 1-
Component #2:
2SE tr 2 psi =
P= =
D - 2y tr -2
2SE tr
P= = _____________
or: R + tr 1 - y + 1-

For Boiler Tubes: (Eqn. 13)
2tr - 0.01D - 2e
P=S
1.005D - tr + e
Component #1:
2 - 0.01 -2
P=
1.005 - + psi = _____________
Component #2:
2 - 0.01 -2
P=
1.005 - + psi = _____________

GLOSSARY
alloy steel Steel that owes its distinctive properties to elements

other than carbon, or jointly to these elements and
carbon. Chromium, nickel, and molybdenum are the
most common alloying elements.
austenitic steel Also known as stainless steel.
buckstay Structural beams which encircle the water walls of a
boiler, increasing the boiler's structural strength.
carbon steel Steel that owes its distinctive properties to the carbon it
contains.
compensation Material added to a base wall thickness to compensate
for openings in the wall.
corroded condition The geometry of a component (for example, diameter, radius,
thickness), assuming that any corrosion allowance has
been completely removed.
corrosion allowance The part of a wall thickness that is included to provide
for future metal loss due to corrosion or erosion.
ferritic steel Also known as low alloy steel.
inside radius The inside radius of a cylindrical component, in the
corroded condition.
ligament efficiency The relative strength of a component in which a number
of openings have been made compared to the same
component with no openings.
maximum allowable The allowable stress of the metal to be used in stress
stress calculations.
maximum allowable The pressure used for design. This is the maximum
working pressure pressure at which the boiler is allowed to operate.
minimum required The minimum required wall thickness of a new
thickness component, taking into account all allowances.
operating temperature The temperature used for design. This is the maximum
temperature the component is expected to experience
under normal operating conditions.
outside diameter The actual outside diameter of a new cylindrical
component.
pitch The center-to-center spacing of adjacent holes in a
vessel wall.
steel A malleable alloy of iron and carbon, usually also
containing trace elements.
transition The tapered section in a vessel wall joining two sections
of the wall having unequal thicknesses.

Boiler - Design of Pressure Parts &amp; Structures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Boiler - Design of Pressure Parts &amp; Structures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Boilers - Design Of Pressure Parts And Structures

Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Additional Design Requirements ...................................................................34

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Pages

Figure 1 Design Of Boiler Tubes ............................................................................... 8

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

• Calculating the required thickness for a new boiler tube.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

• Determination of the loads.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

CALCULATING THE REQUIRED THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (Par. PG-21)

Operating Temperature (Par. PG-27.4, Note 2)

Saudi Aramco Requirements

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

- Boiler bank tubes: 4.8 mm (3/16 in.).

• Headers shall be hot-formed seamless (Par. 5.3.5).

Calculation of Wall Thickness

Boiler Tubes - 5-in. maximum diameter

where : t = Minimum required thickness, in.

P = Maximum allowable working pressure, as discussed above, psi.

D = Outside diameter of cylinder, in.

S = Maximum allowable stress of the metal, psi.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

e = Thickness factor for the expanded tube ends (usually = 0).

CA = Corrosion allowance, in.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Plant Location Shedgum Boiler F-102

FIGURE 1 DESIGN OF BOILER TUBES

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Drums, Headers, and Piping

FIGURE 2 TYPICAL STEAM DRUM

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

or, (Par. PG-27.2.2)

where: t = Minimum required thickness, in.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Plant Location Shedgum Boiler F-102

Minimum required thickness, tr = tsr + CA in. = 3.879 1.818

FIGURE 3 DESIGN OF DRUMS, HEADERS AND PIPING

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Values of y Between Temperatures Listed May be Determined by Interpolation.

Source: Par. PG-27.4, Note 6

FIGURE 4 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT TEMPERATURE, °F

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

CALCULATING COMPENSATION REQUIRED FOR OPENINGS IN SHELLS AND

Shape of Openings (Par. PG-32.2)

Size of Openings (Par. PG-32.3)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Spacing of Openings (Par. PG-38.2)

Compensation for Openings (Par. PG-32)

Typical arrangements of openings are shown in Figure 5.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

FIGURE 5 GROUPS OF OPENINGS - TYPICAL PATTERNS

Calculation of Ligament Efficiency

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

1. Openings parallel to the vessel axis (PG-52.2).

B. Unequal pitch of tube holes on any tube row.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

where: E = Longitudinal efficiency of ligament.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17

Boiler - Design of Pressure Parts & Structures

Boiler - Design of Pressure Parts & Structures

Plant Location_______Shedgum Boiler F-102