Compilation Anaphy

Republic of the Philippines
City of Makati
University of Makati
College of Allied Health Studies
Center of Imaging Health Sciences
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
A Compilation Presented to the Center of

Imaging Health Sciences of the
College of Allied Health Studies – University of
Makati
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in the

Human Anatomy and Physiology
By
CLAVE, MA. JUNELYN C.
CRUZADO, TRISHA NICOLE M.
CUSTODIO, REIONA LIAN P.
DALISAY, JANINE L.
DAVID JR., NELSON B.
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GRADE SHEET
Entitled:
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Was presented by (name) in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the Human Anatomy
and Physiology course has been thoroughly
evaluated and resulted to:
___ PASSED
___ Excellent
___ Very Satisfactory
___ Satisfactory
___PROVISIONAL RATING
___ Minor Revision
___ Major Revision
___Provision of necessary documents
___ Fair documents, spreadsheet, etc…
Grade: ______
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Given by the Professor(s) on March 19, 2000

at University of Makati – College of Allied
Health Studies.
Justine Mark S. Casilao, RRT

Lecture Professor
Accepted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Fundamentals of
Radiologic Physics course under the BS
Radiologic Technology Program at the
University of Makati – College of Allied Health
Studies Center of Imaging Health Sciences.
GEROME C. ABENILLA, RRT, MSRT

Academic Chair & Concurrent Clinical Chair,
College of Allied Health Studies - Center of
Imaging Health Sciences
MYNA MARIE DC. NERONA, RRT, MSRT

Executive Director, College of Allied Health
Studies - Center of Imaging Health Sciences
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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With deep pride and honor, the researchers
would like to acknowledge all the people who
participated, contributed and supported them
throughout the whole journey. The researchers
send out their gratitude to all the persons who
gave them strength and hope throughout the
challenges they had encountered. The
researchers would like to spread their love and
appreciation especially to the following:
First and foremost, to their ever supportive

parents for all the love, guidance and
compassion to everyone. They played a huge
part in making the researchers inspired,
determined and motivated to finish this
compilation.
To their classmates. They gave them the

determination to be the best version of
themselves. They gave them hope and
courage to face the challenges ahead.
They would like to extend their deepest

gratitude to their Anatomy and Phsiology
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Professor, Prof. Justin Casilao, for continuous
support and bringing out the best in them.
Most importantly, to the Almighty One for

giving them more than enough strength,
unending love and wisdom to fulfill their duties
and do their tasks. This would have not been
possible without the hope He gives day by day.
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DEDICATION
Immeasurable appreciation and deepest

gratitude for the help and support are extended
to the following persons who in one way or
another have contribute in making this
compilation project
To our parents who supported us financially

and emotionally to finish this project.
To our Professor, Prof. Justine Casilao, RRT,

MSRT for giving us enough period of time to
finish this compilation project and for his words
of wisdom that he imparted to us.
And of course the group is very grateful to

God for giving the grace, strength and wisdom
for us to be able to make this kind of project.
Without Him this would not have been
possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page i
Grade Sheet ii
Acknowledgement iv
Dedication v
Chapter 1 TITLE
Content
Content
Content
Chapter 2 TITLE
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Chapter 3 TITLE
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Chapter 4 TITLE
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Chapter 5 TITLE
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Chapter 6 TITLE
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Chapter 7 TITLE
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Curriculum Vitae
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“THE HUMAN ORGANISM”
Anatomy
 Study of the structures of the body

 Anatomy; to dissect, or cut apart, or
separate
Approaches to the Study of Anatomy
 Systemic Anatomy – study of the body

by organ system
 Regional Anatomy – study of the body
by areas
General Ways to Examine the Internal

Structures
 Surface Anatomy – study of external

features; superficial structures to locate
deeper structures
2. Anatomical Imaging – non-invasive method

for examining deep structures; x-ray, CT scan,
PET scan, MRI.
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Physiology
 Study of the processes and functions of

the body
 Main goals; to understand and predict;

to understand how the body maintains
conditions
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Chemical Level- Atoms (colored balls)

combine to form molecules
2. Cell Level - Molecules form organelles,
such as the nucleus and mitochondria,
which make up cells.
3. Tissue Level - Similar cells and
surrounding materials make up tissues
4. Organ Level - Different tissues combine
to form organs, such as the urinary
bladder
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5. Organ System Level - Organs such as
the urinary bladder and kidneys make
up an organ system
6. Organism Level - Organ systems make
up an organism.
Characteristics of Life
1. Organization – Interrelationship among

the parts of an organism and how those
parts interact to perform specific
functions.
2. Metabolism – Ability to use energy to

perform vital functions.
3. Responsiveness – Ability to sense
changes in the environment and make
the adjustments.
4. Growth – Increase in size.
5. Development – changes an organism
undergoes through time
6. Reproduction – formation of new
cells/organisms.
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Homeostasis
 Ability to maintain relatively stable

internal conditions.
 Homeo: same; stasis: standing still
 Balance / Equilibirum
Homeostatic mechanisms – normally

maintain body temp near an ideal normal
value; sweating, shivering.
Variables – Conditions that can change.
Set point –Ideal value
Normal range – Acceptable range of values

on which HM can still be met.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1. Negative-feedback Mechanism
 Regulates most systems of the
body to maintain homeostasis
 Negative; any deviation from the
set point is resisted
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2. Positive-feedback Mechanism
 Not homeostatic and is rare in a
healthy individual.
 Positive; when a value deviates
from normal, the system’s response
is to make it greater.
 Massive blood loss, child birth.
Components to Maintain Homeostasis
 Receptors
 Control center – Analyzes
information and determines the
appropriate response
 Effector – Provides the meant o
control the value of a variable
Terminology and the Body Plan
 Anatomical Position – A person

standing erect with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands facing

forward
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BODY POSITIONS
Supine Lying face upward

Prone Lying face
downward
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Inferior Towards the head

Superior Towards the tail
Anterior Front
Posterior Back
Ventral Dorsal
Proximal Nearest
Distal Distant
Lateral Away from the
midline
Medial Towards the
midline
Superficial Towards the
surface
Deep Internal
BODY PARTS AND REGIONS
Cephalic Head
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Frontal Front
Orbital Eyes
Orbital Eye
Nasal Nose
Oral Mouth
Otic Ear
Buccal Cheek
Mental Chin
Cervical Neck
Thorax Thoracic
Pectoral Chest
Sternal Breastbone
Mammary Breast
Abdominal Abdomen
Umbilical Navel
Pelvic Pelvis
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Inguinal Groin
Pubic Genital
Clavicular Collarbone
Axillary Armpit
Brachial Arm
Antecubital Front of the elbow
Antebrachial Forearm
Manual Hand
Carpal Wrist
Palmar Palm
Digital Fingers
Coxal Hip
Femoral Thigh
Patellar Kneecap
Crural Leg
Pedal Foot
Talus Ankle
Dorsum Top of the foot
Digital (foot) Toes
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Cranial Skull
Occipital Base of the skull
Nuchal Back of the neck
Dorsal Back
Scapular Shoulder blades
Vertebral Spinal column
Lumbar Loin
Sacral Between hips
Gluteal Buttocks
Perineal Perineum
Acromial Point of the
shoulders
Olecranon Point of elbow
Dorsum Back of the hand
Popliteal Back of the knee
Sural Calf
Plantar Sole
Calcaneal Heel
Body planes
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• Sagital plane- A sagittal plane divides
the entire body or a body part into right
and left segments.
• The plane passes vertically through the
body from front to back.
• Midsagittal plane-A specific sagittal

plane that passes through the midline of
the body and divides it into equal right
and left halves
• Coronal plane - A coronal plane divides

the entire body or a body part into
anterior and posterior segment.
• Midcoronal plane- often referred to as

the midaxillary plane. A specific
coronal plane that passes through the
midline of the body, dividing it into equal
anterior and posterior halves.
• Horizontal plane - Often it is referred to

as a transverse or axial plane. Plane
passes crosswise through the body or a
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body part at right angles to the
longitudinal axis.
• Oblique plane - An oblique plane is a

longitudinal or transverse plane that is at
an angle or slant and is not parallel to
the sagittal, coronal, or horizontal plane.
• Frankfort horizontal plane- Precise

transverse plane is formed by
connecting the lines from the
• Infraorbital margins (inferior edge of

bony orbits) to the superior margin of
the external auditory meatus (EAM), the
external opening of the ear.
• Occlusal plane - This horizontal plane

is formed by the biting surfaces of the
upper and lower
teeth with jaws closed (used as a

reference plane of the head for cervical
spine and skull radiography).
Body Cavities
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 Thoracic cavity – bounded by ribs and
the diaphragm
 Mediastinum – partition containing the
heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus
 Abdominal cavity – bounded by the
diaphragm and the abdominal mucles
 Pelvic Cavity – surrounded by the
pelvic bones
 Pericardial cavity – surrounds the
heart
 Pleural cavity – surrounds the lungs
 Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain
abdominal and pelvic organs
 Serous Membranes - Line the trunk

cavities and cover the organs
 Visceral Serous Membrane – covers
the internal organs
 Parietal Serous Membrane – lines the
wall of the cavity
 Mesenteries – hold the abdominal
organs in place and provide a
passageway for blood vessels and
nerves to organs
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 Pericarditis – inflammation of the
pericardium
 Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura
 Peritonitis – inflammation of the
peritoneum
“INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM”
 It consists of the skin, and accessory

structures such as hair, glands, and
nails.
Functions of the Integumentary
1. Protection
 Covers the body
 reduces the negative and harmful
effects of ultraviolet light
 keeps microorganisms from
entering the body
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Reduces water loss from the
body, preventing dehydration
2. Sensation
 Detects heat, cold, touch,
pressure, and pain
3. Vitamin D production
 Modulation of blood flow through
the skin and the activity of sweat
gland.

4. Temperature regulation
 Produces a molecule that can be
transformed into vitamin D, an
important regulator of calcium
homeostasis
5. Excretion
Skin
Epidermis
 Most superficial layer

 Stratified squamous epithelium
 In deepest layers, mitosis occurs
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Keratinization – cells change shape and
chemical composition; cells become filed with
the protein keratin (hard)
 transformation of the living cells of the

stratum basale into the dead squamous
cells of the stratum corneum
LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
 Stratum Corneum – most superficial

stratum; dead squamous cells filled with
keratin (structural strength); lipids
(prevent fluid loss); joined by
desmosomes
 Stratum Lucidum – Cells are dead and
contain dispersed keratohyalin.
 Stratum Granulosum – Keratohyakin
granules accumulate and a hard protein
envelope forms beneath the plasma
membrane; lamellar bodies release
lipids; lipids die.
 Stratum Spinosum – Keratin fibers and
lamellar bodies accumulate.
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 Stratum Basale – deepest; cuboidal &
columnar cells, undergo mitosis every
19 days
Thick and Thin Skin (Epidermis)
1. Thick skin
 Has all five epithelial strata

 Stratum corneum has many layers
of cells.
 Found in areas subject to
pressure or friction
 Palms of the hands, the soles of
the feet, and the fingertips
2. Thin skin
 Covers the rest of the body
 More flexible than thick skin
 Each strata contains fewer layers
of cells than in thick skin
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 Stratum granulosum frequently
consists of only 1 or 2 layers of
cells
 Stratum lucidum is generally
absent
 Hair is found only in thin skin.
Callus – Thickened area
Corn – Bony prominence, thickened corn

shaped structure
Dermis
 Dense collagenous connective tissue,

contains fibroblasts, adipocytes,
macrophages
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles,
glands, lymphatic vessels
Collagen (resist stretching) & elastic fibers–

Structural strength
Cleavage lines/Tension lines – Collagen

fibers are oriented in some directions; skin is
most resistant to stretch along these lines
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Stretch marks –Skin is overstretched, leaving
lines that are visible
Dermal papillae – Contain blood vessels that

supply the epidermis with nutrients,
Remove waste products, and regulate body

temperature
Skin Color Melanin – Pigments responsible

for skin, hair, eye color
Melanin pigments – Yellow (Caucasian),

brown (Asians), black (African)
Melanocytes– Produce melanin; irregularly

shaped cells; s. basale
Melanosomes – Vesicles derived from GA

where melanin is produced
Factors of Melanin Production
 Genetic factors
 Exposure to UV light
 Hormones
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Albinism - Recessive genetic trait that causes
deficiency / absence of melanin
Cyanosis - Bluish skin color; decreased blood

O2
Carotene – Yellow pigment in plants (squash,

carrots); source of vitamin A
Birthmarks – Congenital disorder of the

capillaries in the dermis
Subcutaneous Tissue
 Attaches the skin to underlying bones

 Also called the hypodermis
 Loose connective tissue
 Storage of our body’s fat (padding,
insulation)
Accessory Skin Structure Hair
 Columns of dead, keratinized epithelial

cells
 Produced in the hair bulb
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Hair follicle – where each hair rises
Shaft – above the skin
Root – below the skin
Hair bulb – site of hair cell formation
Cortex – hard keratin
Medulla – soft central core
Cuticle – single layer of overlapping cells that

holds the hair in the hair follicle
Growth Stage
 Hair is formed by epithelial cells within

the hair bulb
 Divide and undergo keratinization
 Hair root + shaft = columns of dead
keratinized epithelial cells
Resting Stage
 Growth stops
 Hair is held in the hair follicle
Next growth stage
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 A new hair is formed
 The old hair falls out
Eyelashes – grow for about 30 days; rest for

105 days
Scalp hairs – grow for 3 years; rest for 1 – 2

years
ArrectorPili – smooth muscles; contraction =

hair to stand on end; produces goose bumps
Glands
a. Sebaceous Glands
 Simple, branched acinar
glands
 Connected by a duct to the
superficial part of the hair
follicle
 Sebum – oily, white
substance rich in lipids;
released by holocrine
secretion; lubricates the
hair/surface of the skin
(prevents drying and protects
against bacteria)
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b. Sweat Glands
 Eccrine Sweat Glands
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands
 Release sweat by melocrine
secretion
 Numerous in the palms and
soles
 Apocrine Sweat Glands
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands
 Produce a think secretion rich
in organic substances
 Released primary by
melocrine secretion; some
glands demonstrate holocrine
secretion
 Open into hair follicles, in
armpits and genitalia Ø
Become active at puberty
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c. Other Glands
 Ceruminous glands – cerumen

(earwax)
 Mammary glands – milk
Nails
 Dead stratum corneum cells

 Contain a very hard type of keratin
Nail body – visible part of the nail
Nail root – part of the nail covered by skin
Cuticle – eponychium; s. corneum that

extends onto the nail body
Nail matrix – produces the nail
Nail bed – contributes to nail formation
Lunula – white, crescent-shaped area; part of

the nail matrix visible through the nail body
Skin Conditions
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 Cyanosis – bluish color to the skin
caused by decreased blod O2 content
 Jaundice – yellowish skin color caused
by liver damage (viral hepatitis)
 Rashes & lesions - symptoms of
problems elsewhere; e.g. Scarlet fever
causes reddish rash, allergic reaction to
food or drugs can develop rashes
 Vitamin A Deficiency – excess keratin;
sandpaper texture characteristic
 Iron Deficiency Anemia – nails
become flat or concave
 Lead Poisoning – high levels of lead in
the hair.
Burn – Injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold,

friction, chemicals, electricity, and radiation
I. Partial-thickness Burns
 Stratumbasale remains viable;

 Regeneration of the epidermis
occurs within the burn area
II. Squamous cell carcinoma
 Immediately superficial to the s.
basale
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 Cells continue to divide as they
produce keratin = nodular,
keratinized tumor confined to the
epidermis
 Can invade the dermis, metastasize,
and cause death
III. Malignant melanoma
 Rare form of skin cancer that arises
from melanocytes; usually from a
pre-existing mole
 Mole – an aggregation or nest of
melanocytes
 Large, flat, spreading lesion or
deeply pigmented nodule
 Metastasis is common
Effects of Aging on the Integumentary

System
 Epidermis thins
 Amount of collagen in the dermis
decreases
 Skin infections are most likely
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 Repair of skin occurs slower
 Decrease no. of elastic fibers in the
dermis and loss of fat (sagging of skin,
wrinkles)
 Decrease of activity of sweat glands =
reduced ability to regulate body temp.
 Decrease sebaceous gland activity =
skin becomes drier
 Decrease no. of melanocytes
 Some areas, the no. of melanocytes
increase = age spots
 Increased melanin production = freckles;
also, gray/white hair
Skin that is exposed to sunlight = shows signs

of aging more rapidly
“SKELETAL SYSTEM”
 It consists of the bone, cartilage,

tendons and ligaments.
 Skeleton; dried (Greek)
Functions
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1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
Extracellular Matrix
 Composed of connective tissues
Collagen – tough ropelike protein
Proteoglycans- Large molecules consisting of

Polysaccharides attached to core proteins
Tendons & Ligaments – large amounts of

collagen fiber
Cartilage – contains collagen & proteoglycans
Bone – contains collagen and minerals

(Calcium & Phosphate)
Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate crystals
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General Features of Bone
 Long bones; upper and lower limbs

 Short bones; wrist and ankle
 Irregular bones; vertebrae and facial
bones
 Long Bones
a) Diaphysis – central shaft
b) Epiphysis – ends
c) Epiphyseal plates – growth plate; where

the bone grows in length.
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the

epiphyses
Epiphyseal line – bone growth stops and the

epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone
Medullary Cavity – large cavity in the

diaphysis;contains the marrow
Marrow – soft tissue within the cavity
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Yellow Marrow – consists of adipose tissue
(fat)
Red Marrow – consists of bone forming cells;

site of blood formation
Layers of a Bone
Periosteum – outermost layer; surround the

diaphysis; contain blood vessels, nerves,
osteoblasts.
Endosteum – innermost layer; lines

themedullary cavity (thinner connective tissue)
Bone substance – EM and cells
Histology of Bone
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells; repair and

remodeling of bone
Osteocytes – bone cells located between the

lamellae (thins sheets of EM)
Lacunae – spaces within the lamellae
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Canaliculi – tiny canals within the lamellae
Types of Bone Tissue
a. Compact bone
 Forms most of the diaphysis of long

bones
 Central Canal / Haversian Canal –
concentric rings that contains blood
vessels; ‘bull’s eye’
 Osteon / Haversian System – central
canal lamellae + osteocytes
b. Spongy bone
 Located mainly in the epiphyses of long

bones
 Forms the interior of all other bones
 Consists of trabeculae (interconnecting
rods, plates of bone) without central
canals
Bone Ossification
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Ossification – formation of bone by
osteoblasts
Types of Ossification
a. Intramembranous ossification –
osteoblasts begin to produce bone in
connective tissue
 Ossification centers – where

Intramembranous ossification begins.
b. Endochondral ossification – bone

formation occurs inside the cartilage; bones at
the base of the skull and remaining skeletal
system are formed
 Chondrocytes – cartilage cells; increase

in no., enlarge, and die
Primary ossification center – where bone

first begins to appear
Osteoclasts – cells that remove calcified

cartilage matrix
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Secondary ossification center – form in the
epiphyses
Bone Growth
 Deposition of new bone lamellae onto

existing bone
 Bone elongation occurs at the
epiphyseal plate;leads to increase in
height (endochondral ossification)
 Chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die,
and are replaced by bone
Appositional growth – increase in bone width
Bone Remodeling
 Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts

 Deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
 Responsible for change in bone shape,
bone adjustment, repair, and calcium
ion regulation
Bone Repair
 Clot is formed in the damaged area
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 Blood vessels and cells invade the clot
and form a callus (network of fibers and
islets of cartilage)
 Osteoblasts enter the callus and from a
spongy bone
 Bone is slowly remodeled to compact
bone
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
 Osteoclasts remove calcium = blood

calcium levels increases
 Osteoblasts deposit calcium = blood
calcium levels decrease
Hormones that maintain Calcium

Homeostasis
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Parathyroid gland;
 Increase bone breakdown & increase
blood calcium levels;
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 Stimulates the kidneys to from active
vitamin D
2. Calcitonin
 Thyroid gland
 Decrease bone breakdown and
decrease blood calcium levels
General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
 206 bones = adult

 276 bones = newborn baby
 Foramen – hole in a bone
 Canal / Meatus – elongated hole in a
tunnel like body
 Fossa – depression in a bone
 Tubercle / Tuberosity – lump on a
bone
 Process – projection from a bone
 Condyle – end of a bine that forms a
joint with another bone
 Facet – small flattened articular surface
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 Crest – prominent ridge
 Trochanter – tuberosity found only on
proximal femur
 Fissure – cleft
 Sinus – cavity
 Suture – a joint uniting the bones of the
skull
AXIAL SKELETON
 Composed of the skull, vertebral

column, and thoracic cag. Form the
longitudinal axis of the body.
I. Skull
 22 bones
Braincase
 8 bones
 Covers and protects the fragile brain
tissue
1. Frontal Bone – forehead, bony projections

under the eyebrow, part of the eye’s orbit
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2 - 3. Parietal Bone (paired) – the superior
and lateral walls of the cranium;
coronal suture
4 - 5. Temporal Bone (paired) – lies inferior to

the parietal bone; squamous
suture.
 External Auditory Meatus (EAM) – a

canal that leads to the eardrum and the
middle ear
 Styloid process – a sharp, needlelike
structure located inferior to the EAM
 Zygomatic process – a bridge of bone
that joins with the cheekbone anteriorly
 Mastoid Process – a rough projection
posterior and inferior to the EAM
6. Occipital Bone – inferior and posterior bone

of the cranium; lambdoid suture
 Foramen magnum – where the spinal

cord joins the brain
 Occipital condyles –rests on the first
vertebra of the vertebral column
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 Foramen ovale – allows the fiber
ofcranial nerve 5 to pass
7. Sphenoid Bone – butterfly-shaped bone

that spans the width of the skull
 Sella Turtica – saddle-shaped

structure at the central region; contains
the pituitary gand
8. Ethmoid Bone – irregularly shaped bone

that lies anterior to the
sphenoid bone
Facial bones
 14 bones; 13 solidly connected, 1

movable (mandible)
 Holds the facial muscles in place
 Joined together by sutures
(interlocking,immovable)
1-2. Maxillae – main bones of the face; carries

the upper teeth
3-4. Palatine Bones – lies posterior to the

palatine processes of the maxilla
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5-6. Zygomatic Bones – cheekbones
7-8. Lacrimal Bones – bones forming part of

the medial wall of each orbit
9-10. Nasal Bones – bones forming the bridge

of the bone
11-12. Inferior Nasal Conchae – thin curved

bones projecting from the
lateral wall of the nasal cavity
13. Vomer Bone – single bone in the median

of the nasal cavity
14. Mandible – lower jaw; only freely movable

joint of the face
Hyoid Bone – U-shaped bone; provides

attachment to tongue muscles; elevates the
larynx during speech and swallowing
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II. Vertebral Column
 Central axis of the skeleton

 26 individual bones;
 7 cervical vertebrae
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 12 thoracic vertebrae
 5 lumbar vertebrae
 1 sacral bone
 1 coccyx bone
Functions
1. Supports the weight of the head and the

trunk.
2. Protects the spinal cord.
3. Allows the spinal nerves to exit the spinal

cord.
4. Site for muscle attachment.
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk.
Kyphosis – posterior curvature; hunchback
Lordosis – anterior curvature; swayback

condition
Scoliosis – lateral curvature
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General Plan of the Vertebral Column
Body – weight-bearing portion
 Intervertebral disks body – separates

the vertebral bodies
 Vertebral arch – surrounds the vertebral
foramen
v. 2 Pedicles – extends from the body to the

transverse process
v .2 Laminae – extends from the transverse to

the spinous process
v .Provides attachment sites for the

muscles that move the vertebral column;
• Transverse process – extends laterally bet.

the lamina and pedicle
• Spinous process – projects dorsally where

the two laminae meet
 Vertebral foramen – a large opening
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 Vertebral canal – where the spinal
cord is located; protects the spinal cord
from injury
 Intervertebral foramina – where spinal
nerves exit the spinal cord
 Articular process – where the vertebra
articulate with each other
 Articular facet – smooth ‘little face’
Regional Differences in Vertebrae
1. Cervical Vertebrae – very small bodies,

dislocation and fractures are common in his
area
 Atlas – 1st CV; holds up the head; ‘yes’

shaking
 Axis – 2nd CV; considerable amount of
rotation;‘no’ shaking
Dens – where the rotation occurs
2. Thoracic vertebrae – long, thin spinous

processes; articulate the ribs
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3. Lumbar vertebrae – large, thick bodies;
heavy, rectangular transverse + spinous
processes; carry large amount of weight;
ruptured intervertebral disks are common
4. Sacrum – five sacral vertebrae fused in one
 Median Sacral Crest – spinous process

of the 1st four SV
 Sacral Hiatus – inferior end of the
sacrum; the 5th process of the SV that
does not form; common side of caudal
anaesthetic injections
 Sacral Promontory – anterior edge of
the 1sy SV that bulges; landmark felt
during vaginal
 examination; reference point in vaginal
delivery of a baby
5. Coccyx – tailbone; fusion of 4 or more/less

fused vertebrae; easily broken
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APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 126 bones
 Consists of the bones of the upper and
lower limbs, as well as the girdles
I. Pectoral Girdle
 Also called the shoulder girdle

 Consists of 4 bones; 2 scapulae + 2
clavicles
1. Scapula – shoulder blade; where muscles

extending to the arm are attached
2. Glenoid cavity – 4th fossa; where the head

of the humerus connects to the scapula
 Spine – a ridge that runs across the

posterior surface fo the scapula
3. Acromion process – extends from the

scapular spine to form the point of the shoulder
4. Clavicle – collarbone; articulates with the

scapula art the acromion process
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5. Coracoid process – provides for the
attachment of arm and chest muscles
II. Upper Limb
1. Arm – region bet, the shoulder and the

elbow; contains the humerus; has two
tubercles: greatertubercle and lesser tubercle
 Deltoid Tuberosity – where the deltoid

muscleattaches
 Epicondyles – provide attachment
sites for forearm muscles
2. Forearm
 Radius – lateral to the thumb

 Radial tuberosity – where the arm
muscles (biceps brachii) attaches
 Ulna – medial to the little finger
 Trochlear notch – forms most of the
elbow joint
 Coronoid process – helps complete
the grip of the ulna
 Olecranon process – extension of the
ulna
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 Styloid process – articulates with the
bones of the wrist
3. Wrist – short region bet. the forearm and the

hand; 8 carpal bones (SLTPHCTT)
 Scaphiod
 Lunate
 Triquetrum
 Pisiform
 Hamate
 Capitate
 Trapezoid
 Trapezium
4. Hand – 5 metacarpal bones are attached to

the carpal bones
5. Phalanges – 3 small bones on each finger
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III. Pelvic Girdle
 Where lower limbs attach to the body

 Coxal bones – hip bones; join each
other anteriorly and the sacrum
posteriorly to form a ring of bone called
the pelvic girdle
 Ilium – most superior
 Ischium – inferior and posterior; sit
down bone
 Pubis – inferior and anterior Iliac crest
– seen along the superior margin of
each ilim
 Anterior Superior Iliac Spine –
important hip landmark; anterior end of
the iliac crest
 Pubic symphysis – where coxal bones
join anteriorly
 Sacroiliac joints – joins the sacrum
posteriorly
 Acetabulum – socket of the hip joint
 Obturator foramen – large hole in
each coxal bone
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 Pelvic inlet – formed by the pelvic brim

and the sacral promontory
 Pelvic outlet – bounded by the ischial
spines, pubicsymphysis, and coccyx
Male pelvis: larger and massive; Female

pelvis; broader
IV. Lower Limbs
1. Thigh – region bet. the hip and the knee;

contains the femur
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 Head of the femur – articulates with
theacetabulum of the coxal bone
 Condyles – articulates with the tibia
 Epidondyles – points of ligaments
attachments
 Trochanters – lateral to the head after
the neck
 Patella – knee cap; enables the tendon
to bend over the knee
2. Leg – region bet. the knee and the

ankle
 Tibia – shinbone; larger; major weight-

bearing bone of the leg; medial
malleolus
 Fibula – thin and sticklike that forms
the lateralside of the leg; lateral
malleolus
3. Ankle – 7 tarsla bones
 Talus – ankle bone

 Calcaneus – heel bone
 Cuboid
 Navicular
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 Cuneiforms; medial, intermediate,
lateral
4. Foot
 Metatarsal bones and phalanges –

arranged and numbered in a similar
manner to the hand
 Has 3 primary arches
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JOINTS
 Also called an articulation

 Where two bones come together
a. Synarthrosis joints – non-movable
b. Amphiarthrosis joints – slight movable
c. Diarthrosis – freely movable
I. Fibrous Joints
 2 bones that are united by fibrous tissue
 Exhibit little or no movement
1. Sutures – bet. the bones of the skull;

squamous, lambdoid, coronal
Fontanels – sutures that are quite wide in a

newborn
2. Syndesmoses – bones are separated by

some distance and held together by ligaments;
FB connecting the radius and ulna
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3. Gomphoses – consists of pegs fitted into
sockets and held in place by ligaments; joint
bet. a tooth and its socket
II. Cartilaginous Joints
 Unites two bones by means of cartilage

 Slight movement can occur

 Epiphyseal plates of growing long

bones
 Cartilage bet. the ribs and the sternum
 Fibrocartilage forms joints such as
theintervertebral disks
III. Synovial Joints
 Freely movable joints

 Contains fluid in a cavity surrounding
the endsof articulating bones
 Articulating cartilage – thin layer that
covers the articular surfaces of bones
w/in the synovial joints
Joint cavity – filled with fluid
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Joint capsule – encloses the cavity that helps
hold the bones together and allows for
movement
Synovial membrane – lines the joint cavity

everywhere
Synovial fluid – produced by the SM; covers

the surfaces of the joint
Bursa – a pocket or sac; located bet.

Structures that rub together
Bursitis – inflammation of the bursa; often

results to abrasion
Tendon Sheath – extension of SM along some

tendons
Types
1. Plane/Gliding Joints – two opposed flat

surfaces that glide over each other
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2. Saddle Joints – Two saddles shaped
articulating surfaces oriented at right angles;
joint bet. The metacarpal bone and the carpal
bone of the thumb
3. Hinge Joints – permit movement in one

plane only; elbow and knee joints
Menisci – shock-absorbing fibrocartilage pads
4. Pivot Joints – restrict movement to rotation

around a single axis; rotation that occurs bet.
The axis and atlas;articulation bet. the ulna and
radius
5. Ball and socket Joints – consist of a ball

(head) and a socket; shoulder and hip joints
6. Ellipsoid/Condyloid Joints – elongated

ball and socket joints; joint bet. the occipital
condyles (skull) and the atlas(vertebral
column); joints bet. the metacarpals and
phalanges
Types of Movement
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1. Flexion – movement that takes place in a
frontal/coronal plane
 Plantar flexion – when standing on the

toes
 Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot

toward the shin (walking on heels)
2. Extension – movement that takes place in a

posterior direction
3. Lateral Flexion – movement of the trunk in

the coronal plane
4. Abduction – movement away from the

median plane
5. Adduction – movement toward the median

plane
6. Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that

the palm is down
7. Supination – rotation of the forearm so that

the palm faces up
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8. Eversion – opposite movement of the foot
so that the sole faces in a lateral direction
9. Inversion – movement of the foot so that

the sole faces medially
10. Rotation – movement of a part of the body

around its long axis
11. Circumduction – combination in sequence

of the flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
12. Protraction – to move forward
13. Retraction – to move backward
14. Hyperextension – abnormal, forced

extension of a joint beyond its normal range of
motion
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“MUSCULAR SYSTEM”
Functions (M2RPC^3)
1. Movement of the body.
2. Maintenance of posture.
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
7. Contraction of the heart
Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
 Constitutes approx. 40% of body weight
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 Muscles are attached to the skeletal
system
 Also called Striated Muscle; transverse

bands orstriations
Major Functional Characteristics of Skeletal

Muscle
1. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
2. Excitability – capacity to respond to a

stimulus
3. Extensibility – ability to be stretched to their

normal resting length
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original

resting length
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle
Epimysium/Muscular fascia – connective

tissue sheath that surrounds a skeletal muscle
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Muscle fasciculi – numerous visible bundles

that make up the muscle
Perimysium – loose connective tissue that

surrounds the muscle fasciculi
Muscle fibers – several muscle cells that

composes afasciculus
Endomysium – loose connective tissue that

surrounds a muscle fiber
Muscle Fiber Structure
Sarcolemma – cell membrane of the muscle

fiber
Transverse tubules (T tubules) – tube-like

invaginations w/c occur at regular intervals
along the muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly organized

smooth E.R.; has a relatively high
concentration of muscle contraction)
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Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Myofibrils – threadlike structures composed

of:
 Actin Myofilaments (thin filaments;

purple)
 Myosin Myofilaments (thick filaments;
green)
Sarcomere – highly ordered, repeating units of

actin +myosin myofilaments; joined end to
end to form the myofibrils
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
Troponin molecules – binding sites for Ca2+;

attached at specific intervals along the actin
myofilaments
Tropomyosin filaments – cover the

attachment sites on the actin myofilaments;
located along the grove bet. thetwisted strands
of actin myofilaments
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Myosin heads – resemble golf club heads;
 Bind to attachment sites

 Bend and straighten
 Break down ATP
Sarcomere
 Basic structural and functional unit of

skeletalmuscle
 Z disk – network of protein fibers
forming an attachment site for actin
myofilaments
 I band – consists of actin myofilaments;
spans each Z disk
 A band – darker, central region that
extends the length of the myosin of
myofilaments
 H zone – second light zone that
consists of myosinmyofilaments
 M line – dark-staining bands
The arrangement of the actin and myosin

filaments in sacromeres gives the myofibrils a
banded appearance.
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The alternating I bands and A bands of the
sacromeres are responsible for the striations in
the skeletal muscle fibers.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell

membranes have a negative charge on the
inside relative to a positive charge outside;
occurs bcos there is an uneven distribution of
ions
1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM

>outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM >

insidethe CM
Different types of Ion Channels
 Nongated/Leak channels – always open

 Chemically gated channels – closed
until a chemical binds them and
stimulates them to open
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Depolarization – the inside of the CM
membrane comes more positive than the
outside of the cell; Na+ ions move into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the

resting membrane potential; K+ ions moves out
of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization

and repolarization of the CM; results in muscle
contraction
Nerve Supply
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that

stimulate muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that

forms a junction with a muscle fiber
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell

and another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the

skeletal muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon

terminal
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Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic
terminal and the muscle fiber
membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber

membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that

contains small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter

contained in the vesicles; a molecule released
by a presynaptic nerve cell that
stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that

rapidly breaks down the synaptic cleft bet. the
neuron and the muscle fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin

myofilaments past myosin myofilaments during
contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the

myosin attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments
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Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus,
Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber

in reponse to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the

application of a stimulus and the beginning of
contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the

muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the

muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an

individual muscle fiber is increased by
rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained

contraction that occurs when
the frequency of stimulus is so rapid hat no

relaxation occurs
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 Caused by Ca+ build up in the
myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers

contraction is increased by the increasing no.
of motor units stimulated+muscle contracts
with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor

neuron is stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle

Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks

down glucose to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2;

breaks down glucose to yield ATP and lactic
acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule

that can be stored in muscle fibers
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Fatigue
 A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use

ATP faster than they are produced; when the
effectiveness of Ca+ to stimulate actin +
myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may

become incapable of either contracting or
relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an

individual perceives that continued muscle
contraction is impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance;

length of the muscle does not change; the
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amount of tension increases during the
contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the

amount of tension produced by the muscle
is constant during contraction; length of the
muscle decreases
 Cocentric contractions – isotonic;

muscle tension increases as the muscle
shortens
 Eccentric contractions – isotonic;
tension is maintained in a muscle; the
opposing resistance causes the muscle
to lengthen
Muscle Tone
 Constant tension produced by body

musclesover long periods of time

 Responsible for keeping the back and

legs straight, the head in an upright
position, and the abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
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Classification of Muscle Fiber
1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin;

contracts slowly and resistant to fatigue
respiration
2. Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more fatigue

resistant than type IIb
b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type
 Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily

 Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle
fibers
 Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells

just below the endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic

spontaneous Intercalated disks – specialized
structures that facilitate action potential
conduction bet. Cells
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down

the tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the

muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the

bone undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the

insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain

movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an

agonist
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Synergists – a group of muscles working
together to produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major

role in accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place

relative to the body
Nomenclature
1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis,

frontalis, pectoralis, brachialis
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid

process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),

triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest),

minimus (smallest), vastus (large)
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid

(triangle),orbicularis (circular)
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7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly

close the eyelids, and causes crow’s feet
wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the

mouth; flattens the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and

corner of the mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates

one side of the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting;

depresses the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
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Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion,

elevation of mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue

and change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the

tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate

the larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the

pharynx from superior to inferior (forcing food
into the esophagus); also open the auditory
tube
Neck Muscles
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Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the
lateral muscle group; rotates the head; flexes
the neck or extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the

sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head

and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
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II. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping he

back straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several

movements of the vertebral column
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External intercostal – elevate the ribs during
inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced

expiration, depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the

thorax during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal

wall that consists of white connective
tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of

the linea alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the

abdominal wall of a lean, well-muscled person
to appear segmented contraction of smooth
muscle
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External/Internal abdominal oblique &
Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral

column or compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm
Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic

floor
Perineum – associated with the male/female

reproductive structures
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the

urethra; erects the penis, clitoris
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses

the base of penis/clitoris
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps

the orifice of the anal canal closed
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III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
 Attach the scapula to the thorax and

move the scapula
Acts as fixators to hold the scapula

firmly in position when the muscle of the
arm contract
 Move the scapula into different
positions
 Trapezius
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 Levator scapulae
 Rhomboids
 Serratus anterior
 Pectoralis minor
Arm Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes

the shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed
position
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle;

medially rotates and adducts the arm and
powerfully extends the shoulder
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus

to the scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the
proximal humerus
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula

and clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the

elbow
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Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors
of the elbow
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle;

helps flex the elbow
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – supination of the forearm or

turning the flexed forearm so that the palm is
up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so

that the palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that

covers the flexor & extensor tendons and holds
them in place around the wrist
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
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Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located

within the hand
Interossei – responsible for abduction and

adduction of the fingers
Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to

forceful, repeated contraction of the wrist
extensor muscles
Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
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IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur

on the tibiwhen a person is standing
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts

and laterally rottes the thigh; contributes most
of the mass
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the

thigh is flexed at a 45O angle; common site for
injections in the buttocks (sciatic nerve lies
deep to the g. maximus)
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of

the knee
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Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in
the body; flexes the hip and knee; rotates the
thigh laterally for sitting cross legged
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of

the calf
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors

and are involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the

foot; aid in plantar flexion
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct,

and adduct the toes
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4

lateral toes, everts foot
Extensor halluces longus – extends great

toe; invertsfoot
Tibialis anterior – inverts foot
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Fibularis tertius – everts foot
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral

toes, inverts foot
Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe,

inverts foot
Tibialis posterior – inverts foot
Fibularis brevis – everts foot
Fibularis longus – everts foot
Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle
 Decreased muscle mass

 Slower reaction time
 Reduced stamina
 Increased recovery time
Types of Muscular Tissue
I. Skeletal (striated voluntary)
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 Large, long, cylindrical cells
 Multinucleated
 Attached to bones
 Responsible for body movement
II. Cardiac (striated involuntary)
 Cylindrical cells
 Branched and connected to one another
by intercalated disks
 Single nucleated
 Found in the heart
 Pumps the blood
III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary)
 End tapered cells

 Single nucleated
 Found in hollow organs: stomach,
intestine;skin, eyes
 Regulates size of organs, forces fluid
through tubes, controls the amount of
light entering the eye, produces ‘goose
bumps’
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“CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM”
 The transport system of the body.
This system has three main components:
 The Heart
 The Blood Vessel
 Blood Itself
The heart is the system’s pump and the blood

vessels are like the delivery routes. Blood can
be thought of as a fluid which contains the
oxygen and nutrients the body needs and
carries the wastes which need to be removed.
Pulmonary circulation – right side of the

heart pumps blood to the lungs; then back to
the left side
Systemic circulation – left side of the heart

pumps blood to all other tissues of the body;
then back to the right side
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Function
1. Generating blood pressure.
2. Routing blood.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow.
4. Regulating blood supply.
Size, Form, and Location of the Heart
Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart
Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of

the heart
Mediastinum – midline partition
Pericardial cavity – surrounding cavity of the

heart
Importance of location and shape of the

Heart:
 To accurately place a stethoscope
 To place chest leads for ECG
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 To administer CPR
Anatomy of the Heart
Pericardium Pericardial cavity – where the

heart lies
Pericardium/Pericardial sac – surrounds the

heart and anchors it within the mediastinum
Fibrous pericardium – tough, fibrous

connective tissue outer layer
Serous pericardium – thin layer of connective

tissue
Parietal pericardium – serous pericardium

ling the fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium – portion

covering the heart surface
Pericardial fluid – produced by the SP;

reduces friction as the heart moves
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External Anatomy
Atria – entrance chamber
Ventricles – cavities
Coronary sulcus – separates the atria from

the ventricles
 Anterior interventricular sulcus
 Posterior interventricular sulcus
Superior & Inferior vena cava – carry blood

to the RA
Pulmonary veins – carry blood form the lungs

to the LA
Pulmonary trunk & aorta – exit the heart
Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs
Aorta – carries blood to the rest of the body
Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
A. Right and Left Atria
 Receives blood from the veins

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 Function as reservoirs; where
blood returning from veins collects
before it enter the ventricles
Interatrial septum – separator of the two

atria
B. Right and Left Ventricle
 Major pumping chambers
 Ejects blood into the arteries and

forces it to flow through the CS
Interventricular septum – separator of the

two ventricles
Heart Valves
Atrioventricular valves
 Allows blood to flow from the atria into

the ventricles;
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 Prevents it from flowing back into the
atria
1. Tricuspid valve – bet. the RA and the RV
2. Bicuspid/Mital valve – bet. the LA and the LV
Papillary muscles – cone-shaped, muscular

pillars; prevents the valves from opening into
the atria
Chordae tendineae – thin, strong, connective

tissue strings
Aortic & Pulmonary semilunar valves –

blocks blood from flowing back into the
ventricles
Cardiac skeleton – a plate of connective

tissue; electrical insulation bet. the atria and
the ventricles; provides rigid attachment site for
cardiac muscle.
Route of Blood Flow through the Heart
1. Superior & Inferior vena cava
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2. Right Atrium (RA)
3. Tricuspid Valve (TV)
4. Right Ventricle (RV)
5. Pulmonary semilunar valves
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung tissue (Pulmonary circulation)
9. Pulmonary veins
10. Left Atrium (LA)
11. Biscupid Valve (BV)
12. Left Ventricle (LV)
13. Aortic semilunar valves
14. Aorta
15. Body tissues (Systemic Circulation)
Blood Supply to the Heart Coronary arteries

– supply blood to the wall of the heart
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 Left coronary artery
 Anterior interventricular artery
 Circumflex artery
 Left marginal artery
 Right coronary artery
 Right marginal artery
Cardiac veins
 Cardiac veins
 Coronary sinus
Histology of the Heart
Heart Wall
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1. Epicardium/Visceral pericardium
 Thin, serous membrane forming the

smooth outer surface
 Consists of simple squamous epithelium

overlaying a layer of loose connective
tissue + adipose tissue
2. Myocardium
 Composed of cardiac muscles
 Responsible for contraction of the heart

chambers
3. Endocardium
 Simple squamous epithelium over a

layer of connective tissue
 Allows blood to move easily
 Forms the heart valves
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Trabeculae carneae – ridges and columns of
cardiac muscle
Cardiac Muscle
 Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction
Cardiac muscle cells
 Elongated, branching cells
 Two, centrally located nuclei
 Contains actin and myosin myofilaments

that form sarcomeres
 Rich in mitochondria (produce ATP at

rapid rate) Actin & Myosin myofilaments
– responsible for muscle contraction
Organization of A&M myofilaments – gives

the cardiac muscle a striated (banded)
appearance
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Intercalated disks – specialized cell-to-cell
contacts; greatly increase contact in between;
prevents cells form pulling apart
Gap junctions – specialized cell membrane

structures; allow cytoplasm to flow freely bet.
Cells
Electrical Activity of the Heart
Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
1. Depolarization phase
2. Plateau phase – period of slow

repolarization
3. Repolarization phase – achieves its

maximum degree of polarization; returns
to the resting membrane potential
Refractory period
 Allows cardiac muscle to contract and

relax almost completely before another
action potential can be produced
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 Prevents tetanic contractions from
occurring
Conduction System of the Heart
 Specialized cardiac muscle cells in the

heart wall
Sinoatrial node (SA) – heart’s pacemaker;

initiates the contraction of the heart
Atrioventricular node (AV) – spreads action

potential slowly
Atrioventricular bundle – a bundle of

specialized cardiac muscle
Left & Right bundle branches – two

branches of conducting tissue
Purkinje fibers – conduct action potentials

more rapidly than do other cardiac muscle
fibers
Ectopic beat – action potentials originate in an

area of the heart than the SA node
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
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 An extremely valuable tool for
diagnosing a number of cardiac
abnormalities
P wave – depolarization of the atrial

myocardium
QRS complex – depolarization of the

ventricles
T wave – repolarization of ventricles
PQ interval – time bet. the beginning of the P

wave and the beginning of the QRS complex;
atria contracts and
begins to relax
PR interval – common name bcos the Q wave

is very small
QT interval – represents the time req. for

ventricular depolarization and repolarization
Cardiac Cycle
 Repetitive pumping process of cardiac

muscle contractions
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Major events
1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular contraction
3. Ejection
4. Ventricular relaxation
5. Passive ventricular filling
Atrium – primer pump; complete the filling of

ventricles with blood
Ventricle – power pump; produce the major

force that causes blood to flow
Atrial systole – contraction of two atria
Ventricular systole – contraction of two

ventricles
Atrial diastole – relaxation of the two atria
Ventricular diastole – relaxation of the two

ventricles
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Systole & Diastole – ventricular contraction or
relaxation
Heart Sounds Stethoscope – used to listen to

the sounds of the lungs and the heart
Lubb – closure of the AV valves
Dupp – closure of the semilunar valves
Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds; result of a

faulty valve
Stenosed – when opening of a valve is

narrowed; swishing sound precedes
Regulation of Heart Function
Cardiac output (CO) – vol. of blood pumped;

5 L/min
Stroke volume (SV) – vol. of blood pumped

per ventricle per contraction; 70 mL/beat
Heart rate (HR) – no. of times the heart

contracts per minute; 72 beats/min
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CO = SV x HR
Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart
 Mechanisms contained within the heart

itself
Venous return – amt. of blood that returns to

the heart
Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls

are stretched at the end of diastole
Starling’s Law of the Heart – relationship bet.

preload and stroke volume
Afterload – pressure against which the

ventricles must pump blood
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
 Mechanisms external to the heart
A. Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor

Reflex
 A mechanism of the nervous system in

regulating heart function
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Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor
blood pressure
Cardioregulatory center – receives and

integrates action potentials form the
baroreceptors
B. Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor

Reflex Epinephrine & Norepinephrine
– causes increased HR and SV
“Nervous System”
Sensory Input
■ Sensory
receptors
monitor stimuli
○ Integration
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■ Brain and
spinal cord
process sensory
input and can
initiate
responses
○ Control of
Muscles/Glands
○ Maintain
Homeostasis
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■ Able to detect,
interpret, and
respond to
changes in
conditions
○ Mental
Activity
■ Brain is center
of mental
activity
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(consciousness,
memory,
thinking,
e
• Controlling muscles and glands.
• Receiving sensory input.
• Integrating information.
• Maintaining homeostasis.
• Establishing and maintaining
mental activity.
Divisions of the Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System

• Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
• Nerves and ganglia

a) Sensory Division – division; conducts
action potentials from sensory receptors
to the CNS.
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b) Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials from
the CNS to effector organs
 Motor neurons – neurons that

transmit action potentials from
the CNS toward the periphery.
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
• Also called nerve cells

• Receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials, transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source

of information for gene expression.
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body;

receive information from other neurons;
transmit the info toward the neuron cell body.
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action

potentials from one part of the brain or spinal
cord to another part
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• Axon of sensory neurons – conduct

action potentials towards the CNS
• Axon of motor neurons – conduct
action potentials away from the CNS
• Axon hillock – where the axon leaves
the neuron cell body
• Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the
cell body of a neuron
• Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath
(increases speed of impulse
transmission)
• Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a

single axon
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1

dendrite + 1 axon
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3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process
that divides into 2 processes: extends to the
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
• Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS

• More numerous than neurons
• Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the

CNS; stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of
nearby neurons; help limit damage to neural
tissue
• Blood brain barrier – protects neurons

from toxic substances in the blood;
allows exchange of waster products +
nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal

fluid; help move the cerebrospinal fluid through
the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’

protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
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Neural Signaling
• Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual

receptors in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit

info to CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and

an appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to

motor neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive

info and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
• Highly specialized insulating layer of

cells
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Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are
conducted slowly bcos in travels along the
entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are

conducted rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath;

where ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies +

their dendrites; very little myelin
In the CNS;
• Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain

• Nuclei – GM located deeper within the
brain
In the PNS;
• Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons +

myelin sheaths
In the CNS;
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• Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another
In the PNS;
• Nerves – bundles of axons +

connective tissue sheaths
• Consists of
dynamic living
tissues able to
Action Potentials
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to

stimuli that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Substances Effect Clinical

Example
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Depolarization – a change that causes the
inside of the CM to become positive
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential
Action potential – constitution of

depolarization and repolarization
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM

briefly becomes more negative than the RMP
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached =

action potential occurs; if the threshold is not
reached = action potential doesn’t occur
Continuous conduction – the action potential

is conducted along the entire axon CM
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump

from one node of Ranbier to the next
The Synapse
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Synapse – a junction where the axon of one
neuron interacts with another
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon
Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the

dendrite or effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the

presynaptic & postsynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters

are stored
Hyperpolarized – the inside of the

postsynaptic cell tends to become more
negative
Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Cocaine and
Norepinephrine Excitatory
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
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Inhibitory
sleep induction
Excitatory or
Dopamine Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Treatment of
Inhibitory
Aminobutyric acid epilepsy
Opiates morphine
Endorphins Inhibitory
and heroin
Reflexes
• an involuntary reaction in response to a

stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
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Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a
reflex occurs
• Sensory receptor
• Sensory neuron
• Interneurons
• Motor neuron
• Effector organ (muscle or glands)
Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons

synapse with the same neuron
Diverging pathway – the axon from one

neuron divides and synapses with more than
one other neuron
Summation – allows integration of multiple

sub threshold local potentials; brings the
membrane potential to threshold and trigger an
action potential
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Spatial summation – local potentials originate
from diff. locations on the postsynaptic neuron
Temporal summation – local potentials

overlap in time
SPINAL CORD
• Extends from the foramen magnum to

the 2nd lumbar vertebra
• Provides a two-way conduction pathway

to and from
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal

nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
2 Main Functions
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body.
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center

of the cord
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;

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Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal

root
Relfex Action
• Predictable, automatic response to a

specific stimulus
1. Reception of the stimulus.
2. Transmission of info to the CNS.
3. Integration (interpretation and

determination of an appropriate response).
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a

muscle.
5. Actual response.
Spinal Cord Reflexes
Knee-Jerk Reflex
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles

contract in response to a stretching force
applied to them
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Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to
determine if the higher CNS centers that
normally influence this reflex are functional
Withdrawal Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a

limb from a painful stimulus
Ascending Tracts
• Pathways that carry impulses form the

periphery to various parts of the brain
Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light

touch, and deep pressure
Dorsal column – transmission of

proprioception, touch, deep pressure, vibration
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to

cerebellum
Descending Tracts
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• Pathways that carry impulses from the
brain to the periphery
Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and

skilled movements (hand)
Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and

movement of trunk muscles
Rubrospinal – movement coordination
Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Tectospinal – movement in response to visual

reflexes
Cranial Nerves
• Transmit info to the brain form the

sensory receptors
• 12 pairs
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NAME SPECIFIC FUNCTION
Olfactory Smell
Optic Vision
4-6 extrinsic eye

Oculomotor
muscles
Trochlear Extrinsic eye muscle
Face + teeth; Muscle

Trigeminal
of mastification
Abducens Eye muscle
Facial Facial muscle
Acoustic/Vestibul
Hearing + balance
ocochlear
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Taste + touch to back

Glossopharynge
of the tongue; salivary
al
glands
Pharynx, Larynx,
viscera; palate,
Vagus pharynx, larynx,
viscera of thorax +
abdomen
Hypoglossal Tongue muscles
Neck + upper back

Accessory
muscle
Spinal Nerves
• Arise along the spinal cord; contains

mixed nerves
• 31 pairs
 8 Cervical
 12 Thoracic
 5 Lumbar
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 5 Sacral
 1 Coccygeal
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and

somatic motor neurons
Phrenic nerve – most important branch of the

CP; innervates the diaphragm (responsible for
our ability to breathe)
Brachial Plexus
• Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to

T1
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder

muscles + the skin over part of it
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior

forearm and intrinsic muscles
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the

muscles in the posterior arm and forearm +
skin over the posterior surface of the arm,
forearm, hand
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates

the anterior muscles of the
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arm + skin over the radial surface of the

forearm
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the

anterior forearm muscles and some of the
intrinsic hand muscles + skin over the radial
side of the hand
Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the

muscles of the medial thigh + skin over it
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior

thigh muscles + skin over it & medial side of
the leg
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior

thigh muscles, the anterior & posterior leg
muscles, most of the intrinsic foot muscles
+ skin over the sole of the foot
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4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the
muscles of the lateral thigh & leg, some
intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
anterior & lateral leg, dorsal surface of the
foot
Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the

tibial and common fibular nerve
Autonomic Nervous System
• Preganglionic neuron
• Postganglionic neuron
• Maintain internal homeostasis
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic

neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons
I. Sympathetic ANS
 ‘Fight-or-flight’
 Prepares the body for action
 Most active during stressful
situations
 Norepinephrine (main
neurotransmitter)
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II. Parasympathetic ANS
 Activities result in conserving and

restoring energy
 Helps return the body to resting
conditions
 Active during periods of calm.
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the

parasympathetic division
Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of

the sympathetic division
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous

System
Sympathetic Division
• Prepares a person for action by

increasing HR, BP, respiration, release
of glucose
• Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is

highly complex and adaptive; 3 pounds
• 25 billion neurons
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• Requires a continuous supply of oxygen
and glucose
Brainstem
• Connects the spinal cord to the

remainder of the brain
• Controls the heart rate, blood pressure,
and breathing
• Damage can cause death
1. Medulla Oblongata
• Most inferior portion of the brainstem

• Important reflex actions like vomiting,
sneezing, coughing, swallowing
• Gray matter consists of various nuclei
that serve as vital centers
 Cardiac centers – control

HR
 Vasomotor centers –
regulates BP controlling
blood vessel diameter
 Respiratory centers –
initiates and regulates
breathing
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• Pyramid - two prominent enlargements
2. Pons (bridge)
• Relay information bet. the cerebrum and

the cerebellum
• Resembles an arched footbridge
• Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep
3. Midbrain
• Smallest region of the brainstem

• 4 mounds called the colliculi
4. Reticular Formation
• A group of nuclei scattered throughout

the brainstem
• Regulating cyclical motor functions;
respiration, walking, chewing
• Damage can result in coma
• Reticular activating system – plays an
important role in arousing and
maintaining consciousness
Diencephalon
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• Part bet. the brainstem and the
cerebrum
1. Thalamus
• Largest part of the diencephalon

• Major relay center for all sensory info
(except smell) to the cerebrum; plays a
gating rol
• Influences mood and registers an

uncomfortable perception of pain
• Interthalamic adhesion – connects the
two large, lateral parts of the thalamus
2. Epithalamus
• Smallest area superior + posterior to the

thalamus
• Consists of few small nuclei (emotional
and visceral response to odors) + pineal
gland
Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may

influence the onset of puberty; role in
controlling some long term cycles
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3. Hypothalamus
• Most inferior part

• Consists of several small nuclei;
maintaining homeostasis
• Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
• Sensations such as sexual pleasure,

rage, fear, and relaxation
Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
1. Control center of the ANS.
2. The link bet the nervous and endocrine

systems.
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – regulates

water excretion by the kidneys
4. Regulates body temperature.
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety

centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
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7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
aspects of sensory input.
Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of

hormones from the pituitary gland
Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional

responses to odors and in memory.
Cerebellum
• Second largest part of the brain; 2

hemispheres
• Responsible for coordination of
movements
• Comparator – a sensing device that
compares data from two sources
• Proprioceptive neurons – innervate
joints, tendons, muscles; provide info
about the position of body parts
1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body

movements (comparator function).
2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
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3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
4. Important in learning motor skills.
Cerebrum
• Largest and most prominent part of the

brain
1. Sensory Function – receives info from

sensory receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all

voluntary movement and some involuntary
ones
3. Association Function – responsible for all

of the intellectual activities of
4 Lobes
1. Frontal Lobe
• Control of voluntary motor functions,

motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception
• Primary motor area: consciously move
our skeletal muscles
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• Broca’s area – speech center
• Prefrontal area – reposible for

executive functions
2. Parietal Lobe
• General Sensory Area – receives info

from the sensory receptors in the skin
and joints
• Wernicke’s area – sensory speech

area
3. Occipital Lobe
• Receiving and perceiving visual input

• Primary visual area – receives visual
info
• Visual association area – portion
where visual info is integrated
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4. Temporal Lobe
• Primary auditory area – center for

reception of auditory messages
• Auditory association area – where
auditory messages are integrated
• Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the

surface areaof the cortex and intervening
grooves (sulci)
Sulci – shallow grooves
Fissures – deep groves
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum

into left and right hemispheres
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the

cerebrum; consists of gray matter
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left

hemispheres
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Central sulcus – separates the frontal and
parietal lobes
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love

from the rest
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure
Basal Nuclei
• Group of functionally related nuclei
Corpus striatum – located deep within the

cerebrum
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in

the midbrain
Right and Left Hemispheres
Right hemisphere – three dimensional or

spatial perception, musical ability
Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere;

mathematics and speech
Memory
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Working memory – stores info required for the
immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone
no.
Short-term memory – last longer; can be

retained for a few mins. to a few days
Long-term memory – stored for only a few

minutes or become permanent by
consolidation
meninges
• Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &

the vertebrae
•
• Epidural anesthesia – clinically
important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during childbirth
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd

meningeal membrane
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• Subdural space – space bet. the dura
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
small amt. of serous fluid
• Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
the area
• Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very

tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels
Ventricles
• Fluid filled cavities
Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in

each cerebral hemisphere
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity
Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the

cerebellum
Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that

connects the 3rd and 4th ventricle
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Cerebrospinal fluid
• Provides a protective cushion around

the CNS
Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized

structures made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from

the arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the

ventricles
Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a

conscious thought
Voluntary movements – consciously

activated to achieve a specific goal; walking,
typing
Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in

the cerebral cortex
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Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in
the anterior horn
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex – control voluntary

movements of skeletal muscles
Premotor area – where motor functions are

organized before they are actually initiated in
the primary motor cortex
Pre-frontal area – where planning and

initiating movements occur
Other Brain Functions
Commissures – connection bet. the two

hemispheres
Corpus callosum – largest commissure
Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a

portion of the parietal lobe
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Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior
portion of the frontal lobe
Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language

comprehension
Brain Waves and Consciousness
Brain waves – wave like patterns
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting

state with eyes close
Beta waves – occur during intense mental

activity
Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in

infants and in patients
Theta waves – observed in children; also in

adults who are frustrated or have brain
disorders
“URINARY SYSTEM”
 Consists of 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary
bladder, and the urethra.
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FUNCTIONS
1. Excretion
2. Regulation of blood volume + pressure.
3. Regulation of the concentration of solutes

in the blood. 4. Regulation of RBC synthesis.
5. Regulation of vit. D synthesis.
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS
Kidneys – bean-shaped organs; size of a

tightly clenched fist
Renal capsule – CT that surround each kidney

Hilum – where the renal artery and nerves
enter
Renal sinus – cavity that contains blood

vessels
Cortex (outer)
Medulla (inner) – surround the renal sinus
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Renal pyramids – located bet. the cortex &
medulla
Calyx – funnel-shaped structure that surround

the tip of each pyramid
Renal pelvis – formed by calyces into a larger

funnel
Ureter – exits the kidney and connects to the

urinary bladder
Nephron – functional unit of the kidney
 Renal corpuscle
 Proximal convoluted tubule
 Loop of Henle
 Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct – carries the fluid from the

cortex through the medulla
Papillary duct – empty their contents into a

calyx
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Juxtamedullary nephrons (15%) – have
loops of Henle that extend deep into the
medulla
Cortical nephrons (85%) – have loops of

Henle that do not extend deep into the medulla
Bowman’s capsule – consists of the enlarged

end of the nephron
Glomerulus – tuft of capillaries that resembles

a ball of yarn; lies within the indentation of
Bowman’s capsule
Podocytes – inner layer of Bowman’s capsule

that consists of specialized cells
Filtration membrane – formed by glomerular

capillaries, basement membrane, and
podocytes of BC
Filtrate – the fluid that passes across the

filtration membrane Arteries and Veins
Renal arteries – branch off the abdominal

aorta and enter the kidneys
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Interlobar arteries – pass bet. the renal
pyramids
Arcuate arteries – arch bet. the cortex and the

medulla Interlobular arteries – branch off the
arcuate arteries and project into the cortex
Afferent arterioles – arise form branches of

the interlobular arteries and extend to the
glomerular capillaries
Efferent arterioles – extend from the

glomerular capillaries
Peritubular capillaries – surround the

proximal convoluted and distal convoluted
tubules and the loops of Henle
Vasa recta – specialized portions of the

peritubular capillaries that extend deep into the
medulla
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Juxtaglomerular apparatus – formed where
the distal convoluted tubule comes in contact
with the afferent arteriole next to BC
URINE FORMATION
1. FILTRATION
 Movement of water, ions, and small

molecules through the FM into the
BC
Filtration pressure – forces fluid from the

glomerular capillary across the FM into the
BC
Glomerular capillary pressure – BP in

the glomerular capillary
Capsular pressure – pressure of filtrate

already inside the BC
Colloid osmotic pressure – pressure of

filtrate within the glomerular capillary
Regulation of Filtration
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Cardiovascular shock – the filtration
pressure and filtrate formation fall
dramatically
2. TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Movement of substances from the

filtrate across the wall of the nephrons
back into the blood of the peritubular
capillaries
3. TUBULAR SECRETION
Active transport of solutes across the

nephron walls into the filtrate
REGULATION OF URINE
CONCENTRATION AND VOLUME Hormonal

Mechanism
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-Mechanism
 Renin is secreted from the kidney

when blood pressure decreases
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 Renin converts angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I; then converted to
angiotensinogen II; which
stimulates aldosterone
 Aldosterone increases Na+ and Cl+

reabsorption from the nephron
Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
 Secreted from the posterior pituitary

when blood concentration
 increases / blood pressure decreases
 Increases the permeability to water of

the distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts
 Increases water reabsorption by the

kidney
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
 Secreted from the RA in response to

increased blood pressure
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 Acts on the kidney to increase Na+ &
water loss in the urine
URINE MOVEMENT
Anatomy and Histology of the Ureters, Urinary

Bladder, and Urethra
Ureters – small tubes that carry urine
Urinary bladder – hollow muscular container

that stores urine
Urethra – tube that carries urine form the

urinary bladder to the outside of the body
Internal urinary sphincter (males) – smooth

muscle at the junction of the urinary bladder
and urethra
External urinary sphincter (males + females)

– skeletal muscle that surrounds the urethra
Micturition Reflex
 Activated by stretch of the urinary

bladder wall
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BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
Intracellular fluid compartment – fluid inside

all the cells in the body
Extracellular fluid compartment – fluid

outside all the cells in the body
Composition of the Fluid in the BFC
Intracellular fluid – contains more K, Mg,

PO4, SO4, protein,
Extracellular fluid – contains more Na, Ca,

Cl, HCO3
Exchange bet. BFC
 Water moves continually bet.

compartments I response to hydrostatic
pressure differences and osmotic
differences bet. the compartments
REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

COMPOSITION
Thirst Regulation
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 Blood concentration increases = thirst
center initiates sensation of thirst
 When water is consumed, blood

concentration increases = thirst
sensation decreases
 Blood pressure decreases = thirst

sensation is triggered
 Consumption of water = increases blood

volume + allows blood pressure to
increase
Thirst center – neurons in the hypothalamus

that control water intake
Thirst – one of the important means of

regulating ECF volume and concentration
Ion Concentration Regulation
 Sodium ions are dominant extracellular

ions
 Aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption

from filtrate
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 ADH increases water reabsorption from
the nephron
 ANH increases Na+ loss in urine
 Aldosterone increases K+ secretion in

urine
 Increased blood levels of K+ stimulate
 Decreased blood levels of K+ inhibit
 PTH increases extracellular Ca2 +

levels
 Causes bone resorption
 Increases Ca2 + uptake in the kidney
 PTH increases vit. D synthesis
 Calcitonin (thyroid gland)
 Inhibits bone resorption
 Lowers blood Ca2 + levels
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 Phosphate + Sulfate Ions
 When levels are low in the filtrate = ions

are reabsorbed
 When levels are high = excess is lost in

the urine
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
Buffers
 Resist changes in the pH;
 Proteins, phosphate buffer system,

bicarbonate buffer system
Respiratory System
 Increase respiratory rate raises pH =

rate of CO2 elimination is increased
 Reduced respiratory rate = reduces pH

(CO2 elimination is reduced)
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Kidneys
 Excrete H+ in response to decreasing

blood pH
 Reabsorb H+ in response to an
increasing blood pH
Acidosis and Alkalosis
Acidosis – occurs when blood pH falls below

7.35
 Respiratory acidosis – respiratory is

unable to eliminate adequate amounts
of CO2
 Metabolic acidosis – excess production

of acidic substances (lactic acid +
ketone bodies)
Alkalosis – occurs when blood pH increases

above 7.45
 Respiratory alkalosis – results from

hyperventilation in response to stress
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“ENDOCRINE SYSTEM”
• Metabolism
• Control of food intake and digestion
• Tissue Development
• Ion Regulation
• Water balance
• Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
• Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients
• Control of reproductive functions
• Uterine contraction and milk release
• Immune system regulations
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Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that

originally secreted it; WBCs during an infection
2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells;

WBCs during allergic reactions
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent

cell
4. Endocrine – secreted into the bloodstream

by certain glands and cells
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Characteristics of the Endocrine System
Endocrine System – composed of endocrine

glands + endocrine specialized cells
Hormones – chemical messenger that is

secreted into the blood
Target tissues – effectors; specific site
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino

(secrete)
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their

secretions to the outside of the body
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine

system
Hormones
• Greek word; hormone (to set into

motion)
Chemical Nature of Hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble
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2. Water-Soluble
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of

chemicals
2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system
3. Hormonal Stimuli – hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
• Blood conc. of hormone declines

• More hormone is secreted
• Regulation of Hormone Levels in the
Blood
• If max. set point is exceeded
• Hormone production is halted
B. Positive feedback
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• Tropic hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of

Action
Receptors – where hormones exert action by

binding to proteins
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor

molecule where a hormone binds
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to

one type of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based

on the hormone released
Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
• Interaction with cell DNA to regulate

transcription.
2. WSH bind to membrane bound receptors.
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• Hormone receptor complex initiates a
response inside the cell (G proteins,
cAMP, protein kinase).
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis
• A small gland about the size of a pea

• Controls the functions of many other
glands
• Secrets hormones that influence growth,
kidney function, birth, milk prod.
Hypothalamus
• An important ANS and endocrine control

center of the brain
• Controls the PG by hormonal control
and direct innervation
Infundibulum – a stalk that connects the

pituitary gland and the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary – made up of epithelial cells

derived from embryonic oral cavity
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Posterior pituitary – an extension of the brain;
composed of nerve cells
Hormonal Control of Anterior Pituitary
Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system –

capillary beds and veins that transport the
releasing and inhibiting hormones
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
1. Growth hormone (GH)
• Affects body growth by stimulating

protein synthesis by increasing gene
expression
• Breakdown of lipids
• Release of fatty acids from cells
• Increases blood glucose levels
Pituitary dwarf – deficiency in GH although

normally proportioned
Gigantism – excess GH; exaggerated bone

growth occurs
Acromegaly – abnormally large facial features

& hands
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2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Promotes synthesis and secretion of

thyroid hormone
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
§ Increases secretion of glucocorticoid

hormones
§ Increases skin pigmentation
4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
§ Increases melanin prod. in melanocytes
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Promotes ovulation and progesterone

production on ovary
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
• Promotes testosterone synthesis and

support for sperm cell prod. in testis
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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• Promotes follicle maturation and
estrogen secretion in ovary
• Promotes sperm cell prod. in testis
7. Prolactin
• Promote development of breast during

pregnancy
• Stimulates milk prod. and prolongs
progesterone secretion
• Increases sensitivity to LH in males
PITUITARY GLAND
1. Antidiuretic hormone
• Conserves water
• Constricts blood vessels
• Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH
(SIADH)
• Diabetes Inspidus – large prod. of dilute
urine
2. Oxytocin
• Swift birth
• Increases uterine contractions
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• Increases milk letdown
THYROID GLAND
1. Calcitonin
• Decreases rate of bone breakdown

• Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+
levels
2. Thyroid hormones
• Increases metabolic rates

• Essential for normal process of growth
Thyroxine / Tetraiodothyronine - contains

four iodine atoms
Triiodothyronine – contains three iodine

atoms
Isthmus – narrow band that connects the

two lobes of the thyroid gland
Thyroid follicles – where thyroid

hormones are synthesized and stored
Goiter – excess TSH; low in iodine diet
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Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid
hormones
Cretinism – congenital absence of

thyroxine in infants
Myxedema – accumulation of fluid and

other molecules in subcutaneous tissue in
adults
Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid

hormone secretion
Graves disease – hyperthyroidism that

results when the immune system produces
abnormal proteins
Exophthalmia – bulging of the eyes
PARATHYROID GLAND
1. Parathyroid hormone
• Increase Ca+ levels in the blood
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• Increases rate of bone breakdown by
osteoclasts
• Increases vit. D synthesis (essential for
maintenance of normal blood calcium
levels)
Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) –
abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
• Tumor
• Muscle weakness
• Soft, easily deformed bones
• Prone to kidney stone formation
Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia) –
abnormally low rate of PTH surgery
• Surgery
• Frequent muscle cramps or tetanus
• Respiratory arrest
• CHVOSTEK’s sign & TROSSEAU sign
ADRENAL MEDULLA
1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) &

Norepinephrine
• Fight-or-flight hormones
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• Increases cardiac output
• Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles

& heart
• Increases release of glucose and fatty
acids into blood
• Prepares body for physical activity
ADRENAL CORTEX
1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids)
• Regulates water balance

• Increases rate of Na transport into body
• Increase rate of K excretion
Renin – protein molecule that acts as an

enzyme
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System

(RAAS) – helps the body to address
decreasing blood volume
2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoids)
• Increase fat & protein breakdown
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• Increase glucose synthesis from amino

acids
• Increase blood nutrient levels
• Inhibit inflammation & immune response
• Helps the body in stressful situations by

providing energy sources
Cortisone – artificial cortisol; anti-inflammatory

effect
3. Androgens
• Male sex hormone; stimulates the dev’t

of male characteristics
• Increases female sex drive
Addison’s disease – hyposecretion of adrenal

cortex hormones
Cushing’s disease – tumor in middle cortex
Hyperaldosteronism – hyperactivity of outer

cortex
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Hirsutism – masculinization (inner cortex)
THYMUS
1. Thymosin
• Promotes immune system development

and function
• Helps the dev’t of certain WBC (T-cells)
PINEAL GLAND
1. Melatonin
• Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-

releasing hormone (thus inhibits
reproduction)
• Biological clock (day & night cycle)
PANCREAS
1. Insulin
• Secreted by beta cells
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• Increases uptake and use of glucose
and amino acids
• Released in response to elevated blood
glucose level & parasympathetic
stimulation
2. Glucagon
• Secreted by alpha cells

• Increases breakdown of glycogen and
release of glucose into the circulatory
system
• Released in response to low blood
glucose level
Glycogen – stored glucose in muscles & liver
Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids
Satiety center – area of the hypothalamus that

controls apetite
Diabetes mellitus – much urine + sweetened
• Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin is

secreted from pancreas
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• Type 2 – caused by insufficient no. of
insulin receptors
Hyperglycemia – high blood glucose levels
Polyphagia – increased appetite/eating
Polyuria – increased eating
Polydipsia – excessive thirst
TESTES
1. Testosterone
• Aids in sperm cell prod.

• Maintenance of functional reproductive
organs, secondary
• sexual characteristics, sexual behavior
OVARIES
1. Estrogen & Progesterone
• Aid in uterine and mammary gland

development and function, external
genitalia structure, secondary sexual
characteristics, sexual behavior,
menstrual cycle
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2. Prostaglandins
• Mediate inflammatory responses

• Increase uterine contractions and
ovulations
OTHER HORMONES
1. Erythropoietin
• Acts on bone marrow to increase the

production of RBCs
2. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Stimulated production of estrogen &

progesterone
“LYMPHATIC SYSTEM”
FUNCTIONS:
1. fluid function
2. fat absorption
3. defense
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
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LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES – tiny, closed-
ended vessels consisting of simple squamous
epithelium
LYMPHATIC VESSELS – resemble small

veins; formed when lymphatic capillaries join
together
RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT – lymphatic

vessels from the right upper limb and the right
half of the head, neck and chest; empties into
the right subclavian vein
THORACIC DUCT – lymphatic vessels from

the rest of the body; empties into the left
subclavian vein
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
LYMPHATIC TISSUE – consists of many

lymphocytes and other cells, such as
macrophages; found within lymphatic organs
TONSILS
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1. PALATINE TONSILS – located on each
side of the posterior opening of the oral cavity
Usually referred to as “the tonsils”
2. PHARYNGEAL TONSILS – located near

the internal opening of the nasal cavity
Adenoid – enlarged pharyngeal tonsil
3. LINGUAL TONSIL – on the posterior

surface of the tongue
LYMPH NODES - Rounded structures, varying

from the size of a small seed to that of a
shelled almond
CAPSULE – dense CT that surrounds each

lymph node
TRABECULAE – extensions of the capsule
LYMPHATIC NODULES – dense

aggregations of tissue form from lymphocytes
and other cells
LYMPHATIC SINUSES – spaces between the

lymphatic tissues that contain macrophages on
a network of fibers
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GERMINAL CENTERS – lymphatic nodules
containing the rapidly dividing lymphocytes
SPLEEN-- Roughly the size of a clenched fist

and is located in the left, superior corner of the
abdominal cavity
Has an outer capsule of dense CT and a small

amount of smooth muscle
TRABECULAE – divide the spleen into small,

interconnected compartments containing 2
specialized types of lymphatic tissue
WHITE PULP – surrounds the arteries within

the spleen
RED PULP – associated with the veins
THYMUS
-Bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
- Site for maturation of lymphocytes
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CAPSULE – thin CT that surrounds each lobe
TRABECULAE – divide each lobe into lobules
CORTEX – dark-staining areas where

lymphocytes are numerous
MEDULLA – lighter-staining, central portion of

the lobules; has fewer lymphocytes
OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system removes fluid from

tissues, absorbs fats from the small intestine,
and produces B cells and T cells, which are
responsible for much of immunity.
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IMMUNITY
The ability to resist damage from foreign

substances – such as microorganisms, harmful
chemicals, and internal threats
INNATE IMMUNITY – nonspecific resistance;

the body recognizes and destroys certain
foreign substances, but the response to them
is the same each time the body is exposed.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY – specific immunity; the

body recognizes and destroys certain foreign
substances, but the response to them
improves each time the foreign substance is
encountered.
SPECIFICITY – ability of adaptive immunity to

recognize a particular substance
MEMORY – ability of the adaptive immunity to

“remember” previous encounters with a
particular substance
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INNATE IMMUNITY
PHYSICAL BARRIERS -- Prevent

microorganisms and chemicals from entering
the body in two ways:
1. Skin and mucous membranes form barriers

that prevent their entry
2. Tears, saliva, and urine wash these

substances from body surfaces
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
Are molecules responsible for many aspects of

innate immunity
COMPLEMENT – group of approximately 20

proteins found in plasma
INTERFERONS – are proteins that protect the

body against viral infections
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WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Most important cellular components of

immunity
Important chemicals known to attract WBC:

Complement, Leukotrienes,
CHEMOTAXIS – movement of WBC toward

these chemicals
PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
PHAGOCYTOSIS – the ingestion and

destruction of particles by cells called
phagocytes
NEUTROPHILS – small phagocytic cells that

are usually the first cells to enter infected
tissues
PUS – accumulation of fluid, dead neutrophils,

and other cells at a site of infection
MACROPHAGES – monocytes that leave the

blood, enter tissues, and enlarge about fivefold
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MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTIC SYSTEM –
phagocytes ith a single (mono), unlobed
nucleus
Dust cells – macrophages in the lungs
Kupffer cells – liver
Microglia – central nervous system
CELLS OF INFLAMMATION
BASOPHILS – motile WBCs that can leave the

blood and enter infected tissues
MAST CELLS – non motile cells in CT, esp.

near capillaries
EOSINOPHILS – produced in red bone

marrow; enter the blood, and within a few
minutes enter tissues
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NATURAL KILLER CELLS
Type of lymphocyte produced in RBM, account

up to 15% of lymphocytes
Recognize classes of cells, such as tumor cells

or virus-infected cells in general; causes these
cells to lyse
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE LOCAL

INFLAMMATION – confined to a specific area
of the body
SYMPTOMS: redness, heat, swelling, pain,

and loss of function
SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION – generally

distributed throughout the body
SYMPTOMS: increase in neutrophil numbers,

fever, and shock.
PYROGENS – stimulate fever production
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY ANTIGENS

– substances that stimulate adaptive immune
responses
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1. FOREIGN ANTIGENS – introduced from
outside the body (Ex: bacteria, viruses,
chemicals released by microorganisms)
ALLERGIC REACTION – caused by foreign

antigens that produce an overreaction of the
immune system
2. SELF-ANTIGENS – molecules of the body

produces to stimulate and immune system
response
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE – results when

selfantigens stimulate unwanted destruction of
normal tissue
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
– involves proteins called antibodies, which

are found in the plasma
B CELLS – lymphocyte that produces

antibodies
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CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
– involves the actions of a second type of

lymphocyte, called T cells
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS – lyse virus-infected

cells, tumor cells, and tissue transplants
CYTOKINES – promote inflammation and

phagocytosis
HELPER T CELLS – inhibit the activities of

both AMI and CMI
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF

LYMPHOCYTES STEM CELLS
– Give rise to all the blood cells
CLONES – small groups of identical B cells or

T cells that are form during embryonic
development
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ACTIVATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF
LYMPHOCYTES
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION ANTIGEN

RECEPTORS
– proteins of the lymphocytes
B-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on

B cells
T-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on

T cells
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX

(MHC) MOLECULES
– are glycoproteins that have binding sites for

antigens
COSTIMULATION – achieved by cytokines

(regulator of neighboring cells)
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INTERLEUKIN-1 – is a cytokine released by
macrophages that can stimulate helper T cells
LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION
INTERLEUKIN-2
– binds to interleukin-2 receptors and

stimulates the helper T cells to divide
B CELL PROLIFERATION – when helper T

cells stimulate B cells to divide and differentiate
into cells that produce antibodies
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
ANTIBODIES – proteins produced in response

to an antigen
VARIABLE REGION – part of the antibody

that combines with the antigen
CONSTANT REGION – the rest of the

antibody
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GAMMA GLOBULINS – other name for
antibodies
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Ig) – part of the

plasma where antibodies and found
EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES
Directly inactivate antigens or cause them to
clump together
Indirectly destroy antigens by promoting

phagocytosis and inflammation
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
PRIMARY RESPONSE – results from the first
exposure of a B cell to an antigen
PLASMA CELLS – produce antibodies
MEMORY B CELLS – responsible of the

secondary response
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SECONDARY RESPONSE / MEMORY
RESPONSE – occurs when the immune
system is exposed to an antigen against which
it has already produced a primary response
CELL – MEDIATED IMMUNITY
A function of cytotoxic T cells and is most

effective against microorganisms inside body
cells
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY ACTIVE NATURAL

IMMUNITY
Results from natural exposure to an antigen
ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY An antigen is

deliberately introduced into an individual to
stimulate the immune system
Vaccination // Vaccine (antigen introduced)
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PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
Results hen antibodies are transferred from a

mother to a child across the placenta before
birth
PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Transfer of antibodies from an animal to a

person
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
Innate immunity, antibody-mediated immunity,

and cell-mediated immunity can function
together to eliminate an antigen
IMMUNOTHERAPY
Treats disease by altering immune system
function or by directly attacking harmful cells
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“REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM”
FUNCTIONS
1. Production of gametes.
2. Fertilization.
3. Development and nourishment of a new

individual.
4. Production of sex hormones.
FORMATION OF GAMETES
Gametes – sex cells
Meiosis – a type of cell division in which

formation of gametes occur
Synapsis – chromosomes align as pairs
Crossing over – allows exchange of genetic

material bet. chromosomes
Reduction division – 1st meiotic division;

from 16 to 23 chromosomes
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2nd Meiotic division – similar to mitosis
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SCROTUM - Saclike structure containing the

testes
Dartos muscle – layer of SM beneath the skin

of the scrotum
Cremaster muscles – extensions of

abdominal muscles into the scrotum
TESTES -Also called male gonads; oval

organs within the scrotum
Seminiferous tubules – where sperm cells

develop
Interstitial cells / Leydig cells – endocrine

cells that secrete testosterone
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Sustentacular cells / Sertoli – are large and
nourish the germ cells; produce a number of
hormones
SPERMATOGENESIS -Formation of sperm

cells
Spermatogonia – most peripheral germ cells

that divide through mitosis
Primary spermatocytes – other daughter cells

that divide by meiosis and become sperm cells
Secondary spermatocytes – product of first

meiotic division
Spermatids – product of secondary meiotic

division
Sperm cell / Spermatozoon – developed

spermatid with a head, midpiece, and flagellum
DUCTS
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Epididymis- A tightly coiled series of
threadlike tubules that form a comma-shaped
structure
Rete testis – each seminiferous tubule empty

into in tubular networks
Efferent ductules – carry sperm cells from the

testis to the epididymis
Capacitation – final changes in sperm cells

that occur after ejaculation of semen into the
vagina and prior to fertilization
Ductus Deferens / Vas deferens

- Emerges from the epididymis and ascends
along the posterior side of the testis
Spermatic cord – consists of the ductus

deferens, testicular artery and veins, lymphatic
vessels, and testicular nerve
Ampulla of the ductus deferens – ductus

deferens increases in diameter
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Seminal Vesicle and Ejaculatory Duct
Seminal vesicle – sac-shaped gland
Ejaculatory duct – formed by the ducts from

the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the
ductus deferens
Urethra
Prostatic urethra – passes through the

prostate gland
Membranous urethra – passes through the

floor of the pelvis; surrounded by the external
urinary sphincter
Spongy urethra – extends the length of the

penis and opens at its end
PENIS
--Male organs of copulation
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--Functions in transfer of sperm cells from the
male to the female
Erection – process of the engorgement of the

erectile tissue with blood that causes the penis
to enlarge and become firm
Corpora cavernosa – two columns of erectile

tissue that form the dorsal portion
Corpus spongiosum – third, small erectile

column that occupies the ventral portion of the
penis
Glans penis – a formed cap
External urethra orifice – spongy urethra that

opens to the exterior
Prepuce / foreskin – lose fold of skin that

covers the glans penis
GLANDS
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Prostate gland – consists of glandular _
muscular tissue & empties into the urethra
Bulbourethral glands / Cowper glands – a

pair of small, mucus-secreting glands that
empty into the urethra
SECRETIONS
Semen – mixture of sperm cells + gland

secretions
Prostate fluid – contains nutrients and

proteolytic enzymes; neutralizes the pH of the
vagina
Bulbourethral + urethral mucuous glands –

produce mucus that neutralizes the acidic pH
of the urethra
PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTION
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Regulation of Sex Hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) –

produced in hypothalamus; stimulates release
of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary
Luteinizing hormone (LH) – stimulates

interstitial cells to produce Testosterone
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – binds

to sustentacular cells and stimulates
spermatogenesis and secretion of inhibin
Testosterone – has a negative-feedback

effect on GnRH, LH, and FSH
Inhibin – has a negative-feedback effect on

FSH secretion
Male Sexual Behavior and the Male Sex Act
Testosterone – required for normal sex drive
Emission – movement of sperm cells, mucus,

prostatic secretions, and seminal vesicle
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secretions into the prostatic, membranous,
spongy urethra
Orgasm / climax – result of pleasurable,

intense sensation
Resolution – penis becomes flaccid; an

overall feeling of satisfaction exists
Erection – first major component of the male

sex act
Erectile dysfunction (ED) – impotence; failure

to achieve erections
Infertility in Males
- Common cause is a low sperm cell count
Artificial insemination – concentrating the

sperm cells and inserting them into the
female’s reproductive tract
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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Broad ligament – spreads out on both sides of
the uterus and attaches to the ovaries and
uterine tubes
OVARIES
Suspensory ligament – extends from each

ovary to the lateral body wall
Ovarian ligament – attaches the ovary to the

superior margin of the uterus
Mesovarium – folds of peritoneum
OOGENESIS AND FERTILIZATION
Oogonia – the cells form which oocytes

develop
Primary oocyte – oogonia that has stopped I

prophase I
Ovulation – release of an oocyte from an

ovary
Secondary oocyte – released when the first

meiotic division is complete
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Fertilization – when a sperm cell penetrates
the cytoplasm of a secondary oocyte
Zygote – 23 chromosomes from the sperm +

23 chromosomes from the female gamete
Follicle Development
Primordial follicle – primary oocyte

surrounded by granulosa cells (single layer of
flat cells)
Primary follicles – oocyte enlarges and the

single layer of granulosa cells become
enlarged and cuboidal
Zona pellucida – a layer of clear material that

is deposited around the primary oocyte
Secondary follicle – fluid-filled vesicles

appear and a theca forms around the follicle
Fluid filled spaces - vesicles Theca – a

capsule that forms around the follicle
Antrum – a single, fluid-filled chamber
Graafian follicle – mature follicle
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Cumulus cells – mass of granulosa cells
Corpus luteum – remaining cells of the

ruptured follicle are transformed into a
glandular structure
Human chorionic gonadotropin hormone

(hCG) – the corpus luteum enlarges in
response to this hormone
UTERUS
Fundus – superior to the entrance of the

uterine tubes
Body – main part of the uterus
Cervix – inferiorly, narrower part
Uterine cavity & cervical canal – spaces

formed by the uterus
Perimetrium – outer layer; serous layer of the

uterus formed from visceral peritoneum
Myometrium – middle layer; muscular layer

hat accounts for the bulk of the uterine wall
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Endometrium – innermost layer; consists of
simple columnar epithelial cells with an
underlying CT layer
Spiral glands – simple tubular glands formed

by folds of endometrium
Prolapsed uterus – occurs when the uterus

extends inferiorly into the vagina
VAGINA
- Female organs of copulation
- Allows menstrual flow and childbirth
Muscular layer – smooth muscle + elastic

fibers
Mucous membrane – moist stratified

squamous epithelium that forms a protective
surface
Hymen – thin mucous membrane
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EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Vulva – pudendum; external female genitalia
Vestibule – the space into which the vagina

and urethra open
Labia minora – thing, longitudinal skin folds
Clitoris – small, erectile structure; well

supplied with sensory receptors, made up of
erectile tissue
Greater vestibular glands – produce a

lubricating fluid that helps maintain the
moistness of the vestibule
Labia majora – prominent, rounded folds of

skin
Mons pubis – an elevation of tissue over the

pubic symphisis
Pudendal cleft – space bet. the labia majora
Clinical perineum – region bet. the vagina

and the anus
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Episiotomy – an incision made I the clinical
perineum to avoid tearing during childbirth
MAMMARY GLANDS
- Organs of milk production
- Located in the breasts
- Modified sweat glands
Areola – a circular, pigmented area that

surrounds the nipple
Gynecomastia – occurs when the breasts of a

male become permanently enlarged; results
from hormonal imbalance and the abuse of
anabolic steroids
Glandular lobes – covered by adipose tissue;

gives the breast its form
Lactiferous duct – opens independently to the

surface of the nipple
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Myoepithelial cells – surround the alveoli and
contract to expel milk from the alveoli
PHYSIOLOGY OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTION
Puberty in Females Menarche – first episode

of the menstrual bleeding
Menstrual cycle – series of changes that

occur in sexually mature, non-pregnant
females, and that culminate in menses
Menses – a period of mild hemorrhage; part of

the endometrium is sloughed and expelled
from the uterus; day 1 – 4: menstrual fluid is
produced by degeneration of the endometrium
Proliferative phase – day 5 – ovulation:

epithelial cells multiply and form glands
Secretory phase – day of ovulation – 28:

endometrium becomes thicker, endometrial
glands secete
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Blastocyst – a collection of cells produced by
the zygote
Ectopic pregnancy – implantation occurs

anywhere other than in the uterine cavity
MENOPAUSE
Cessation of menstrual cycles
(Female) Climacteric – the whole time period

from the onset of irregular cycles to their
complete cessation
FEMALE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND THE

FEMALE SEX ACT
Orgasm / climax – triggered by tactile

stimulation of the female’s genitalia during
intercourse or psychological stimulation
Resolution – the overall sense of satisfaction

and relaxation after the sex act
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INFERTILITY IN FEMALES
- Caused by malfunction of uterine tubes,
reduced hormone secretion, interruption of
implantation
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CURICULUM VITAE
Personal Information
Name: Custodio, Reiona Lian P.
Age: 19 years old
Birthdate: August 19, 2000
Address: Sapphire bldg. Unit 418. Rosewood Pointe,
Acacia Estates, Taguig City
Contact no.: +639560658138
Educational Background
Tertiary: University of Makati
Secondary: Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino High School
Elementary: East Rembo Elementary School

215
City of Makati
Name: Clave, Ma. Junelyn C.
Age: 19 years old
Birthdate: September 6, 2000
Address: Sorrento St. San Francisco Village Brgy.
Muzon Taytay, Rizal
Contact no.: +639653479789
Secondary: Raises Montessori Academe
Elementary: Rosario Ocampo Elementary School
216
City of Makati
Name: Dalisay, Janine L
Age: 19 years old
Birthdate: November 23, 2000
Address: Bldg 3 Rm 123 Centennial Village Western
Bicutan, Taguig City
Contact no.: +639216778283
Secondary: Western Bicutan Taguig City
Elementary: Tenement Elementary School
217
City of Makati
Name: Cruzado, Trisha Nicole M.
Age: 19 years old
Birthdate: September 16, 2000
Address: 3478 Honda St. Brgy. Pinagkaisahan, Makati
City
Contact no.: +639392237935
Secondary: Pitogo High School
Elementary: Nemesio I. Yabut Elementary School
218
City of Makati
Name: David Jr., Nelson B
Age: 19 years old
Birthdate: December 30, 2000
Address: Blk 24 lot 8 Gumamela St.. Pembo Makati
City
Contact no.: +639562569002
Secondary: Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino High School
Elementary: Pembo Elementary School
219

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Republic of the Philippines

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

A Compilation Presented to the Center of

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in the

CLAVE, MA. JUNELYN C.

CRUZADO, TRISHA NICOLE M.

CUSTODIO, REIONA LIAN P.

DAVID JR., NELSON B.

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Was presented by (name) in partial fulfillment

Given by the Professor(s) on March 19, 2000

Justine Mark S. Casilao, RRT

Accepted in partial fulfillment of the

GEROME C. ABENILLA, RRT, MSRT

MYNA MARIE DC. NERONA, RRT, MSRT

First and foremost, to their ever supportive

To their classmates. They gave them the

They would like to extend their deepest

Most importantly, to the Almighty One for

Immeasurable appreciation and deepest

To our parents who supported us financially

To our Professor, Prof. Justine Casilao, RRT,

And of course the group is very grateful to

“THE HUMAN ORGANISM”

 Study of the structures of the body

Approaches to the Study of Anatomy

 Systemic Anatomy – study of the body

General Ways to Examine the Internal

 Surface Anatomy – study of external

2. Anatomical Imaging – non-invasive method

 Study of the processes and functions of

 Main goals; to understand and predict;

Structural and Functional Organization

1. Chemical Level- Atoms (colored balls)

1. Organization – Interrelationship among

2. Metabolism – Ability to use energy to

 Ability to maintain relatively stable

Homeostatic mechanisms – normally

Variables – Conditions that can change.

Set point –Ideal value

Normal range – Acceptable range of values

Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Components to Maintain Homeostasis

Terminology and the Body Plan

 Anatomical Position – A person

sides, and the palms of the hands facing

Supine Lying face upward

Inferior Towards the head

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

• Midsagittal plane-A specific sagittal

• Coronal plane - A coronal plane divides

• Midcoronal plane- often referred to as

• Horizontal plane - Often it is referred to

• Oblique plane - An oblique plane is a

• Frankfort horizontal plane- Precise

• Infraorbital margins (inferior edge of

• Occlusal plane - This horizontal plane

teeth with jaws closed (used as a

 Serous Membranes - Line the trunk

 It consists of the skin, and accessory

Functions of the Integumentary

 Most superficial layer

 transformation of the living cells of the