MIDTERM Gross Anatomy of Long Bone

 Diaphysis
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ○ Shaft - length
○ Composed of compact bone
Parts of the skeletal system  Epiphysis
 Bones (skeleton) ○ Ends of the bone
 Joints ○ Composed mostly of spongy bone
 Cartilages
 Ligaments Gross Anatomy of Long Bone

Divided into two divisions

 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton

Functions of Bones
 Support of the body
 Protection of soft organs
 Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
 Storage of minerals (Ca and P) and fats
 Blood cell formation -hematopoiesis

Bones of the Human Body

 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of osseous - bone tissue
 Compact bone
○ Dense and Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
○ Small needle-like pieces of bone
○ Many open spaces
types of osseous - bone tissue
Structures of a Long Bones
 Periosteum
○ Outside covering of the diaphysis
○ Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
○ Secure periosteum to underlying bone
 Arteries
○ Supply bone cells with nutrients
 Articular cartilage
○ Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
○ Made of hyaline cartilage
○ Decreases friction at joint surfaces
Classification of Bones - Bones are classifies according to shape into  Medullary cavity
four groups ○ Cavity of the shaft 
Long Bones ○ Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
 Typically longer than wide ○ Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone Stuctures of a Long Bones
Examples: Femur, humerus
Short Bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
Examples: Carpals, tarsals
○ Sesamoid bones – form within tendons
Examples: patella or kneecap
Flat Bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
Irregular Bone
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification categories
Example: Vertebrae and hip
Bone Marking
Classification of Bones  Surface features of bones
○ Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
○ Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
○ Projections or processes – grow out from the bone surface
○ Depressions or cavities – indentations

Microscopic Anatomy Bone

 Osteon (Haversian System)
○ A unit of bone
 Central (Haversian) canal
○ Opening in the center of an osteon
○ Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
○ Canal perpendicular to the central canal
○ Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Lacunae
Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
Arranged in concentric rings
 Lamellae
○ Rings around the central canal

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 ○ Sites of lacunae Types of Bone Cells
 Canaliculi  Osteocytes
○ Tiny canals  Mature bone cells
○ Radiate from the central canal to lacunae  Osteoblasts
○ Form a transport system  Bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
 Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Type of Bones
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
○ Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate
the skin
○ Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
○ Realignment of the bone – either by physician’s hands
or surgery

Bone Fractures
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
○ Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate
the skin
○ Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
Changes in the Human Skeleton
  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
 Realignment of the bone – either by physician’s hands or
 During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
surgery
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
○ Bridge of the nose Common Types of Fractures
○ Parts of ribs
○ Joints

Bone Growth
 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
○ Cartilage is broken down
○ Bone replaces cartilage
 Process of bone formation – ossification done by bone-forming
cells called osteoblasts
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width – appositional growth
 Growth due to growth hormones and sex hormones
 Bones are remodeled continually in response to:
 Calcium levels in blood and pull of gravity and muscles on the
bones
Long Bone Formation and Growth Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed due to broken blood
vessels
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus – cartilage
matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers – capillaries also form again
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus made of spongy
bone 
 Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

The Axial Skeleton

 Forms the longitudinal part of the body
 Divided into three parts
○ Skull
○ Vertebral column
○ Bony thorax

The Skull
 Two set of Bones
○ Cranium
○ Facial Bones
 Bones are joined by sutures – interlocking, immovable joints
 Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint


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The Axial Skeleton

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 The Skull

Bones of the Skull

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Human Skull, Superior View

Human Skull, Inferior View

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Paranasal Sinuses

 Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal Cavity
 Functions of paranasal sinuses Fetal Skull
○ Lighten the skull
○ Give resonance and amplification to voice

Paranasal Sinuses

The Hyiod Bone

 The only bone that does not articulate with another bone  
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue and as an attachment
point for neck muscles that raise and lower the larynx when we
swallow and speak

Hyiod Bone

Vertebral Column – Spine

The Fetal Skull

 The infant’s face is very small compared to the size of the cranium
 The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body length
 Skull is unfinished at birth
 Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
○ Soft spots
○ Allow the brain to grow and for easier delivery
○ Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

The Vertebral Column – Spine

 Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
 The spine has a normal curvature
 Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
 Before birth 33 : then 9 fuse

The Bony Thorax

 Forms a cage to protect major organs
 Made-up of three parts
○ Sternum
○ Ribs
○ Thoracic vertebrae

The Appendicular Skeleton

 126 bones of the:
○ Limbs (appendages)
○ Pectoral girdle
○ Pelvic girdle

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 Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
Bony Thorax

The Pectoral (Shoulder) GirdleThe Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

 Composed of two bones
○ Clavicle – collarbone and Scapula – shoulder blade
 These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free
movement due to:
○ Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at only
one point
○ Loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide back and
forth against the thorax as muscles act
○ The glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder joint is poorly
reinforces by ligaments
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

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Bones of the Upper Limb
 The arm is formed by a single bone
○ Humerus
 The forearm has two bones
○ Ulna
○ Radius
 The hand
○ Carpals – wrist
○ Metacarpals – palm
○ Phalanges – fingers

Bones of the Upper Limb Bones of the Upper Limb

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 Gender Difference of the Pelvic

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 Hip bones
 Composed of three pair of fused bones
○ Ilium
○ Ischium
The Bones of the lower Limbs
○ Pubic bone
 The thigh has one bone
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
○ Femur – thigh bone
 Protects several organs
 The heaviest and strongest bone in the body
 Reproductive organs
 The leg has two bones
 Urinary bladder
○ Tibia
 Part of the large intestine
○ Fibula
 The Foot
The Pelvis
○ TarsalTarsus – ankle
○ Metatarsals – sole
○ Phalanges – toes

Bones of the Lower Limbs

Bones of the Lower Limbs

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 JointsJoints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
○ Hold bones together
○ Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
○ Functionally
○ Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

Structural Classification of Joints

 Fibrous joints
○ Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
○ Immovable or slightly moveable
  Synovial joints
○ Freely moveable

Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue
 Examples:
 Sutures in skull
 Syndesmoses
○ Allows more movement than sutures because fibers are
longer
 Example: distal end of tibia and fibula

Fibrous Joints

Arches of the Foot

 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
○ Two longitudinal
○ One transverse

Cartilaginous Joints
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Examples:
○ Pubic symphysis - pelvis
○ Intervertebral joints – spinal column

Arches of the Foot Cartilaginous Joints

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Synovial Joints
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Synovial Joints
Features of Synovial Joints
 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
 Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
 Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
 Ligaments reinforce the joint
Structures Associated with the Joints
 Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint and common where ligaments,
muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Synovial Joints
Type of Synovial Joints Based on Shape
Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Jointswith Joints
 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or
friction to the knee
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths - sprain
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
○ Over 100 different types
○ The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Osteoarthritis – wear-and-tear arthritis
○ Most common chronic arthritis
○ Probably related to normal aging processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis
○ An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks the
joints
○ Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
○ Often leads to deformities
 Gouty Arthritis - Gout
○ Inflammation of joints is caused by an accumulation in blood
and deposition of urate crystals (uric acid) from the blood
○ Usually affects only one joint
○ Can usually be controlled with diet
Muscular System
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  There are three types of muscles in the body: smooth, cardiac and
I. Introduction to the Muscular System skeletal, all differ in structure and function. All muscle tissues
posses some basic characteristics and properties.
C. Functions of Muscular System ○ Irritability - Muscle tissue receives and responds to a
 Skeletal muscle tissue forms skeletal muscles, organs that also stimulus from a nerve impulse.
contain connective tissue, nerves and blood vessels. ○ Contractility - Muscle tissue responds to a stimulus by
 The muscular system includes approximately 700 skeletal muscles. contracting, or shortening its length.
 Functions of the muscular system includes: ○ Extensibility - after muscles has contracted or shortened
○ Produce movement they go back to their regular length.
○ Maintain posture and body position ○ Elasticity - A muscle tissue has an innate tension that causes
○ Support soft tissue it to assume a desired shape regardless of how it might be
○ Maintain body temperature stretched.

Muscle Tissure E. Development of Skeletal Muscles

Smooth Muscle  The formation of the muscular system begins about 4 weeks of
embryonic development. The beginning cells are called myoblasts.
 It is not certain when skeletal muscles are able to move but by the
17th week the fetal movements- quickening are strong enough for
the mother to feel.
Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac Muscle

 Skeletal muscles are usually long and narrow, span a joint, and are
attached to a bone at either end by a tendon.
 As the muscle contracts, one of the bones moves relative to the
other joint.
 The more fixed, or stationary, attachment is designated as the
origin of a muscle, whereas the movable end is its insertion.
 The fleshy, thickened portion of a muscle is referred to as its belly,
or gaster.
 Usually the belly of a muscle is located on the proximal bone that is
to be moved.
 The joint is spanned by a tendon from the muscle
 A tendon is toughened, dense fibrous connective tissue that
connects a muscle to the periosteum of a bone.

Muscle Mechanics
 The individual muscle cells in muscle tissue are tied together and
surrounded by connective tissue.

 When muscle cells contract they pull producing tension.

 Tension applied to an object tends to pull the object to the
Skeletal Muscle tension.
 Resistance is a passive force that opposes the movement.
 Compression, or a push applied to an object, tends to force
the object away from the source of compression.
 Muscles that contract together and are coordinated in
accomplishing a particular movement are said to be
synergistic.
 Antagonistic muscles perform opposite functions and are
generally located on the opposite sides of the limb.
 Example-Biceps contract together (flex) and the triceps
extend (relaxes)
 An entire skeletal muscle contract when its components
muscle fibers are stimulated. Two things determine the
amount of tension produced in the skeletal muscle as a whole.

○ The frequency of stimulation

○ The number of muscle fibers activated

D. Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles Muscle Mechanics

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The frequency of Muscle Fiber stimulation
 A twitch is a single stimulus contraction-relaxation sequence in a
muscle fiber.
 The latent period begins at stimulation and typically lasts about
2msec. No tension is produced by the muscle fiber.
 The contraction phase, tension rises to a peak. Maximum
tension is reached roughly 15msec after stimulation.
 During relaxation phase, muscle tension falls to resting levels.
This phase continues for about 25msec.
III. The Energetics of Muscular Activity
A. Muscle contraction requires large amounts of energy. Example- an
active skeletal muscle fiber may require 600 TRILLION ATP molecules
EACH second!
○ The primary function of ATP is the transfer of energy from
one location to another, not the long-term storage of energy.
○ At rest, a skeletal muscle fiber produces more ATP than it
needs.
○ Under these conditions, ATP transfers energy to creatine.
○ The energy transfer creates another high-energy compound,
creatine phosphate (CP)
○ Glycolysis and ATP generation-SEE HANDOUT and
BOARD!!!
Energetics of Muscular Activity
B. Muscle Fatigue
 A skeletal muscle fiber is said to be fatigued when it can no longer
contract despite continued neural stimulation.
 Muscle fatigue is caused by the exhaustion of energy reserves or
builds up of lactic acid.
 If muscle contraction uses ATP at or below the maximum rate of
mitochondria ATP generation, the muscle fiber can function
aerobically.
 Fatigue will NOT occur until glycogen and other reserves such as
lipids and amino acids are depleted.
 This type of fatigue affects the muscles of long-distance athletes,
such as marathon runners, after hours of exertion.
 When a muscle produces a sudden, intense burst of activity, the
ATP is provided by glycolysis.
 After a relatively short time (seconds to minutes) the rising lactic
acids levels lower the tissue pH and the muscle can no longer
function normally.
 Athletes running sprints have this type of fatigue
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
C. The Recovery Period
 During the recovery period, conditions inside the muscle are
returned to normal pre-exertion levels.
 The muscle’s metabolic activity focuses on the removal of lactic
acid and the replacement of intracellular energy reserves, and the
body as a while loses the heat generated during intense muscular
contraction.
 The reaction that converts pyruvic acid is freely reversible.
 During the recovery period, when lactic acid concentration is high,
the lactic acid is converted back to pyruvic acid.
 This pyruvic acid can be used 1- to synthesize glucose and 2- to
generate ATP through mitochondrial activity.
 During the recovery period, the body’s oxygen demand remains
above normal resting levels.
 The additional oxygen required during the recovery period to
restore the normal pre-exertion levels is called an oxygen debt.
 Liver cells consume most of the extra oxygen, as they produce ATP
for the conversion of lactic acid back to glucose, and by muscle cells
as they restore their reserves of ATP.
 While the oxygen debt is being repaid, breathing rate and breath
are increased. This is why you continue to breathe heavy after
exercising.
D. Basic Muscle Physiology
 A muscle cell is known as muscle fiber. Within each fiber are many
smaller units called myofibrils
 Dark lines called A-bands separate each myofibril into a number of
identical-looking units called sarcomeres.
 Within each sarcomeres are a number of threadlike protein
filaments.
 The thick filaments are made up of a protein called myosin. Actin is
the major protein making up a thin filament.
 Each myosin molecule in the thick filament has a large head. This
forms a bridge across to an actin molecule in a thin filament.
 Using the energy ATP molecules, myosin bridges can pull the thin
filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.
 This pull the Z-bands closer together and shortens the entire
sarcomere. The shortening of each sarcomere makes the fiber
contract.
 A muscle fiber either contracts fully or doesn’t contract at all and
this type of reaction is known as All-or-None Effect
Basic Muscle Physiology
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  Cardiac muscle cell contractions last roughly 10 times as long as
those of skeletal muscle fibers.
 Cardiac muscle cells rely on aerobic metabolism for the energy
needed to continue to contract.

B. Smooth Muscle tissue

 Smooth muscle tissue is found within almost every organ.

V. Anatomy of the Muscular System

A. The muscular system includes all of the skeletal muscles that can be
controlled voluntarily.

B. Each muscle begins at an origin, ends at an insertion, and contract to

produce a specific action.

 The origin end remains stationary while the insertion moves.

 When muscles contract, they may produce flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, protraction, retraction, elevation,
depression, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination,
inversion or eversion.
 ctions of muscles may be described in two ways- 1- actions in terms
of bone affected (flexion of the forearm). 2- describes muscle
action in terms of joint involvement. (Flexion at elbow)
 Muscles can be described by their primary actions:

○ Prime mover or agonist: chiefly responsible for

producing a particular movement.
○ Antagonists- Muscles whose actions oppose the movement
produced by another muscle.
○ Synergist- A muscle that helps the prime mover to work
efficiently. May provide additional pull near the insertion or
stabilize the point of origin.

 Fixators are synergists that stabilize the origin of a prime mover by

preventing movement at another joint.

C. Naming of skeletal muscles.

○ direction of the muscle fibers ( rectus, oblique)
E. Muscle Performance ○ Relative size of the muscle ( maximus, minimus)
 Muscle performance can be considered in terms of power, the ○ Location of the muscle (temporalis, frontalis)
maximum amount of tension produced by a particular muscle or ○ Number of Origins ( biceps, triceps, quadriceps)
muscle groups. ○ Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion( sterno+cleido and
 Endurance the amount of time for which the individual can mastoid)
perform a particular activity. ○ Shape of the muscle ( Deltoid, trapezius)
 Two major factors determine the performance capabilities of Action of the muscle ( extensor, adductor, abductor, flexor)
particular skeletal muscle 1- types of muscle fibers and 2- physical
conditioning or training. D. Aging and the Muscular system
○ Skeletal muscles become smaller in diameter.
F. Types of skeletal muscle fibers ○ Skeletal muscles become less elastic.
 There are two types of fibers- fast and slow. ○ The tolerance for exercise decreases.
 Most of the skeletal muscle fibers in the body are fast fibers ○ The ability to recover from muscular injuries decrease.
because they can contract in 0.10 seconds or less following
stimulation. IX. Clinical considerations
 Slow fibers take three times longer to contract; however, they can
continue contracting for extended periods after a fast muscle would A. Problems with the muscular system.
have become fatigued.  Muscular Dystrophy is an inherited disease, which cause
 Three specializations related to the availability of oxygen and their progressive muscular weakness and deterioration.
uses make this possible 1- oxygen supply 2- oxygen storage 3-  When death occurs, circulation ceases and the skeletal muscles are
oxygen use. deprived of oxygen. Causing stiffness of the muscles.
 A hernia develops when an organ protrudes through an abnormal
G. hysical conditioning opening in the surrounding cavity wall.
 Physical conditioning and training schedules enables athletes to
improve both power and endurance. Anatomy of Herimia
 Anaerobic endurance is the length of time muscle contractions can
be supported by Glycolysis and existing energy of ATP. Example-
50-yard dash.
 Athletes training to develop anaerobic endurance perform
frequent, brief, intensive workouts.
 The net effect is an enlargement, or hypertrophy of the stimulated
muscle as seen in weight lifters or body builders.
 Aerobic endurance is the length of time a muscle can continue to
contract while being supported by mitochondrial activities.
 Aerobic endurance is determined by the availability of substrates
for aerobic metabolism from the breakdown of carbohydrates,
lipids or amino acids.

IV. Cardiac and Smooth muscle tissues

A. Cardiac muscle tissue

 Cardiac muscle cells are relatively small and usually have a single,
centrally placed nucleus. Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the
heart.
 Cardiac muscle tissue contract WITHOUT stimulation-automatic.
Pacemaker cells normally determine the timing of contractions.

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 Hernia

Umilical Hernia

Epigastric Hernia

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