Name: ___________________________________ Yr. & Sec.

: _____________
Instructor: _______________________________ Date: __________________

EXPERIMENT 4
SKELETAL SYSTEM (PART 1)
The skeletal system is the bony framework within the body. It is composed of
206 bones which composed of axial and appendicular skeleton. The functions of this
system include support of the body structures, protection of internal organs, movement
and anchorage of muscles, storage of minerals, calcium, and phosphorus, and site of
hematopoietic blood cell formation.
In this experiment you will be studying and examining the various bones of the
skeletal system. We will learn about the functions, the structural characteristics, and the
gross and microscopic structure of bons. Lastly, we will explore the first major part of
the skeletal system which is the axial skeleton.

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Theory
Overview of the Skeletal System
Bones
 The major organs of the skeletal system, exist in a variety of sizes and shapes.
 Composed of two different types of osseous tissue
o Compact bone
 hard and dense irregular connective tissue membrane that
surrounds the bone and is supplied with blood vessels and
nerves.
 composed primarily of repeating microscopic units called
osteons.
o Spongy bone
 located deep to the compact bone, is composed of irregularly
arranged trabeculae (beams of bone) with many open spaces
that house red bone marrow.

Categories according to subdivisions

 Axial skeleton
o consists of the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax, make
up the vertical axis of the body.
 Appendicular skeleton
o consists of the limbs, which include the pectoral girdle (clavicles and
scapulae) and the bones of the arms, forearms, wrists, and hands, plus
the pelvic girdle (coxal bones) and the bones of the thighs, legs, ankles,
and feet.

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Accessory Skeletal Structures
 The skeletal system also includes connective tissues such as skeletal
cartilages, tendons, and ligaments throughout the body.
 Three specific types of cartilage:
o Hyaline cartilage which provides cushioning;
o Fibrocartilage, which provides strong support and resistance to
pressure;
o Elastic cartilage, which provides strength and stretchability.
 All three cartilage types lack direct access to a blood supply, which limits their
thickness.
 Tendons and ligaments are composed of dense, regular connective tissue
and are associated with articulations (joints).
 Tendons attach muscle to bone, whereas ligaments attach bone to bone.

Structural Characteristics of Bones

Classification based on Shapes
 Long bones - longer than they are wide
 Short bones - roughly cube shaped; they include the bones of the wrists (the

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 carpals) and ankles (the tarsals).
 Flat bones – have thin, plate-like structures; they include the sternum and
most of the skull bones
 Sesamoid bones - develop within tendons; the patellas are examples.
 Irregular bones – bones that do not fit into any of the previous categories the
vertebrae, the coxal bones, and the hyoid bone are examples.

Wormian (sutural) bones

 Tiny bones that develop within sutures (joints that connect cranial bones).
Bone markings
 Projections, holes, ridges, depressions, and other physical characteristics of
bone surfaces.
 Some serve as attachment sites for muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
 Others are surfaces where bones meet to form joints with other bones, and still
others serve as passageways for blood vessels

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Theory
Gross Anatomy of Long Bones
 Epiphyses
o The enlarged ends of long bones.
o Contain a thin, outer layer of compact bone surrounding a
spongy bone interior often filled with blood cell–producing
red bone marrow.
 Diaphysis
o The shaft of the bone
o Contains a thick collar of compact bone surrounding a central
medullary cavity filled with fat (yellow bone marrow).
 Epiphyseal lines
o Located between the epiphysis and the diaphysis in mature long bones
o Mark the sites where bands of actively dividing hyaline cartilage—
called epiphyseal plates—were once located in growing bones.
o Eventually, the epiphyseal lines are no longer visible due to the
remodeling of bone throughout adulthood.

 Hyaline cartilage also forms the articular cartilage that covers the epiphyses.
 Periosteum
o Fibrous membrane that surrounds the remainder of the bone is
o Composed of two layers:
o (1) An outer fibrous layer that serves as an attachment site for tendons
and ligaments,
o (2) An inner layer that contains specialized cells involved in bone
growth, repair, and remodeling.
o Anchored to the bone surface via perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers.
o Where a rich supply of nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
runs that enter the diaphysis via an opening called the nutrient
foramen.
 Endosteum
o Forms the inner lining of the diaphysis;
o it also covers the trabeculae of spongy bone and lines the central
(Haversian) canals of compact bone.
 Note that bones of other shapes also have articular cartilages and are covered
by periosteum and lined by endosteum.

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Theory
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
 Osteon, or Haversian system
o The functional unit of compact bone.
o Consists of a central canal, which conducts blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels, surrounded by concentric layers of mineralized
extracellular matrix called concentric lamellae.
o In the spaces between the osteons are interstitial lamellae.
 Just inside the periosteum and outside the spongy bone are outer and inner
rings of circumferential lamellae.
 Embedded within the lamellae are cavities called lacunae, which house
osteocytes, mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.
 Cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes project into tiny canals called
canaliculi, which radiate from each lacuna and connect with the central canal.
 Note that osteocytes and their cytoplasmic extensions are found only in living
tissue, not in prepared slides.
 The canaliculi and lacunae provide pathways for oxygen, nutrients, and
wastes to move through the osseous tissue.
 Perforating canals lie perpendicular to the shaft of the bone; they carry blood
vessels into the bone from the periosteum and connect the central canals of
adjacent osteon.

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Theory
The Skull
 Protects the delicate brain, provides attachment sites for head and neck
muscles, and houses the major sensory organs for vision, hearing, balance,
taste, and smell.
 Together with associated bones total 29 bones: 22 skull bones (8 cranial bones
and 14 facial bones), 6 auditory ossicles, and the hyoid bone.
 Vertebral column
o Supports the trunk, protects the spinal cord, and provides attachment
sites for the ribs and for the muscles of the neck and back. In
o Adults have only 26 vertebral bones
 Thoracic cage (or rib cage)
o Forms a protective structure around the organs of the thoracic cavity.
o It consists of the sternum and the paired ribs (a total of 25 bones), the
costal cartilages, and the thoracic vertebrae of the vertebral column.
 Cranial bones (or cranium)
o Formed eight bones and connected by immovable articulations called
sutures.
o Divided into two major areas:
 Cranial vault (or calvarium) - forms the superior, lateral, and
posterior walls of the skull,
 Cranial base (or cranial floor) - forms the bottom of the skull
o Three distinct depressions: the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial
fossae.
o The brain fits securely in these fossae and is completely surrounded by
the cranial vault.

 Facial bones
o Composed of 14 facial bones that form the framework for the face,
anchor the facial muscles, secure the teeth, and house special sense
organs for vision, taste, and smell.
o Joined by sutures (except for the mandible, which is joined to the
cranium by a freely movable joint).

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The Cranial Bones
 Frontal bone
o Forms the anterior portion of the cranium.
o Features include:
 Frontal squama or forehead;
 Supraorbital foramen (notch) - an opening above each orbit that

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 serves as a passageway for blood vessels and nerves;
 Glabella - the smooth area between the eyes.
 Parietal bones
o Form the superior portion and part of the lateral walls of the cranium.
o Sagittal suture
 Connects the two parietal bones;
o Coronal suture
 Connects the parietal bones to the frontal bone;
o Squamous suture
 Connects the temporal bone with the parietal bone;
o Lambdoid suture
 Connects the occipital bone to the parietal bones;
o Occipitomastoid suture connects the temporal bone (near the mastoid
process) to the occipital bone.

 Temporal bones
o Form part of the lateral walls of the cranium inferior to the parietal
bones
o Divided into the squamous, tympanic, mastoid, and petrous regions.
o House a total of six tiny bones called auditory ossicles, which function
in the special sense of hearing.
o Zygomatic process
 One important bone marking of the squamous region
 A bar-like structure that projects anteriorly to articulate with
the zygomatic bone;
 Along with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone, it
forms the zygomatic arch (cheekbone).

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 o Mandibular fossa
 A depression where the mandibular condyle of the mandible
articulates with the temporal bone.
o External acoustic meatus
 Important bone markings of the tympanic region of the
temporal bone
 Conducts sound waves toward the eardrum;
o Styloid process
 A sharp projection that serves as the attachment site for some
muscles of the tongue and pharynx and is also the attachment
site for the ligament that anchors the hyoid bone to the skull.
o Mastoid region
 Contains the mastoid process, a prominent projection that
serves as an attachment site for some neck muscles.
o Petrous region
 Include the jugular foramen, a passageway for three cranial
nerves and for the internal jugular vein, which drains blood
from the brain;
 Carotid canal, a passageway for the internal carotid artery,
which delivers blood to the brain;
 Foramen lacerum, a jagged opening that serves as a
passageway for small arteries supplying blood to the inner
surface of the cranium;
 Internal acoustic meatus, a passageway for two cranial nerves.
 Occipital bone
o Forms the posterior part and most of the base of the cranium.
o Foramen magnum
 A large opening on the inferior surface of the skull where the
brain and spinal cord meet.
o Occipital condyles
 Rounded projections that articulate with the first cervical
vertebra (atlas) to form the atlanto-occipital joint, allows you to
nod “yes.”

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 o Hypoglossal canals
 Openings through which a cranial nerve passes.
o External occipital crest
 A ridge of bone that extends posteriorly from the foramen
magnum and ends at the external occipital protuberance
o External occipital protuberance
 A small, mid-line bump at the end of the external occipital
crest;
 It occurs at the junction between the base and the posterior wall
of the skull.
o Superior and inferior nuchal lines
 Small transverse ridges on either side of the external occipital
protuberance; they are created by neck muscle attachments.

 Sphenoid bone
o A bat-shaped bone located posterior to the frontal bone, articulates
with every other cranial bone; thus it is considered the “keystone” bone
of the cranium.
o Greater wings
 Project laterally from the central body of the sphenoid bone and
form part of the floor of the middle cranial fossa
o Lesser wings
 Horn-shaped projections that form part of the floor of the
anterior cranial fossa.
o Pterygoid processes
 Project inferiorly from the greater wings and serve as
attachment sites for muscles.

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 o Superior orbital fissure
 A long, slit-like opening between the greater and lesser wings,
is a passageway for three cranial nerves.
o Sella turcica
 A saddle-shaped area in the midline of the sphenoid bone
containing the hypophyseal fossa (the seat of the saddle), which
houses the pituitary gland (also called the hypophysis).
o Optic canals
 Openings at the base of the lesser wings that serve as
passageways for the optic nerves.

o six openings—the oval-shaped foramina ovale posterior to the sella

turcica, the round foramina rotundum lateral to the sella turcica, and
the small foramina spinosum lateral to the foramina ovale
 serve as passageways for another cranial nerve and an artery.
Ethmoid bone
 The most deeply situated bone of the skull.
 Crista galli
o A superior projection in the midline of the ethmoid bone, is attached to
the brain by connective tissue wrappings and helps secure the brain
within the cranial cavity.
 Cribriform plates
o Located on either side of the crista galli, bony plates studded with
olfactory foramina that serve as passageways for fibers of the olfactory
cranial nerves.
 Perpendicular plate
o Forms the superior portion of the nasal septum.

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  Superior and middle nasal conchae (or turbinates; not illustrated)
o Thin scrolls of bone that project into the nasal cavity on either side of
the perpendicular plate;
o they create air turbulence that slows air movement, warms and
moistens inhaled air, and removes dust before the air reaches the
delicate tissues of the lower respiratory tract.
The Facial Bones
 Mandible or lower jawbone - articulates with the temporal bones at the
mandibular fossae to form the only freely movable joints of the skull.
 Mandibular body - the horizontal part of the bone that forms the inferior
jawline (chin) and anchors the lower teeth.
 Alveolar process - the superior border of the mandibular body, contains the
tooth sockets.
 Mental foramina - are openings in the mandible that serve as passageways for
nerves and blood vessels supplying the lips and chin.
 Mandibular ramus - an upright “branch” of the mandible that serves as the
attachment site for a muscle that assists in elevating (closing) the jaw.
 Mandibular angle - the area at which the body meets the ramus;
 Mandibular condyle - a rounded projection that articulates with the mandibular
fossa of the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
 Coronoid process - the insertion site for a muscle that closes the mouth.
 Mandibular notch - the indentation between the coronoid process and the
mandibular condyle.
 Maxillae - form the upper jawbone, are considered the “keystone bones” of the
face because they articulate with all other facial bones except the mandible.
o Note that the two maxillae fuse medially so that a maxilla is one bone
of the fused pair.
 Alveolar process - the inferior border of the bones contains the tooth sockets.
 Palatine processes - project medially from the alveolar margin to form the
anterior portion of the hard palate (the bony roof of the mouth).
 Incisive fossa - an opening on the inferior midline of the palatine process,
leads into the incisive canal, which contains blood vessels and nerves.
 Infraorbital foramen - an opening below the orbit,
 Inferior orbital fissure - a slit-like opening in the floor of the orbit, provide
passageways for blood vessels and nerves.
 Lacrimal bones - the smallest bones in the skull, are located in the medial
portion of each orbit.
 Lacrimal fossa - a deep groove that contains a lacrimal sac, which collects
tears and drains the fluid into the nasal cavity.
 Zygomatic arches – formed by the temporal processes of the zygomatic bones
plus the zygomatic processes of the temporal bones which form the lateral
rims of the orbits.
 Paired nasal bones - form the bridge of the nose.
 Vomer bone - forms the inferior portion of the nasal septum.
 Posterior to the palatine processes of the maxillae are the paired palatine
bones, which, with the palatine processes of the maxillae, form the hard
palate (the bony roof of the mouth).

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  Inferior nasal conchae (turbinates) - paired bones that project medially to form
the lower, lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
 Paranasal sinuses - located in the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary
bones, are air-filled, mucus-lined cavities that connect with the nasal cavity.
They lighten the skull, add resonance to the voice, and warm, moisten, and
clean inhaled air.

Hyoid Bone
 Located inferior to the mandible
 Unique because it does not articulate with any other bone but instead is
suspended from the styloid processes of the temporal bone by ligaments and
muscles.
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue.
 Body
o the horizontal part of the bone which is an attachment site for neck
muscles that raise and lower the larynx during swallowing and speech.
 Paired greater and lesser horns - attachment sites for other muscles and
ligaments.

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Theory
The Vertebral Column or Spine
 A flexible chain of 26 bones called vertebrae (singular = vertebra).
 Fibrocartilage pads
o Called intervertebral discs, cushion adjacent vertebrae (except the first
two vertebrae, the atlas and the axis).
 Provides support for the head, neck, and trunk, and protection for the spinal
cord.

 Grouped based on their location and structural features into five regions: the
cervical vertebrae (7), the thoracic vertebrae (12), the lumbar vertebrae (5),
plus the sacrum (1) and the coccyx (1)
 When viewed from the side, the adult vertebral column exhibits four normal
curves.
 The cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly, whereas the
thoracic and sacral curvatures are convex posteriorly. These curves increase
the strength, resilience, and flexibility of the vertebral column.
General Structure of Vertebrae
 A typical vertebra has a rounded body (or centrum) that forms the vertebra’s
anterior portion and bears the weight of superior structures.
 A vertebra’s posterior portion is the vertebral arch, a composite structure
composed of two pedicles, which connect the arch to the body, and two
laminae, which form the rest of the arch.
 The inferior sides of the pedicles curve superiorly to create an inferior

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 vertebral notch, and the superior sides of the pedicles curve inferiorly to
create a superior vertebral notch.
 Each vertebral arch also has the following seven features:
o A spinous process - a medial posterior projection that arises from the
junction of the two laminae;
o Two transverse processes - project laterally from either side of the
vertebral arch;
o Two superior articular processes - project superiorly from the pedicle-
lamina junction and articulate with the inferior articular processes of
the vertebra immediately superior to it at facets;
o Two inferior articular processes - project inferiorly from the pedicle-
lamina junction and articulate with the superior articular processes of
the vertebra immediately inferior to it at facets.
 Each vertebra also has a vertebral foramen, an opening that lies between the
body and the vertebral arch; adjacent vertebral foramina form the vertebral
canal, which houses the spinal cord.

Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae

Cervical Thoracic Lumbar
Body Small, oval-shaped Medium-sized, heart- Large, kidney-shaped
shaped; have facets for
ribs
Vertebral Triangular Round Triangular
foramen
Spinous Short, forked; projects Long, sharp, projects Short, blunt, hatchet-
process directly posteriorly sharply inferiorly shaped; project directly
posteriorly
Transverse Contain Foramina Have facets for ribs Thin and tapered
processes (except T11 and T12)

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Characteristics of the Sacrum
 An irregular, wedge-shaped bone composed of five fused vertebrae that
articulates with the fifth lumbar vertebra at the flattened base and superior
articular processes, and with the coccyx at the apex.
 The auricular surfaces - articulate with the ilium of each coxal bone to form
the posterior wall of the bony pelvis.
 Bone markings
o Sacral foramina - where sacral nerves pass.
o Median sacral crest - formed by the spinous processes of the five fused
vertebrae, provides attachment sites for muscles of the lower back hip.
o Lateral sacral crest - formed by the transverse processes of the five
fused vertebrae, provides attachment sites for muscles of the lower
back and hip.
 A prominent bulge on the anterosuperior margin—the sacral promontory—is
an important anatomical landmark in females during pelvic exams and during
labor and delivery. On either side of the sacral promontory are alae.
 Transverse lines mark the sites of vertebral fusion.
Characteristics of the Coccyx
 Composed of three to five fused vertebrae with hornlike projections, each
called a coccygeal cornu.
 Offers slight support to the pelvic organs and serves as a point of attachment
for the muscles of the pelvic floor.

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The Thoracic Cage
 Consists of the sternum, ribs, costal cartilages, and thoracic vertebrae.
 It serves three major functions:
o (1) forms a protective cage around the organs of the thoracic cavity,
o (2) provides support for the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the upper
appendages,
o (3) provides attachment sites for skeletal muscles of the neck, back,
chest, and shoulders.

Sternum
 A “dagger-shaped” bone located in the anterior midline of the thorax, is a
composite bone resulting from the fusion of three bones: the superior
manubrium, the middle body, and the inferior xiphoid process.
 Features:

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 o Suprasternal notch (or jugular notch) - which is located medially at the
level of the intervertebral disc between T2 and T3;
o Clavicular notch - where the clavicle forms a joint with the
manubrium;
o Sternal angle - a landmark for finding rib 2 when using a stethoscope
to listen to heart sounds;
o Xiphisternal joint - behind which the heart sits on the diaphragm.
The Ribs
 General features
o Wedgeshaped vertebral (medial)
 End of a rib bone is the head; the bulk of each rib is the shaft.
 The superior border of the shaft is smooth, whereas its inferior
border is sharp and thin and contains a costal groove, which
houses intercostal nerves and blood vessels.
 The constricted area between the head and the shaft is the neck.
o Two articular facets:
 One that articulates with a vertebral body
 One that articulates with the vertebral transverse process.
o Tubercle
 The portion of a rib that is immediately lateral to the neck,
contains a facet that articulates with a transverse process of a
thoracic vertebra.
o Angle
 a bend where the shaft begins to curve toward the sternum.

 Category according to location and type of attachment points.

o Rib pairs 1–7 or true ribs, or vertebrosternal ribs
 They attach to the sternum by their own cartilage.
o Rib pairs 8–12 or false ribs
 They either attach indirectly to the sternum (by way of cartilage

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 immediately above each rib) or entirely lack a sternal
attachment.
 Rib pairs 8 through 10 are also called vertebrochondral ribs and
rib pairs 11 and 12 are also called floating (or vertebral) ribs.

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EXPERIMENT 4
SKELETAL SYSTEM (PART 2)
The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones that enable us to move and
manipulate our surroundings. The two pectoral girdles (each consisting of a clavicle
and a scapula) with the attached upper limbs, plus the pelvic girdle with the attached
lower limbs are the major bones that belonged to this group of bones.
Articulations, or joints, are points of contact between two bones, bone and
cartilage, or bone and teeth. Joints perform a wide variety of functions: They bind bones
together, allow movement of the skeleton in response to skeletal muscle contraction,
participate in the linear growth of bones, and permit parts of the skeleton to change
shape during childbirth.

In this experiment you will be studying and examining the second major part of
skeletal system which is the appendicular skeleton. We will also learn about joints,
which is one of the most important structure found in bones that plays many important
roles in the skeletal system.

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Theory
The Pectoral Girdle and Upper Appendages
 The paired pectoral girdles, each consisting of an anterior clavicle and a
posterior scapula, attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and provide
attachment sites for many muscles of the trunk and neck.
Clavicle
 Commonly called the collarbone, is an S-shaped flat bone and the only bony
connection between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton.
 It anchors the arm to the body (such as when you hang from a tree branch).

 The major features of the clavicle include the:

o Sternal (medial) end, which articulates with the manubrium of the
sternum
o Acromial (lateral) end, the broader, flattened, roughened end that
articulates with the acromion of the scapula
 The conoid tubercle, a point on the inferior surface of the lateral end of the
clavicle, attaches the clavicle to the coracoid process of the scapula.
Scapula
 Commonly called the shoulder blade, is a large, triangular flat bone with
superior, medial, and lateral borders.
 The corners where the borders meet are the superior, lateral, and inferior
angles.
 Suprascapular notch on the superior border
o Serves as a passageway for nerves.
 Acromion
o A flattened, expanded process that projects from the lateral end of the
spine and articulates with the clavicle
o Easily felt as the high point of the shoulder.

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  Glenoid cavity
o A shallow depression inferior to the acromion, receives the head of the
humerus to form the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.
 Coracoid process
o Extends anteriorly from the scapula and is an attachment site for
several tendons and ligaments.
 Spine
o A prominent ridge that divides the posterior surface of the scapula into
the supraspinous fossa and the infraspinous fossa
o They and the subscapular fossa on the anterior surface are sites of
muscle attachment.

Humerus
 The bone of the arm.
 Head
o Articulates with the shallow glenoid cavity to form the glenohumeral
(shoulder) joint.
 Anatomical neck
o Separates the diaphysis of the bone from the head.
 Surgical neck
o More distal, a common site of fractures that require surgical repair.
 Greater tubercle (large proximal process), Lesser tubercle (smaller process),
Deltoid tuberosity (roughened projection on the lateral surface of the
diaphysis)
o Attachment sites for shoulder muscles.
 Radial groove,
o A depression that runs along the posterior margin of the deltoid

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 tuberosity, marks the course of a nerve that extends to the forearm.
 Trochlea
o The medial condyle on the distal end of the humerus, articulates with
the ulna.
 Capitulum
o The lateral condyle on the distal end of the humerus, articulates with
the radius.
 Coronoid fossa
o A depression on the anterodistal surface of the humerus, receives the
coronoid process of the ulna
 Olecranon fossa
o A depression on the posterodistal surface of the humerus, receives the
olecranon process of the ulna.
 Lateral epicondyle (small process proximal to the lateral condyle) and Medial
epicondyle (small process proximal to the medial condyle)
o Attachment sites for forearm muscles.

Radius
 Located on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of the forearm.
 Radial head
o Proximal, disc-shaped that articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus.
 Radial neck

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 o A constricted region distal to the head.
 Radial tuberosity
o A projection just distal to the neck, is an attachment site for the biceps
brachii, the major anterior arm muscle.
 Ulnar notch
o Located at the distal end of the radius, receives the head of the ulna.
 Styloid process
o Forms the lateral boundary of the wrist.

Ulna
 The medial bone of the forearm, is longer than the radius and connects to the
radius through an interosseous membrane.
 Olecranon
o A process on the posterior surface of the proximal end, articulates with
the humerus at the olecranon fossa.
 Coronoid process
o Located on the anterior surface of the proximal end extends into the
coronoid fossa of the humerus during flexion.
 Trochlear notch
o A large, curved area between the olecranon and coronoid process,
articulates with the humerus at the trochlea.
 Radial notch
o Located at the proximal end of the ulna receives the head of the radius.
 Ulnar head
o The distal end of the ulna, articulates with the lunate of the carpals.
 Styloid process
o A short projection of the ulnar head that creates the medial boundary of

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 the wrist.
Bones of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers
 Consist of three sets of bones: the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
 Wrist (carpus)
o Consists of eight short carpal bones arranged into two transverse rows
of four bones each.
o Proximal row (lateral to medial)
 Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform
o Distal row (lateral to medial)
 Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
 Hand (manus)
o Consists of five metacarpal bones numbered I to V starting with the
pollex (or thumb).
o Metacarpal
 Base - proximal epiphysis
 Body – diaphysis
 Head or knuckle - distal epiphysis
 Fingers
o Consists of 14 phalanges (singular = phalanx), or bones of the digits.
o The digits are numbered I to V starting with the thumb, which consists
of a proximal and a distal phalanx.
o The other four digits (fingers) each contain a proximal, a middle, and a
distal phalanx.

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The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Appendages
Pelvic Girdle
 Consists of two large, irregular pelvic (hip) bones (also called coxal bones).
 Articulates with the sacrum of the vertebral column and attaches the lower
limbs to the axial skeleton.
 Forms the bony pelvis together with the sacrum and coccyx of the axial
skeleton.
o Distinguishes female from male because the female pelvis is
structurally adapted for childbearing, it is lighter, wider, shallower, and
rounder than the male pelvis.
Pelvic Bone
 Consist of three separate bones—the ilium, ischium, and pubis (pubic bone)—
that fuse together at the acetabulum during childhood to form one composite
bone.
 Acetabulum
o A deep socket at the point of fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis,
receives the head of the femur to form the hip joint.
 Obturator foramen
o The largest foramen in the skeleton, is formed by the fusion of the
ischium and pubis; blood vessels and nerves travel through it.
 Pubic symphysis
o The joint where the two pubic bones meet.
Ilium
 The largest and most superior bone of the pelvic bone.
 Iliac crest
o The long, superior ridge of the ilium you feel when you place your
hands on your hips.
o Ends anteriorly as the anterior superior iliac spine and posteriorly as
the posterior superior iliac spine.
 Anterior inferior iliac spine and the posterior inferior iliac spine
o Located inferior of iliac crest inferior iliac
o These spines are attachment sites for tendons of the muscles of the
trunk, hip, and thighs.
 Greater sciatic notch
o An indention between the ilium and ischium through which the sciatic
nerve travels.
 Iliac fossa
o A depression on the medial surface of the ilium marked by the
posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines which are sites of muscle
attachment.
 Auricular surface
o A roughened surface where the ilium articulates with the sacrum to
form the sacroiliac joint.

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Ischium
 The posterior, inferior portion of the pelvic bone made of an ischial body and
an ischial ramus and is the part of the hip bone on which you sit.
 Ischial tuberosity
o A roughened projection that is an attachment site for three of the four
hamstring muscles.
 Ischial spine
o A sharp projection, is an important anatomical landmark for clinicians
such as physical therapists.
Pubis
 The anterior, inferior portion of the pelvic bone.
 Superior pubic ramus
o The superior branch of the pubis extending from the pubic body and
important muscle attachment sites.
 Inferior pubic ramus
o The inferior branch of the pubis extending from the pubic body and
important muscle attachment sites.
 Pubic symphysis
o The joint between the pubis of each pelvic bone.
 Pubic arch
o Inferior of pubic symphysis where the inferior ramus of each pubic
bone unites.

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Femur
 Also known as thigh bone, is the heaviest, longest, and strongest bone in the
body.
 Each femur articulates proximally with a pelvic bone to form a hip joint, and
distally with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.
 Head
o A ball-shaped projection at the proximal end of the femur that contains
a small, central depression called the fovea capitis, where a ligament
extending from the acetabulum attaches to secure the femur in the hip
joint.
 Neck
o A constricted region of the bone distolateral to the head, is the weakest
part of the femur; its fracture results in a “broken hip.”
 Two projections—the greater trochanter and the lesser trochanter
o Attachment sites for hip muscles.
 Gluteal tuberosity
o A roughened projection on the posteroproximal surface that blends into
a roughened line called the linea aspera; both structures serve as
attachment sites for hip muscles.
 Lateral condyle and the medial condyle
o Large rounded projections on the distal femur—articulate with the
lateral condyle of the tibia and the medial condyle of the tibia,
respectively.
 Lateral and medial epicondyles
o Projections located just superior to the condyles, serve as attachment
sites for knee and hip muscles.

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  The patellar surface
o The area between the condyles on the anterior surface, articulates with
the patella.
Patella
 Also known as kneecap, is a small, triangular, sesamoid bone
 Base
o The broad proximal end.
 Apex
o The pointed distal end.
 The posterior surface contains two articular facets, one for the medial condyle
of the femur and one for the lateral condyle of the femur.
 Patellar ligament
o Attaches the patella to the tibia.
Tibia and Fibula
 Components of the legs connected by an interosseous membrane.

Tibia, or shin bone

 Second only to the femur in size and strength.
 Articulates proximally with the fibula and the femur, and distally with the
fibula and the talus bone of the ankle.

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  Lateral and medial condyles
o Concave projections on the proximal end of the tibia that articulate
with the corresponding condyles on the femur to form the knee joint.
 Intercondylar eminence
o An irregular projection created by the ligaments of the knee joint,
separates the lateral and medial condyles.
 Tibial tuberosity
o A projection on the anterior proximal surface of the tibia, is an
attachment site for the patellar ligament.
 Anterior crest (or anterior border)
o A sharp ridge inferior to and continuous with the tibial tuberosity.
 Medial malleolus
o An expansion of the distal end of the tibia, articulates with the talus
bone of the ankle and forms the prominence that can be felt on the
medial surface of the ankle.
Fibula
 A thin, stick-like bone that lies parallel and lateral to the tibia, articulates both
proximally and distally with the tibia and is part of the knee joint.
 The proximal end is the head; the distal end, the lateral malleolus, can be felt
as the lateral prominence of the ankle.

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Bone of the Ankle, Foot, and Toes
 Consist of three sets of bones: the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges
 Ankle (tarsus)
o Consists of seven short tarsal bones: the talus, the calcaneus, the
navicular, the cuboid, and three cuneiform bones called the medial,
intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms.
o Talus
 The only ankle bone that articulates with the tibia and the
fibula.
o Calcaneus, or heel bone
 The attachment site for the Achilles (calcaneal) tendon.
 Foot (metatarsus)
o consists of five metatarsal bones numbered I to V starting with the
hallux (great toe).
 Toes
o Consist of 14 phalanges, or bones of the digits.
o Like the metatarsals, the digits are numbered I to V starting with the
great toe, which consists of a proximal and a distal phalanx; the other
four digits each contain a proximal, a middle, and a distal phalanx.

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Theory
Classification of Joints
 Joints can be classified according to structure or function.
 Structurally, joints are classified based either on the type of connective tissue
that binds the bones or on the presence of a fluid-filled space (synovial cavity)
between the bones.
 Three structural types of joints:
o Fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, and synovial joints.
 Three functional types according to the amount of movement they allow:
o Synarthroses, which are immoveable joints; amphiarthroses, which are
slightly moveable joints; and diarthroses, which are freely moveable.
Fibrous Joints
 There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by dense regular
collagenous connective tissue.
 Three types of fibrous joints:
o Suture
 Irregular, interlocking edges of bone are joined by a thin layer
of dense regular collagenous connective tissue.
 Immoveable (a synarthrosis), is found only in the skull.

o Gomphosis (or dentoalveolar joint)

 A cone-shaped tooth is held in a bony socket (alveolus) of the
mandible or the maxillae by a fibrous periodontal ligament.
 These are synarthroses.
o Syndesmosis
 Bones are held together by either a band (interosseous
ligament) or a sheet (interosseous membrane) of dense regular
collagenous connective tissue; an example is the interosseous
membrane between the radius and ulna in the forearm
 Classified functionally as either synarthroses or amphiarthroses
depending on the length of the connecting fibers.

Cartilaginous Joints
 Lack a synovial cavity and allow little or no movement, the bones are held

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 together by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.
 Two types:
o Synchondroses
 Bones are held together by a band of hyaline cartilage;
examples include the epiphyseal plate of a growing long bone,
the joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the
sternum (the first sternocostal joint), and the joints between ribs
and costal cartilages (costochondral joints). They are
synarthroses.
o Symphysis
 Bones are held together by a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage.
Examples are found in the midline of the body, include the
intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis.
 Symphyses are amphiarthroses.

Synovial Joints
 Have a fluid-filled synovial cavity between the articulating bones.
 Most of the body’s joints are synovial joints, and all synovial joints are
diarthroses.
 Articular cartilage
o A thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating surfaces of
the bones, reducing friction between them and absorbing shock.
 Synovial cavity
o Loacted between the articulating bones, a small space filled with
synovial fluid.

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 Synovial fluid
o A thick, colorless liquid that lubricates the joint surfaces and absorbs
shock.
o It supplies oxygen and nutrients to and removes carbon dioxide and
metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes of the articular cartilage.
 Articular or Joint capsule
o Surrounds each synovial joint consisting of two layers.
o Outer layer
 Composed of dense irregular connective tissue with abundant
collagen fibers and is continuous with the periosteum of the
articulating bones;
o Inner layer—the synovial membrane
 Composed of areolar connective tissue with abundant elastic
fibers.
o Ligaments
 Includes extrinsic ligaments, which lie outside the joint capsule,
and intrinsic ligaments, which are located within the joint
capsule.
o Menisci (singular = meniscus; also called articular discs)
 Acessory structures present within certain synovial joints which
are fibrocartilage pads that act as shock absorbers and provide a
better “fit” between articulating surfaces;
o Bursae (singular = bursa)
 Acessory structures which are flattened sacs filled with
synovial fluid that provide extra cushioning and reduce friction
between structures that rub against each other during
movement;
o Fat pads
 Acessory structures which are shock-absorbing adipose-filled
structures that fill the space between the articular capsule and
the synovial membrane;
o Tendons
 Acessory structures which usually connect muscle to bone and
stabilize joints.

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Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape of Articular Surfaces
 The direction and range of motion allowed by specific joints vary.
 One way to describe the type of motion allowed by a synovial joint is in terms
of the movement of bones with respect to one or more invisible axes.
 Nonaxial joints
o Allow slipping or gliding movements only.
o There is no axis around which movement can occur.
 Uniaxial joints
o Allow movements around only one axis
 Biaxial joints
o Allow movement around two axes
 Multiaxial joints
o Allow movements around all three axes.
 The structure of a synovial joint’s articular surface helps determine the type of
movement permitted at that joint.
 Six types of synovial joints based on shape of articular surface.
o Plane (gliding) joints
 Consist of flat (or nearly flat) articular surfaces that slide over
one another, allowing nonaxial movement;
 Examples include the intercarpal joints, the intertarsal joints,
and the sacroiliac joints.
o Hinge joints
 One concave articular surface and one convex articular surface
articulate to allow movement around one axis (uniaxial).
 Examples include the elbow, the knee, the interphalangeal
joints, and the temporomandibular joint.
o Pivot joints
 The rounded or conical articular surface of one bone articulates
with a shallow depression on another bone, allowing uniaxial
rotation;
 Examples include the atlantoaxial joint and the proximal

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 radioulnar joint.
o Condylar (ellipsoid) joints
 Which an oval-shaped condyle articulates with an elliptical
cavity, allow biaxial movement;
 Examples include the metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles)
and the atlanto-occipital joint.
o Saddle joints
 Two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces articulate with each
other, allow biaxial movement;
 Example is the carpometacarpal joint between the metacarpal
of the thumb and the trapezium of the wrist.
o Ball-and-socket joints
 The ball-shaped head of one bone articulates with a cuplike
depression in another bone, allowing multiaxial movement;
 Examples in the human body are the shoulder (glenohumeral)
joints and the hip (acetabulofemoral) joints.

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