Skeletal System 2.

Endochondral Ossification
• Replacement of hyaline cartilage with
Most animals have skeletons used as a framework bone
of the body providing physical support, protection,
storage of minerals, attachment of muscles, Classification of Bones
locomotion, and produce blood cells among o According to Structure
vertebrates. All bones are connected by fibrous, 1. Compact Bone
cartilaginous, and synovial joints. Generally, the 2. Cancelous or Spongy Bone
supporting structures of animals are classified into
three types namely: Distribution of Marrow
• In a child, the medullary cavity of nearly
• Hydroskeleton – it can change the shape of every bone is filled with red bone
the organism and affect its ability to move. marrow. (Due to continuous growth)
Examples are jellyfish, sea anemones, and • In young to middle-aged adults, the
earthworms. shafts of the long bones are filled with
• Exoskeleton – is a hard, rigid structure fatty yellow bone marrow.
located outside the body of arthropods like • Yellow marrow no longer
insects, spiders, and crustaceans. It is produces blood, although in the event
composed of layers of protein and of severe or chronic anemia, it
polysaccharide called chitin. can transform back into red marrow
• Endoskeleton – is a type of bone that is • In adults, red marrow is limited to the
protecting internal organs like the brains, axial skeleton, pectoral girdle, pelvic
eyes, spinal cord, lungs, and heart. girdle, and proximal heads of the
humerus and the femur.
Functions:
• Gives physical support and protection o According to Composition
• Important for locomotion 1. Decalcified Bone – contains more
• Act as firm base for the attachment of organic, less inorganic substances
muscles
• Important for hemopoietic activity 2. Calcified Bone – contains more
• Storage of calcium inorganic less organic substance.

Nutritional Effects on Bone o According to Origin and Development

1. Cartilage Bone – bone which passes a
• Normal bone growth/maintenance cannot cartilage state before it is ossified.
occur w/o sufficient dietary intake of
calcium and phosphate salts. 2. Membrane or Dermal Bone – bone
• Calcium and phosphate are not absorbed in which develop directly from
the intestine unless the hormone calcitriol is mesenchyme to bone
present. Calcitriol synthesis is dependent
on the availability of o According to Shape
the steroid cholecalciferol (a.k.a. Vitamin 1. Long Bones
D) which may be synthesized in the skin 2. Short Bones
or obtained from the diet. 3. Flat Bones
• Vitamins C, A, K, and B12 are all necessary 4. Irregular Bones
for bone growth as well.
o According to Division
Composition 1. Axial – skull, vertebral column, rib
• Inorganic Matter basket, sternum, breastbone
• Organic Matter

Ossification
1. Intramembranous Ossification
o The development of bone from a fibrous
membrane.

Some bones of the skull (frontal, parietal, temporal,

and occipital bones), the facial bones, the clavicles,
the pelvis, the scapulae, and part of the mandible
are formed by intramembranous ossification.
Prior to ossification, these structures exist as
fibrous membranes made of embryonic connective
tissue known as mesenchyme.
 Fracture Repair
2. Appendicular – forelimbs, hindlimbs Step 1: Immediately after the fracture, extensive
bleeding occurs. Over a period of several hours, a
large blood clot or fracture hematoma, develops.
Bone cells at the site become deprived of nutrients
and die. The site becomes swollen, painful, and
inflamed.
Step 2:
a. Granulation tissue is formed as the
hematoma is infiltrated by capillaries and
macrophages, which begin to clean up the
debris.
b. Some fibroblasts produce collagen fibers
that span the break , while others
Joints differentiate into chondroblasts and begin
1. Synarthroses – immovable joint (sutures of secreting cartilage matrix.
the skull) c. Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone.
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints d. This entire structure is known as a
§ Symphysis fibrocartilaginous callus and it splints the
§ Syndesmosis broken bone.
3. Diarthroses – freely movable joints Step 3:
Bone trabeculae increase in number and convert
4 Types of Diarthrotic Joints the fibrocartilaginous callus into a bony callus of
a. Ball and socket – angular movement in all spongy bone. Typically takes about 6-8 weeks for
direction and axial rotation as well this to occur.
Ex. Hip and shoulder joints
b. Hinge Joint – permits movement in one Step 4:
plane. Forward and backwards. a. During the next several months, the bony
Ex. Elbow, knee, ankle callus is continually remodeled.
c. Pivot Joint – rotation as one bone turns b. Osteoclasts work to remove the temporary
about another supportive structures while osteoblasts
Ex. Atlas rotates around the axis rebuild the compact bone and reconstruct
d. Gliding Joint – articulator surfaces permits the bone so it returns to its original
one bone to glide against the other. shape/structure.
Ex. Carpal bones, tarsals bones
Fracture Types
Types of Locomotion Fractures are often classified according to the
• Plantigrade – walk flat on sole of the feet position of the bone ends after the break:
• Digitigrade – run or walk on their digits Open (compound) - bone ends penetrate the skin.
• Unguligrade – walk or run on the tip of one Closed (simple) - bone ends don’t penetrate the
or two digits of each limb skin.
Comminuted - bone fragments into 3 or more
pieces. Common in the elderly (brittle bones).
Greenstick - bone breaks incompletely. One side
bent, one side broken. Common in children whose
bone contains more collagen and are less
mineralized.
Spiral - break caused by excessive twisting forces.
Sports injury/Injury of abuse.
Impacted - one bone fragment is driven into the
medullary space or spongy bone of another.

Clinical Conditions.
• Osteomalacia
- Literally “soft bones.”
- Includes many disorders in which
osteoid is produced but inadequately
mineralized.
o Causes can include insufficient
dietary calcium
o Insufficient vitamin D
fortification or insufficient
exposure to sun light.
• Rickets
- Children's form of osteomalacia
- More detrimental due to the fact that
their bones are still growing.
- Signs include bowed legs, and
deformities of the pelvis, ribs, and skull.

• Osteomyelitis
- Osteo=bone + myelo=marrow +
itis=inflammation.
- Inflammation of bone and bone marrow
caused by pus-forming bacteria that
enter the body via a wound (e.g.,
compound fracture) or migrate from
a nearby infection.
- Fatal before the advent of antibiotics.
• Osteoporosis
- Group of diseases in which
bone resorption occurs at a faster rate
than bone deposition.
- Bone mass drops and bones
become increasingly porous.
- Compression fractures of the vertebrae
and fractures of the femur are common.
- Often seen in postmenopausal women
because they experience a rapid decline
in estrogen secretion; estrogen
stimulates osteoblast and inhibits
osteoclast activity.

• Gigantism – Childhood hypersecretion of

growth hormone by the pituitary gland
causes excessive growth.
• Acromegaly – Adulthood hypersecretion of
GH causes overgrowth of bony areas still
responsive to GH such as the bones of the
face, feet and hands
• Pituitary Dwarfism – GH deficiency in
children resulting in extremely short long
bones and maximum stature of 4 feet.