CESNUR 2018

Session 11 – Plenary Religious Tradition and Innovation In/From East Asia II

Weixin Shengjiao College in Taiwan (20th June 2018)

Magic, Witchcraft and Paganism in Contemporary Japan

Abstract
Paganism has been revived in the Western countries. Not only in the North America and the
Western Europe, but also in the Eastern Europe and former Soviet republics. The reasons
why they become involved in Paganism are, for example, discomfort in Christianity and
revival of their identities which were supressed during the Communist time.
Then what is the situation of Paganism in non-Christian and non-former Communist
countries, for example, Japan?
Although Japan locates near China and Russia, it has never been a Communist country.
Although Christian missionaries came in 16th and 19th century, Christian population is very
small. Many Japanese “practise” both Buddhism and Shinto, for example ancestor worship,
visits shrines and temples, funerals and purify ceremonies, they do not regard these practice
as “religion” but as “tradition” or “custom.” Most of them think of themselves having no
religion.
Then there are two possibilities of Paganism in Japan; Shinto and Western witchcraft.
Western Pagans often think Shinto is similar to Paganism. However the Shinto, which is
widely spread and accepted in contemporary Japan, was constructed during Meiji Restoration
(after 1867). Shinto had been mixed with Buddhism for a long time. Therefore some
Japanese try to revive the “original” Shinto, the Shinto before Buddhism came to Japan.
At the same time, western witchcraft and Wicca is known in Japan, especially New Age type
witch and herbal witch, recently. However, we need to notice that Western magic and occult
tradition have been popular, and that Aum Shinrikyo terrorist attack in Tokyo in 1995 has
changed their situation dramatically. Another important matter is Japan has been making
many animations whose heroines are cute young girl witches since 1960s.
The research is still going on, therefore I would like to talk about the overview of Paganism in
contemporary Japan.
Self-Introduction
I have been researching Goddess movement, Paganism and alternative spirituality in the UK
since 2005. Since 2017, I have been researching witchcraft in Japan.
As many of you know, Paganism has been revived in the Western countries, not only in the
North America and the Western Europe, but also in the Eastern Europe and former Soviet
republics. They become involved in Paganism because of, for example, discomfort with
Christianity and revival of their identities which were supressed during the Communist time.

The aim of the paper

Then what is happening to Paganism in non-Christian and non-former Communist countries,
for example, Japan? In this presentation, I would like to discuss “Why witchcraft from the
West is attractive for Japanese people who call themselves witches or who belong to a witch
group”.

Previous Studies
The famous The Spiritual Revolution (2005), written by Paul Heelas and Linda Woodhead, is
subtitled why religion is giving way to spirituality. In Christian countries, especially in
Western Europe, it is often said that traditional religion, which usually means Christianity, has
declined, and spirituality is well accepted.
However, the concept of “religion” comes from Christianity, therefore it is difficult to apply in
other areas, for example, East Asia where Buddhism or many other local belief systems exist.
Dr Susumu Shimazono, a very well-known scholar of religious studies in Japan, has said;

In Japan and India, there is a strong (psychological) resistance to calling Shinto or Hindu
religion. Human society has not reached yet to the level of applying “religion”, which was
formed as a Western concept for phenomenon all over the world, without any problem.
(Shimazono, 2012, p.95, translated by E. Kawanishi)

In order to understand the phenomenon of religion and spirituality universally, he was trying
to make the definitions clear.
However, I think it is more important to focus on the forms of practice than to make
definitions. Heelas and Woodhead said that it was a time of
 (A) (massive subjective) turn away from life lived in terms of external or ‘objective’ roles,
duties and obligations, and a turn towards life lived by reference to one’s own subjective
experiences (relational as much as individualistic). (p.2)

They call this shift “the spiritual revolution.”

(T)he spiritual revolution can be said to take place when ’holistic’ activities having to do
with subjective-life spirituality attract more people than do ‘congregational’ activities
having to do with life-as religion. (p.7)

In short, contemporary world is undergoing a change from community-oriented life to

individualistic life. Then the popularity of Paganism, which is practised individually, is
considered as a shift from traditional Christianity or Communism in the West. Then how
about in East Asia, for example in Japan?

Research method
The data used in this presentation is collected during my fieldwork in Tokyo and Osaka area
since March 2017. I conducted participate-observation of a meeting, two ceremonies, three
events and three workshops, and semi-structured interviews with 14 people (10 women, 3
men, 1 X gender) (2 in 50s, 1 in 40s, 6 in 30s, 5 in 20s. Men are all in 30s and X gender is in
20s). Except one, I met all of them through the same network.

Religions in Japan
First of all, I would like to talk about the religions in Japan. Many Japanese “practise” both
Buddhism and Shinto. They worship ancestors and conduct funerals through Buddhism
tradition. For blessing new-born babies and children, they go to Shinto shrines. However
most of them do not regard these practices as “religion” but as “tradition” or “custom.”
“Religion” often refers to new religions, for example Tenrikyo, Omoto, SGI, Happy Science,
Jehovah’s Witness etc.
Our census does not ask our religion, so we do not have any chance to declare our “religion”
officially. The Agency for Cultural Affairs asks the number of followers in all the religious
organization.
In 2016, the population is;
 Shinto: 84,739,699
 Buddhism: 87,702,069
  Christianity: 1,914,196
 Others (including Tenrikyo, SGI): 7,910,440
 Total: 182,266,404
*Our population (2016): 127,000,000
Total number is larger than the population in Japan!
Although Christian missionaries came in 16th and 19th centuries and founded many reputable
universities and hospitals, the Christian population in Japan is very small, compared to other
East Asian countries.

Is Shinto considered Paganism?

Because both worship nature and many divinities, Shinto is sometimes considered Paganism
by Western Pagans. Michael York (2003) was ambitiously trying to see ‘Paganism’ as a global
phenomenon and wanted to include Shinto.
However Shinto had been mixed with Buddhism for a long time. The Shinto which is widely
spread and accepted in contemporary Japan, was independent, or constructed, during Meiji
Restoration in late 19th century. It was used for authorising the Imperial Family as the
descendants of Japanese divinities. This Shinto is called State Shinto. Therefore some
Japanese tried to revive the Shinto before arrival of Buddhism in Japan. A small number of
people have been interested in this “Ancient Shinto,” however most current scholars are
sceptical about its existence.
A Shinto priest who studied in London told me “emperor worship is the core of Shinto, but
British Pagans do not think of this phase.”
Many Japanese witches whom I interviewed with have a positive feeling about Shinto, as well
as Buddhism, and some take the elements into their own practice. For example, worshipping
the divinities, setting up alters and visiting shrines and temples.

The History of Western magic, witchcraft and Paganism in Japan

Western witchcraft and Wicca are known in Japan. However, we need to notice that although
ritual magic and occult tradition have been popular, the Aum Shinrikyo terrorist attack in
Tokyo in 1995 has changed their situation dramatically. Another important matter is that
Japan has been making many anime whose heroines are witches since 1960s.
The practice of ritual magic came to Japan, prior to Western witchcraft. In the 1970s, the
occult movement arrived in Japan from the US, probably by US armies. Two books (Magic:
its ritual, power and purpose (London: Aquarian Press, 1952) and The magician, his training
and work (London: Aquarian Press, 1959) ) written by W. E. Butler, a British occultist, were
translated and published as Introduction to magic: the mystery of Qabalah by Tadahiro
Ohnuma who is a Qabalist and had a connection with the Fellowship of Isis.
In the 1980s, several books about the Golden Dawn were translated and published. The
translators founded secret societies to promote the teaching of the Golden Dawn. Tokyo
lodge of O.T.O., the Ordo Templi Orientis, was founded in 1988.
In the 1990s, witchcraft and Wicca were finally introduced in Japan. In 1991, at least, two
witchcraft circles were founded. One is Oriental Wicca. The founder’s website says he was
initiated into traditional witchcraft by an elderly British witch in Yokohama, tries to practise
Wicca in the East and connect Wiccan wisdom to Eastern wisdom to make Wicca better. The
other is a Japanese branch of the Green Circle, which is originally founded by Marian Green.
The founder is a famous female astrologer.
From 1994, practical books of Western witchcraft were published as the series of “Wiccan
Millennium,” including Spiral Dance by Starhawk (1994), The Gentle Arts of Aquarian Magic:
Magical Techniques to Help You Master the Crafts of the Wise by Marian Green (1994), The
Tree: The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft by Raymond Buckland (1995), Witchcraft for
Tomorrow by Doreen Valiante (1995), Eight Sabbats for Witches by Janet and Stewart Farrar
(1997) and Drawing Down the Moon by Margot Adler (2003).
However, the members of a cult, Aum Shinrikyo, released poisonous gas, sarin, on the Tokyo
subway lines in 1995. Many matters relating to magic were considered to be deadly
dangerous. Therefore many magicians stopped holding open gatherings and practised in
secret at home.

Western magic, witchcraft and Paganism in Contemporary Japan

Witch is a very popular word in Japan because it is translated into Japanese, “majo”(魔女)
and witch anime are still very popular, especially among young girls.
Some astrologers and tarot readers have been calling themselves witches, since 1980s. Since
around 2000, several books about “living as a witch” have been published. Those witches are
herbalists, healers, therapists and practitioners of natural life. Now some cosplayers also call
themselves witches. However most of these witches do not hold ceremonies.
My main focus today is on the witches who hold ceremonies and think witchcraft as a kind of
belief system or way of life.
How many witches practise Western witchcraft or Wicca in Japan? It is very difficult to say,
because the Japanese census does not ask us our religion. There is no big organization like
the Pagan Federation in the UK or the Covenant of Goddess in the US. Most of them seem to
be solo witches.
Some interviewees told me the Internet has made the number increase with the spread of
broadband in 1999-2000. Generally speaking, the older generation read books, such as the
“Wiccan Millennium” series, and the younger generation tends to rely on the Internet and
google translation.
Apart from two in their 50s, they do not interact with foreign witches because of language
barrier.
The word “Paganism” is hardly used and does not function as an umbrella term. Celtic culture
is popular, a man started the Japan Viking Association, and a lady holds talks, workshops and
events of ancient Greek gods and goddesses, however these are not considered in the same
category with witchcraft, probably because witchcraft is considered to be more mystical and
universal. Many witches are rather involved in Western magic.

How does witchcraft attract you?

Then what attracts them to do witchcraft? How do they consider their practice?
Table 1 is based on my interview with 14 Japanese witches or people who belong to a witch
group. It will take too long to read them all, so I categorise them into these 9 ways.
 Thinking what they do is what witch is (A, B, E)
 Guideline for fortune telling (B)
 Resisting the mainstream (male-oriented society, handicraft culture) (C, J)
 DIY style (D, G)
 Sympathy for “witches” in witch hunt time (E, M)
 Spells work well (F)
 Connection with Japanese religion (H, K)
 Positive influence on one’s own work (I, K, N)
 Self-esteem, Representing one’s character (L, M, N)

Discussion
Paganism in Western society is often counter to male-oriented society, Christianity and
Judaism, or nationalism. However, witchcraft in Japan is hardly making any influence on
social activism. In other words, they are quiet. I think it is because ritual magic first spread
out in Japan and the older generation have a bitter memory of the Aum Shinrikyou incidents.
Only one person (G) clearly said “If witchcraft is not a religion, I don’t think I practise it.” Her
family belonged to a radical Buddhist group until she became 20. She was looking for an
alternative to the Buddhism she was brought up with.
Several people mentioned feminism and witchcraft, but only one person (J) clearly said that
was why she was attracted. According to a lady (B) whose husband is an American,
comparing to the US, female spirituality is still respected in Japan, for example celebrating
one’s first menstrual period. That might be a reason why feminist witchcraft has not become
popular in Japan.
Witches or people in witch group are not involved in witchcraft because they like to practise
Western religion. Some find connection with Japanese culture (G, H). Many others regard
witchcraft as more universal phenomena or universal way of thinking.
My interviewees found something in common with their problems or their interests and
realised witchcraft allows them to escape from, or renew, traditional value of Japanese
society. This kind of individual sympathy has taken them to witchcraft.

Conclusion
According to the Spiritual Revolution, contemporary world is undergoing a change from
community oriented life to individualistic life. Witchcraft in Japan is mainly practised as
solitary, therefore the theory is applicable to this case. However, I cannot say “religion is
giving way to spirituality” (its subtitle) if religion mentions Buddhism and Shinto and
spirituality mentions witchcraft because most of the Japanese witches do not reject
Buddhism or Shinto.
It is difficult to use the words “religion” and “spirituality” because their meanings are different
in different societies. I want to suggest that focusing on the way of practice gives us a good
opportunity to think of belief or faith universally.

Reference
Heelas, Paul and Linda Woodhead 2005 The Spiritual Revolution: Why Religion is Giving
Way to Spirituality, Malden, Oxford and Carlton: Blackwell Publishers
Shimazono, Susumu 2012 Contemporary Religion and Spirituality, Tokyo: Kobundo (島薗進

2012 『現代宗教とスピリチュアリティ』、東京:弘文堂)
York, Michael 2003 Pagan Theology: paganism as a world religion, New York and

London: New York University Press

 Table 1

Age F/M Profession Witch? How does witchcraft attract you?

A 50s F Herbalist Yes (Uphyca Like a daily practice, like breathing
member)
B 50s F Manager of translation Yes Witchcraft is a guideline for fortune telling. What
and writing company she is doing is what witch is.
C 40s F Dancer Not any Resisting the mainstream of handicraft culture.
(Unemployment) more Seeking the universality (Don’t want to be
regarded as “spi” witch who isn’t serious to
practise but call oneself witch as fashion)
D 30s M Business Owner Yes Designing ritual by himself
(Restaurants, gallery)
E 30s F Restaurant owner and Yes Sympathy for “witches” who were killed during
manager witch hunt time. Thinking herself between
human and non-human (eg. spirits)
F 30s M Shop manager (Magic Yes Spells work well. Likes occult.
shop)
G 30s F Business Owner (Magic Yes (Uphyca Alternative religion. Religion of Freedom. Making
shop) founder) her witch by herself. (Her family belonged to
cultic Buddhism group)
H 30s F Teacher (High School) Yes Seeking the universality of Shinto and Shugendo
I 30s M Advertisement Not yet Expecting a good influence on his own practice,
(Preparing) “just looking” things
J 20s F Staff at pharmacy Yes Resisting the male-oriented society (influenced
by Starhawk)
K 20s F Manager (Juice stand) No (Uphyca Not want to become a witch but finds a
member) connection of Ancient Shinto through Uphyca.
Influences on her praying.
L 20s F Artist and part-time Yes (Uphyca Representing her character as artist. Self-
job member) esteem.
M 20s X Artist (Supported by Not yet Representing her character as artist. Sympathy
parents) (Preparing) for “witches” who were killed during witch hunt
time (Bullied at school).
N 20s F University student No (Uphyca Magic gives her self-esteem. Seeking for
member) physical expression through Uphyca. (Don’t like
the profession which has the character of female
(女))
*Uphyca is an online-based and female-only group of solo witches. They are seeking for
Jomonian witchcraft (Jomon era is in Japanese prehistory between 14,000-300 BCE).