THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

BONE AND SKELETAL TISSUES

Skeletal Cartilages

Structure
– Made of cartilage tissue (cells = chondrocytes)
– Contains large amounts of water (which accounts for its resilience=
ability to spring back to its original shape after being compressed)
– No nerves fibers
– Surrounded by a fibrous perichondrium (contain blood vessels) that
resists expansion
Types and Location

1. Hyaline cartilages
– Network of collagenous fibers, translucent (glassy)
– Provide support with flexibility and resilience
– The most abundant skeletal cartilages
– Form most of embryonic skeleton (before bone is formed), articular
cartilages, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages (laryngeal cartilages,
tracheal and bronchial cartilages), and nasal cartilages

2. Elastic Cartilages
– Contain more elastic fibers, in addition to collagenic fibers
– Provide more flexible than hyaline cartilage and lightweight support
– Form the external ear and epiglottis
3. Fibrocartilages
– Contain thick collagen fibers
– Provide support and protection, highly compressible and has great
tensile strength
– Form the intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, disc of knee joint
(menisci)

Growth of Cartilage
– Cartilage grows from within (interstitial growth = growth from inside),
and by addition of new cartilage tissue at the periphery (appositional
growth)
 Epiglottis
Thyroid Laryn
Cartilage in Cartilages in cartilage x
external ear nose Cricoid Trache
Articular cartilage a Lun
Cartilage g
of a joint
Cartilage in
Costal
Intervertebral
cartilage
disc

Respiratory tube cartilages

in neck and thorax
Pubic Bones of
symphysi skeleton
s Axial
Meniscus (padlike
skeleton
cartilage in Appendicular
knee joint) skeleton
Cartilages
Hyaline
Articular cartilage cartilages
of a joint Elastic
cartilages
Fibrocartilage
s
Figure 6.1
Classification of Bones
– Classified on the basis of their shape

1. Long bones
– Length greater than width
– Composed of a diaphysis (shaft) and two epiphyses (ends)
– All limbs bones are long bones except patella, carpals & tarsals
– e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, femur, phalanges, etc

2. Short bones
– Cube shaped
– e.g. carpals, tarsals, patella (sesamoid bone = form in a tendon)
Figure 6.2
3. Flat bones
– Thin, flattened, a bit curved
– e.g. ribs, sternum, skull bones, scapulae

4. Irregular bones
– Complicated shapes
– e.g., verterbrae, facial bones, hip bones
Functions of Bones

1. Support
– Provide the rigid framework that support the body

2. Protection
– Protect vulnerable internal organs such as brain, heart, lungs, etc.

3. Movement
– Providing anchoring points for muscles and by acting as levers at the
joints

4. Mineral storage
– Serves as a reservoir for minerals (most important - calcium and
phosphate)
5. Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
– Occurs within the red marrow cavities of certain bones

Bone Structure
– Bones are organs because they contain various types of tissues:
• Bone (osseous) tissue
• Nervous tissue in their nerves
• Cartilage in their articular cartilages
• Fibrous connective tissue lining the cavity
• Smooth muscle tissue & epithelial tissue in the blood vessels
Gross Anatomy of Bone

Bone Markings
– Important anatomical landmarks that reveal sites where muscle and
ligament attachment (spine, crest, process), points of articulations
(head, facet, condyle) and sites where blood vessels and nerves pass
(sinus, foramen)
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
Bone Textures

– External layer (compact bone) and Internal (spongy bone = cancellous

bone)

Structure of a Long Bone

Diaphysis
– Shaft
– Compact bone surrounds central medullary cavity (marrow cavity)
contains fat (yellow marrow), called the yellow bone marrow cavity
 Articula
r
cartilag
e Compact
Proximal bone
epiphysi Spongy
s bone
Epiphysea
l
line
Periosteu
m
Compact
bone
Medullary
cavity (lined (b)
by
endosteum)
Diaphysi
s

Distal
epiphysi
s
(a)

Figure 6.3a-b
 Endosteu
m

Yellow
bone
marrow
Compact
bone
Periosteu
m
Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries

(c
)
Figure 6.3c
2. Epiphyses
– Bone ends
– Wider than the shaft
– Spongy epiphyses filled with red bone marrow
– Joint surface covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage (cushions the
opposing bone ends during joints movement and absorbs stress)
– Between epiphysis and diaphysis is an epiphyseal line (adult), a
remnant of the epiphyseal plate (childhood); this region sometimes
called the metaphysis
3. Membranes
– Bone covered with:
a. Periosteum (external bone surface)
• Double layered membrane (outer fibrous layer = dense irregular
connective tissue, and inner osteogenic layer, consists of osteoblasts =
bone-forming cells and osteoclasts = bone-destroying cells)
• Cover the diaphysis
• Supplied with nerve fibers, lymphatic vessel, blood vessels (enter via a
nutrient foramen)
• Provide insertion or anchoring points for ligaments and tendons
(a) Osteogenic cell (b) Osteoblast

Stem cell Matrix-synthesizing

cell responsible
for bone growth

Figure 6.4a-b
(c) Osteocyte (d) Osteoclast

Mature bone cell Bone-resorbing cell

that maintains the
bone matrix

Figure 6.4c-d
b.Endosteum (internal bone surface)
• Delicate connective tissue
• Lines the inner bone cavities (covers the trabeculae of spongy bone
in marrow cavities)
• Contains both osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and osteoclasts
(bone destroying cells)
 Structure of Short, Irregular and Flat Bones
– Consist of:
2. Periosteum
3. Endosteum
– Without diaphysis or epiphysis
– Contain bone marrow (between their trabeculae), but no marrow
cavity
– In flat bone, spongy bone called diploe
Spongy bone
(diploë)
Compac
t
bone

Trabecula
e

Figure 6.5
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue in Bones
– In adults, red marrow found within the diploe of flat bones and within
the epiphyses of long bones (trabecular cavities of spongy bone)
– In infants red marrow is also found in the medullary cavity
Microscopic Structure of Bone

Compact bone
– Form outer shell of a bone
– Very hard and dense
– The structural unit of compact bone is called osteon or Haversian
system
– The osteon consists of a central canal surrounded by concentric
lamellae of bone matrix
– Osteocytes, embedded in lacunae, are connected to each other & the
central canal by canaliculi
 Artery
with
Structure capillaries
s Vei
in the n
Nerve
central fiber
canal
Lamella
e
Collagen
fibers
run in
different
direction
s

Twisting
force
Figure 6.6
 Compac Spongy bone
t
bone

Central Perforating
(Haversian) (Volkmann’s) canal
canal Endosteum lining bony canals
Osteon and covering trabeculae
(Haversian
system)
Circumferentia
l
lamellae

(a
) Perforating (Sharpey’s)
fibers
Periosteal blood
Lamella
e Periosteu
vessel
m

Nerv
Vein
e
Arter Lamella
y e
Centra
Canaliculi Lacuna (with
l osteocyte)
Osteocyte Lacuna
canal
in a lacuna e
(b (c Interstitial
) ) lamellae
Figure 6.7a-c
Spongy (Cancellous) bone
– Consist of trabeculae filled with red or yellow marrow
– Withstand stress and support shifts in weight

Chemical Composition of Bone

– Bones is composed of living cells (osteoblast, osteocytes, osteoclasts)
and matrix
– Matrix includes organic substances that are secreted by osteoblast and
give the bone tensile strength and its inorganic components, the
hydroxyapatites (calcium salts), make bone hard
Bone Development
– Ossification = osteogenesis, the process of bone formation
– In embryos, this process leads to the formation of the bony skeleton
– Bone growth goes on until early adulthood (growing in thickness
throughout life)
– Ossification in adults serve mainly for bone remodeling and repair
Formation of the Bony Skeleton

1. Intramembranous Ossification
– Forms the clavicles and most skull bones
– Bones develop from mesenchymal cells
– The ground substance of the bone matrix is deposited between
collagen fibers within the fibrous membrane to form spongy bone
– Bone develops from a fibrous membrane called a membrane bone
– Eventually, compact bone plates enclose the diploe
 Mesenchyma
l
cell
Collage
n
Ossification
fiber
center
Osteoid
Osteoblast
1 Ossification centers appear in the fibrous
connective tissue membrane.
• Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells
cluster
and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an
ossification center.
Figure 6.8, (1 of 4)
 Osteoblast

Osteoid

Osteocyte
Newly calcified
bone matrix

2 Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the

fibrous membrane and calcifies.
• Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified
within a few days.
• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.

Figure 6.8, (2 of 4)
 Mesenchym
e
condensing
to form the
periosteum
Trabeculae
of
woven bone
Blood
vessel

3 Woven bone and periosteum form.

• Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic
blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a
network
(instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.
• Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external
face Figure 6.8, (3 of 4)
 Fibrous
periosteum

Osteoblast

Plate of
compact bone

Diploë (spongy
bone) cavities
contain red
marrow

4 Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to

the periosteum. Red marrow appears.
• Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later
replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact
bone
plates.
• Spongy bone (diploë), consisting of distinct trabeculae, per-
sists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red Figure 6.8, (4 of 4)
2. Endochondral Ossification
– Most bones are formed
– Bones develop by replacing hyaline cartilage model, resulting bone is
called a cartilage or endochondral bone
– Osteoblast beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on the
cartilage model, forming the bone collar
– Deterioration of the cartilage model internally opens up cavities,
allowing periosteal bud entry
– Bone matrix is deposited around the cartilage remnants, but is later
broken down as ossification proceeds
Week Month 3 Birth Childhood to
9 adolescence
Articula
r
Secondary cartilag
ossification Spongy
e
center bone

Epiphyseal
Area of blood vessel
deteriorating Epiphyseal
cartilage plate
matrix cartilage
Hyaline
cartilag Medullar
Spongy
e y
bone
formation cavity

Bone Blood
colla vessel of
P
r rimary periostea
ossification
l
center
bud

1 Bone collar 2 Cartilage in the 3 The periosteal 4 The diaphysis elongates 5 The epiphyses
forms around center of the bud inavades the and a medullary cavity ossify. When
hyaline diaphysis calcifies internal cavities forms as ossification completed, hyaline
cartilage and then develops and spongy bone continues. Secondary cartilage remains
model. cavities. begins to form. ossification centers appear only
in the epiphyses in in the epiphyseal
preparation for stage 5. plates and articular
cartilages.
Figure 6.9
Postnatal Bone Growth
– Bones increase in length (interstitial growth) at the epiphyseal plate
– Cartilage cells continually regenerate and die to be replaced by bone
– Bone expand in width, diameter/thickness (appositional growth) through
production of compact bone by osteoblasts in the periosteum, and
destruction by osteoclast
 Bone Bone
growth remodeling

Articular
Cartilage
cartilage
grows here.

Epiphyseal
Cartilage plate
is replaced Bone is
by bone here. resorbed here.
Cartilage
grows here. Bone is added
by appositional
Cartilage growth here.
is replaced
by bone here. Bone is
resorbed here.

Figure 6.11
Bone Homeostasis

Bone Remodeling
– New bone is continually doposited and resorbed (removal) in respond to
hormonal and mechanical stimuli
– Continuous recycling of bone (remodeling units) occurs when:
• Osteoblast produce new matrix
• Osteoclast destroy old matrix
– Control of remodeling (hormonal mechanism)
Bone Repair
– Bones are susceptible to fractures or breaks
– Fractures = break in bone, resulting from twists or smashes of bones
– Bones thinning and weaken (old age)
Classification of fractures

1. Position of bone ends after fracture

a. Nondisplaced fractures (simple)
– Bone ends retain their normal position
b. Displaced fractures (compound)
– Bone ends out of normal alignment

2. Completeness of the break

a. Complete fracture (separated into two)
b. Incomplete fracture (break longitudinally but not separated into two
parts)
3. Orientation of the break to the long axis of bone
a. Break parallels - linear fracture
b. Break perpendicular - transverse fracture

4. Skin penetration
a. Open (compound) fracture
b. Closed (simple) fracture
Table 6.2
Table 6.2
Table 6.2
Treatments
– Treated by reduction = the realignment of the broken bone ends:

b. Closed reduction
• Bone ends are coaxed back into position

b. Open reduction
• Bone ends secured together surgically by wires or pins
Healing (Repair)

– In simple fracture involves 4 major stages:

b. Hematoma formation
a. Fibrocartilagious callus formation
b. Bony callus formation
c. Bone remodeling
 Hematom Externa Bony
a l callus
callus of
spongy
Internal New Healed
bone
callus blood fractur
(fibrous vessel e
tissue s
and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecul
1 A hematoma 2 a 3 Bony callus 4 Bone
forms. Fibrocartilaginous forms. remodelin
callus forms. g
occurs.

Figure 6.15
Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone
– Imbalance between bone formation and resorption underlie all skeletal
disorders
– Osteomalacia and rikets occur when bones are inadequately mineralized,
bones become soft and deformed, and most frequent cause is inadequate
vitamin D
– Osteoporosis is any condition in which bone breakdown outpaces bone
formation, causing bones to become weak and porous, and
postmenopausal women are susceptible
– Puget’s disease is characterized by excessive and abnormal bone
remodeling
Figure 6.16
To be continue…
 THE SKELETON
Skeleton
– 206 bones
– Divided into:

2. Axial skeleton
– 80 bones
– Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
– Skull (cranial and facial bones), vertebral column and bony thorax
– Provides support and protection (by enclosed)

2. Appendicular skeleton
– 126 bones
– Pectoral (shoulder) girdle, pelvis girdle, upper and lower limbs
– Allows mobility for manipulation and locomotion
 Craniu
Skull
Facial m
bones Clavicl
Thoracic Scapul
e
cage S
a ternu
(ribs and Rib
m
sternum) Humeru
Vertebral Vertebr
s
Radiu
a
column Uln
Sacru s
Carpal
a
m s
Phalange
M
s etacarpal
F
s emu
P
r atell
a
Tibi
Fibula
a

Tarsal
M
s etatarsal
(a) Anterior view P
s halange
s Figure 7.1a
Axial Skeleton

The Skull
– 22 bones
– Cranial bones/ cranium (8) protect the brains
• Frontal (1), occipital (1), ethmoid (1), sphenoid (1), parietal (2) and
temporal (2)
– Facial bones (14) provides openings for the respiratory and digestive
passage, and attachment points for facial muscles
• Mandible (1), vomer (1), maxillae (2), zygomatics (2), palatines (2),
nasal (2), lacrimals (2) and inferior nasal conchae (2)
• Mandible = largest and strongest bone of the face
Bones of cranium (cranial
vault)

Corona
l
suture
Squamou
s
suture

Lambdoi Facial
d bone
suture s

(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull

Figure 7.2a
 Frontal
bone
Glabell
Parietal a
Frontonasal
bone suture
Supraorbital
Squamous part
foramen
of frontal bone
(notch)
Supraorbital
Nasal
bone margin
Superior
Sphenoid
orbital
bone
fissure
Optic
(greater wing)
Temporal
canal
Inferior
bone
Ethmoid
orbital
bone
Lacrimal fissure
Middle
bone
Zygomatic nasal Ethmoid
bone
Infraorbital concha
Perpendicula bone
foramen
Maxilla r
Mandibl Inferior nasal
plate
e concha
Vome
Mental r
forame
n
(a) Anterior view Mandibular
symphysis Figure 7.4a
Coronal Frontal bone
suture Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone (greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Lambdoi Lacrimal
d fossa
suture
Squamou
s Nasal bone
Occipital
suture
bone Zygomatic
Zygomati bone
c
process Maxilla
Occipitomastoi
d
suture
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid Alveolar
process
Styloid margins
process Mandibular Mandible
condyle
Mandibular Mental
notch foramen
Mandibular
ramus
Mandibular Coronoid
angle process
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull

Figure 7.5a
 Sagittal suture

Parieta
l
bone
Sutural
bone

Lambdoid
suture

Occipital bone

Superior nuchal line

External
occipital Mastoid
protuberance process
Inferior
Occipitomastoid nuchal
External Occipital
suture line
occipital condyle
(b) Posterior crest
view
Figure 7.4b
 Maxilla Incisive
(palatine fossa
Intermaxillary
Hard process) suture
Palatine bone Median palatine
palat
(horizontal suture
e Infraorbital
plate)
foramen
Maxilla
Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone (greater wing)
(zygomatic
process) Foramen
Vomer ovale
Foramen
spinosum
Foramen
Mandibula lacerum
Carotid
r canal
fossa External acoustic
Styloid meatus
process Stylomastoi
Mastoid d
process foramen
Jugular
Temporal bone
(petrous part) foramen
Occipital
Pharyngeal
condyle
tubercle Inferior nuchal
of basilar region of line
Parietal
the bone
occipital bone Superior nuchal
External occipital line
crest
External Foramen
occipital magnum
(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)
protuberance

Figure 7.6a
– All bones of the adult skull are joined by immovable sutures except for the
temporomandibular joints
– Orbits and nasal cavity: complicated bony regions formed of several bones
– Paranasal sinuses: occur in the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxillary
bones
– Hyoid bone: not really a skull bone, is supported in the neck by ligaments,
serves as an attachment point for tongue and neck muscles
 Frontal
Superior, middle, sinus
Superior
and nasal Ethmoid
inferior meatus Middle
concha bone
nasal
concha
Inferior
nasal
concha
Nasal
bone

Anterior nasal
Sphenoid spine
Maxillary bone
Sphenoi sinus (palatine
d Pterygoi process)
bone d
Palatine boneprocess Palatine bone
(perpendicular (horizontal plate)
plate)
(a) Bones forming the left lateral wall of the nasal
cavity
(nasal septum removed)
Figure 7.14a
 Superior
Roof of orbit orbital
Supraorbital fissure Optic canal
• Lesser wing notch
of
sphenoid bone
• Orbital plate
of
frontal bone Medial wall
• Sphenoid
Lateral wall of orbit body
• Orbital plate
• Zygomatic of ethmoid
process bone
• Frontal
of frontal wing
bone process
• Greater
of maxilla
• Lacrimal
of
sphenoid bone bone
• Orbital surface Nasal
of bone
zygomatic bone
Floor of orbit
Inferior orbital
fissure
Infraorbital • Orbital process
groove of
Zygomatic
palatine
• Orbital bone
surface
bone
of
Infraorbital maxillary bone
• Zygomatic
foramen bone
(b) Contribution of each of the seven bones forming the right orbit

Figure 7.13a
 Fronta
l Fronta
sinus
Ethmoida l
l sinus
Ethmoida
air cells l
(sinus)
Sphenoi air cells
Sphenoi
d d
sinus
Maxillary sinus
Maxillary
sinus sinus

(a) Anterior (b) Medial

aspect aspect

Figure 7.15
Greater
horn
Lesser
horn

Body

Figure 7.12
2. The Vertebral Column/ Spine
– 26 bones
– Vertebrae (24), sacrum (1) and coccyx (1)
• 24 movable vertebrae; 7 cervical (C1-C7), 12 thoracic (T1- T12), and 5
lumbar (L1-L5)
o C1= atlas, C2= axis (joint allows to rotate head side to side to indicate
“no”
• 1 sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
• 1 coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
– Separated by fibrocartilage intervertebral disc acts as shock absorbers
and provide flexibility
– The S-shaped to allow for upright posture
 C1

Cervical curvature
(concave
)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Spinous
process
Transvers
e
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12
vertebrae,
T –T12
Intervertebra
1
l
discs
Intervertebra
l
foramen

Lumbar
curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused
Anterior vertebrae Right lateral
view view

Figure 7.16
 Dens of
axis
Transverse
ligament
C (atlas)
of1 atlas
C2 (axis)
C3
Inferior
articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse
processes
C7 (vertebra
prominens)

(a) Cervical vertebrae

Figure 7.20a
 Sacral promontory

Ala
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra

Transverse
ridges (sites
of vertebral
fusion)
Anterior
sacral
Apex foramina

Coccyx

(a) Anterior view

Figure 7.21a
– Primary spinal curvatures (thoracic and sacral) present at birth
– Secondary spinal curvatures (cervical and lumbar) develop after birth
– Curvatures increase spine flexibility
 C1

Cervical curvature
(concave
)7 vertebrae, C1–C7

Spinous
process
Transvers
e
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12
vertebrae,
T –T12
Intervertebra
1
l
discs
Intervertebra
l
foramen

Lumbar
curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Coccyx
4 fused
Anterior vertebrae Right lateral
view view

Figure 7.16
3. The Bony Thorax or Thoracic Cage
– Sternum (1) and ribs (12 pairs) protect the organs of the thoracic cavity
– Sternum (breastbone) consists of fused manubrium, body and xiphoid
process
– All ribs attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
– Anteriorly, the first 7 rib pairs are called true ribs attach directly to
sternum
– Last 5 pairs are called false ribs (rib pairs 8, 9 & 10 attach indirectly to
sternum and rib pairs 11 and 12 are floating ribs)
 Jugular
notch
Clavicular
notch
Manubrium
Sternal
angle
Body
Sternum
True Xiphisternal
ribs joint
(1–7) Xiphoid
proces
s

Fals
Intercostal
e
spaces
Costal
ribs
(8–12) cartilage
Costal
L1 margin
Vertebr
a
Floating ribs (11,
(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage,
12) anterior
view Figure 7.22a
Appendicular Skeleton

1. The Pectoral (shoulder) Girdle

– Each pectoral girdle consists of one clavicle and one scapula
– Attach the upper limbs to axial skeleton
– Scapulae articulate with clavicles and with the humerus bones
 Acromio-
clavicula Clavicl
r e
joint

Scapul
a

(a Articulated pectoral girdle

)
Figure 7.24a
2. The Upper Limb
– Each upper limb consists of 30 bones and is specialized for mobility
– Arm (humerus), forarm (radius and ulna), hand (carpals, metacarpals
and phalanges)
 Greater Head of
tubercl humeru
e
Lesser s natomica
A
tubercl l
Ienter- neck
tubercula
r
sulcus
Deltoid
tuberosity

Lateral
supracondyla Coronoid
r fossa
Radia
ridge Medial
l epicondyl
Capitulum
fossa e
Trochle
(a) Anterior view a

Figure 7.26a
Radial
Olecrano
notch
n
of
process
Trochlea
the
Heaulna r
d Coronoi Head
Nec notch
d of
k
Radial
Proximal
process radius
Neck
tuberosit of
y radioulna
r radius
joint
Interosseou
s
membrane
Uln
a

Radiu
s
Ulnar notch Radiu
of the s
radiusof
Head
ulna
Styloid
Styloid
process of ulna
process
Distal Styloid
of
radioulnar process
radius (a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
joint of radius
Figure 7.27a-b
 Phalanges
•
•Distal
Middle
•
Proximal

Metacarpals
•
Head
•
Sesamoi •
Shaft
d Base
Carpals Carpals
bones
Carpals
• •
• Trapezium
•
Hamate
•
•
Trapezium •Trapezoid
•Trapezoid •Capitate
Pisiform Scaphoid
Scaphoid •
Radiu Triquetrum
•
s Lunate
Uln Radiu
a s
(a) Anterior view of left hand (b) Posterior view of left hand

Figure 7.28a-b
3. The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
– Formed by two coxal/hip bones
– Together with the sacrum, the hip bones form the basinlike bony pelvis
– Each hip bone is result of fusion of the ilium, ischium and pubis/pubic
bones
– V-shape pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic symphysis
(fibrocartilage disc) forming an arch called pubic arch (helps to
differentiate male and female pelves)
– Female pelvis is light and broader; inlet is larger and more circular,
which reflects the childbearing function (birth canal)
 Base of
sacrum
Iliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint
Iliac fossa Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Sacral
Coxal promontor
bone y
Anterior inferior
llium
(os iliac spine
coxae Pubi Sacru
Pelvic brim
or hip c m
Coccy
x Acetabulu
bone) bone m
Pubic tubercle
Ischiu
Pubic crest
m Pubic
symphysis
Pubic
arch

Figure 7.29
Anterior Iliu
gluteal Ala m
Posterior
line
gluteal Iliac
Posterior
line crest
Anterior
superior superior
iIiac iliac
Posterior
spine spine
Inferior
inferior gluteal
Greater
iliac spine line
Anterior
sciatic
Ischial inferior
notch
body
Ischial iliac spine
Acetabulum
spine
Lesser sciatic Pubic body
notch Pubis
Ischium
Ischial Inferior
tuberosit ramus
Ischial
y Obturatorof pubis
ramus foramen
(a) Lateral view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30a
4. The Lower Limb
– Each lower limb consists of the thigh (femur), leg (tibia and fibula) and
foot (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges), and is specialized for weight
bearing and locomotion
– Foot supported by 3 arches (lateral, medial and transverse) that
distribute body weight to the heel and the ball of the foot
 Nec Fovea Greater
k capiti trochante
s r
Hea
d Inter-
Lesser trochanteri
trochanter
Intertrochanteri c
c crest
line
Gluteal
tuberosity

Ape Linea
x Anterio aspera
r
Facet for lateral
Facet
condyle of Lateral
for Medial and
femur condyl
medial lateral supra-
condyle e
condylar
of femur Lateral
Surface lines
Intercondylar epicondyl
for fossa e
Posterio Medial
patellar r condyle
ligament
(a) Patella (kneecap) Adducto
r
Lateral tubercle
Medial
epicondyle
Patellar epicondyl
surface Anterior e Posterior
view (b) Femur (thigh bone)
view

Figure 7.31
Articular surface Articular surface of
of medial condyle lateral condyle

Medial condyle Head of fibula

Interosseous
membrane

Tibia Fibula

Articular surface

Medial malleolus
Lateral malleolus
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.32b
 Phalange
Distal
s
Middle
Proxima
1 2 3 4 5 l
Medial Metatarsal
cuneiform s
Intermediate Lateral
cuneiform cuneiform
Navicular Cuboid Tarsals
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
Calcaneus
(a) Superior
view Figure 7.33a
 Talu Facet for
s medial
Intermediat Navicula malleolu
e r s Sustentac-
cuneiform ulum tali
First (talar
metatarsal shelf)

Medial Calcaneu
cuneifor s
m Calcaneal
(b) Medial tuberosit
view y

Figure 7.33b
 Medial longitudinal
arch
Transverse arch

Lateral
longitudinal arch

(a) Lateral aspect of right foot

Figure 7.34a
END OF PART 2
 ARTICULATIONS (JOINTS)
– Sites where bones meet
– Functions are to hold bones together and to allow movement of the skeleton
– 3 functional categories:
1. Synarthroses (immovable)
2. Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)
3. Diarthroses (freely movable)
– Classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial
1. Fibrous Joints
– Fibrous connective tissue unites the bones
– No joint cavity
– Usually synarthroses (immovable) or synarthrotic
– Types of fibrous joints:
a. Sutures (skull)
b. Syndesmoses (tibia and fibula)
c. Gomphoses (tooth)
 (a) Suture
Joint held together with very short,
interconnecting fibers, and bone edges
interlock. Found only in the skull.

Sutur
e
line

Dense
fibrous
connectiv
e
tissue
Figure 8.1a
 (b) Syndesmosis

Joint held together by a ligament.

Fibrous tissue can vary in length,
but
is longer than in sutures.

Fibul
a
Tibi
a

Ligamen
t
Figure 8.1b
 (c) Gomphosis

“Peg in socket” fibrous joint.

Periodontal
ligament holds tooth in socket.

Socket
of
alveolar
process

Root
of
tooth

Periodonta
l
ligament Figure 8.1c
2. Cartilaginous Joints
– Bones are unites by a plate of hyaline cartilage or a softer
fibrocartilaginous disc
– No joint cavity
– Usually amphiarthroses (slightly movable) or amphiarthrotic
– Types of cartilaginous joints:
a. Synchondroses: synarthrotic (epiphyseal plate and costal cartilage)
b. Symphyses: amphiarthrotic (pubic symphysis)
 (a) Synchondroses
Bones united by hyaline cartilage

Sternum
(manubrium
Epiphyseal )
plate Joint
(temporary between
hyaline first rib and
cartilage sternum
joint) (immovable)

Figure 8.2a
 (b) Symphyses
Bones united by fibrocartilage

Body of
vertebra
Fibrocartilaginou
s
intervertebral
disc
Hyaline
cartilage
Pubic
symphysis

Figure 8.2b
3. Synovial Joints
– Bones move easily on each other
– Ends of the bones are plated with a smooth articular cartilage
– Enclosed within joint cavity by a fibrous articular capsule and lubricate
with synovial fluid
– Usually diarthroses (freely movable joint) or diarthrotic
Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Fibrous
capsule
Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

Periosteum

Figure 8.3
Table 8.2 (1 of 4)
Table 8.2 (2 of 4)
Table 8.2 (3 of 4)
Table 8.2 (4 of 4)
Structure of Synovial Joints

1. Articular cartilage
– Hyaline cartilage covers the surfaces
– Absorb compression

2. Joint/Synovial cavity
– Joint cavity contains synovial fluid for lubrication
3. Articular capsule
– 2 layered:
a. Fibrous capsule
b. Synovial membrane

4. Synovial fluid
– Occupies space within the joint capsule
– Reduce reduction between cartilages

5. Reinforcing ligaments
– Thicken parts of fibrous capsule
– Supplied with nerve endings and blood vessels
Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Fibrous
capsule
Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

Periosteum

Figure 8.3
 Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints
– Movements can occur when muscle contract across joints:
• Gliding movements • Medial rotation & lateral rotation
• Flexion • Supination & pronation
• Extension & hyperextension • Inversion & eversion
• Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion • Protraction & retraction
of the foot • Elevation & depression
• Abduction • Opposition
• Adduction
• Circumduction
 Glidin
g

(a) Gliding movements at the wrist

Figure 8.5a
 Hyperextension Extension

Flexion

(b) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and

hyperextension of the neck
Figure 8.5b
 Extension

Hyperextension Flexion

(c) Angular movements: flexion, extension, and

hyperextension of the vertebral column
Figure 8.5c
 Flexion Extension

Flexion

Extension

(d) Angular movements: flexion and extension at the

shoulder and knee
Figure 8.5d
 Abduction

Adduction Circumduction

(e) Angular movements: abduction, adduction, and

circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder
Figure 8.5e
 Rotation

Lateral
rotatio
n
Medial
rotatio
n

(f) Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb

Figure 8.5f
 Pronation Supination
(radius (radius and
rotates ulna are
over ulna) parallel)

(a) Pronation (P) and supination (S)

Figure 8.6a
Dorsiflexion

Dorsiflexion

Plantar flexion
Plantar flexion

(b) Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion

Figure 8.6b
Inversio Eversio
n n

(c) Inversion and eversion

Figure 8.6c
 Protraction
Retraction
of
of
mandible
mandible
(d) Protraction and retraction
Figure 8.6d
 Elevation Depression
of of
mandible mandible

(e) Elevation and depression

Figure 8.6e
Opposition

(f) Opposition
Figure 8.6f
 Types of Synovial Joints
– Differ in range of motion; nonaxial (gliding), uniaxial (in one plane), biaxial
(in two planes), or multiaxial (in all three planes) 22 bones
– Types of synovial joints:
1. Plane (gliding) joints: intercarpals and intertarsals joints
2. Hinge joint: elbow and knee joints, and interphalangeal joints
3. Pivot joint: atlas and axis joint,and proximal radioulnar joint
4. Condyloid joint: radiocarpal/wrist joints and knuckle joints
5. Saddle joint: carpometacarpal joints of the thumb
6. Ball and socket joint: shoulder joints and hip joints
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
a Plane joint (intercarpal joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7a
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
b Hinge joint (elbow
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7b
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b

c Pivot joint (proximal radioulnar joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7c
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
d Condyloid joint
(metacarpophalangeal
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7d
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
e Saddle joint (carpometacarpal
joint
of thumb)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7e
 f

Nonaxia
lUniaxia
lBiaxia
lMultiaxia
l

c b
f Ball-and-socket joint (shoulder
joint)

a
e
d

Figure 8.7f