The Skeletal System

Functions of the Bones

 Support the body
 Protect soft organs
o Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord
o Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs
 Attached skeletal muscles allow movement
 Store minerals and fats
o Calcium and phosphorus
o Fat in the internal marrow cavity
 Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

Classification of Bones
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of osseous (bone) tissue
1. Compact bone
 Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
 Small needlelike pieces of bone
Many open spaces
 Bones are classified on the basis of shape into four groups
o Long
o Flat
o Short
o Irregular
 Long bones
o Typically longer than they are wide
o Shaft with enlarged ends
o Contain mostly compact bone; spongy bone at ends
o All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones) are
long bones
o Examples:
 Femur
 Humerus

 Flat bones
o Thin, flattened, and usually curved
o Two thin layers of compact bone sandwich a layer of spongy bone between them
o Examples:
 Most bones of the skull
 Ribs
 Sternum

 Short bones
o Generally cube-shaped
o Contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone
o Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form within tendons (patella)
o Examples:
 Carpals (wrist bones)
 Tarsals (ankle bones)

 Irregular bones
o Irregular shape
o Do not fit into other bone classification categories
o Examples:
 Vertebrae

 Hip bones

Structure of Bone
 Long bone anatomy
o Diaphysis (shaft)
 Makes up most of bone’s length
 Composed of compact bone
o Periosteum
 Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to underlying bone
o Epiphysis (ends)
 Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of compact bone
o Articular cartilage
 Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline cartilage
 Decreases friction at joint surfaces

o Epiphyseal line
 Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
 Seen in adult bones
o Epiphyseal plate
 Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone
 Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone
 Bone markings
o Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
o Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
o Projections or processes—grow out from the bone surface
 Terms often begin with “T”
o Depressions or cavities—indentations
 Terms often begin with “F”

 Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone

o Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone called trabeculae and open
spaces
o Open spaces are filled by marrow, blood vessels, and nerves
 Microscopic anatomy of compact bone
o Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix
o Lacunae
 Cavities in bone matrix that house osteocytes
o Lamellae
 Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the central (Haversian) canal
o Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon (Haversian system)
 Runs lengthwise through bone
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
o Osteon (Haversian system)
 A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
 Structural and functional unit of compact bone
o Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply
o Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
Structure of Bone
 Bone is relatively lightweight and resists tension and other forces
 Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone make bone flexible and have great tensile strength
 Calcium salts deposited in the bone make bone hard to resist compression

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Bone formation and growth
o Ossification is the process of bone formation
o Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous membranes
o Long bone growth involves two major phases

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Two major phases of ossification in long bones
1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover hyaline cartilage model with bone matrix
2. In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 By birth, most cartilage is converted to bone except for two regions in a long bone
1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates
 New cartilage is formed continuously on external face of these two cartilages
 Old cartilage is broken down and replaced by bony matrix

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Appositional growth
o Bones grow in width
o Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis
o Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the inner surface of the diaphysis
 Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such as growth hormone and sex hormones

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Bones are remodeled throughout life in response to two factors
1. Calcium ion level in the blood determines when bone matrix is to be broken down or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton determines where bone matrix is to be broken
down or formed

Bone Formation, Growth, and Remodeling

 Calcium ion regulation
o Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low
 Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells)
 Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium ions into the blood
o Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts calcium storage to bones by
osteoblasts
Bone Fractures
 Fracture: break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
o Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not penetrate the skin
o Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that penetrates through the skin
Bone Fractures
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
o Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into position by physician’s hands
o Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires during surgery
 Healing time is 6–8 weeks

Bone Fractures
 Repair of bone fractures involves four major events
o Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is formed
o Fibrocartilage callus forms
 Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the broken bone
o Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus
 Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
o Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical stresses
Axial Skeleton
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
 Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax

Skull
 Two sets of bones form the skull
1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones
 Hold eyes in anterior position
 Allow facial muscles to express feelings
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Skull
 8 cranial bones protect the brain
1 Frontal bone
 2 Occipital bone
3 Ethmoid bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair)
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)

Skull
 14 facial bones
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)
3, 4 Palatine bones (pair)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair)
14 Mandible

Skull
 Paranasal sinuses
o Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
o Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Amplify sounds made as we speak

Skull
 Hyoid bone
o Closely related to mandible and temporal bones
o The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
o Serves as a movable base for the tongue
o Aids in swallowing and speech

Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Vertebral column provides axial support
o Extends from skull to the pelvis
 26 vertebral bones are separated by intervertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
o Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae)
o Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 vertebrae)

Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Primary curvatures
o Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
o Present from birth
o Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns
 Secondary curvatures
o Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
o Develop after birth
 o Form an S-shaped curvature in adults

Vertebral Column (Spine)

 Parts of a typical vertebra
o Body (centrum)
o Vertebral arch
 Pedicle
 Lamina
o Vertebral foramen
o Transverse processes
o Spinous process
o Superior and inferior articular processes

Thoracic Cage
 Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of the thoracic cavity
 Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
 True ribs (pairs 1–7)
 False ribs (pairs 8–12)
 Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae

Appendicular Skeleton
 Composed of 126 bones
o Limbs (appendages)
o Pectoral girdle
o Pelvic girdle

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

 Also called pectoral girdle
 Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb to the axial skeletal
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula
 Light, poorly reinforced girdle
 Allows the upper limb a exceptional flexibility

Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Humerus
o Forms the arm
o Single bone
o Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
o Distal end articulation
 Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the forearm

Bones of the Upper Limbs

 The forearm has two bones
 1. Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the humerus
2. Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position
 Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus

Bones of the Upper Limbs

 Hand
o Carpals—wrist bones
 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand
o Metacarpals—palm bones
 5 per hand
o Phalanges—fingers and thumb
 14 phalanges in each hand
 In each finger, there are 3 bones
 In the thumb, there are only 2 bones

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
 Composed of three pairs of fused bones
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
 Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum
 Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
 Pelvis protects several organs
o Reproductive organs
o Urinary bladder
o Part of the large intestine

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

 The female’s pelvis
o Inlet is larger and more circular
o Shallower, on the whole, and the bones are lighter and thinner
o Ilia flare more laterally
o Sacrum is shorter and less curved
o Ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus, the outlet is larger
o Pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater

Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Femur—thigh bone
o The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
o Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone
o Distal end articulation
 Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in the lower leg

Bones of the Lower Limbs

 The lower leg has two bones
1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented
 Proximal end articulation
 Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to form the knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the ankle
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
 Has no role in forming the knee joint
 Distal end articulation
 Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle

Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Foot
o Tarsals—7 bones
 Two largest tarsals are the:
 Calcaneus (heel bone)
 Talus
o Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of the foot
o Phalanges—14 bones form the toes

Bones of the Lower Limbs

 Arches of the feet
o Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
o Two longitudinal
o One transverse
Joints
 Joints are articulations
o Occur where two or more bones meet
 Functions of joints
o Hold bones together securely
o Allow for mobility
 Two ways joints are classified
o Functionally
o Structurally

Joints
 Functional joint classifications
o Synarthroses
 Immovable joints
o Amphiarthroses
 Slightly movable joints
o Diarthroses
 Freely movable joints

Joints
 Structural joint classifications
o Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
o Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly movable
 o Synovial joints
 Freely movable

Joints
 Fibrous joints
o Bones are united by fibrous tissue
o Types
 Sutures
 Immobile
 Syndesmoses
 Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile
 Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula
 Gomphoses
 Immobile
 Found where the teeth meet the facial bones

Joints
 Cartilaginous joints
o Bones are connected by fibrocartilage
o Types
 Synchrondrosis
 Immobile
 Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
 Symphysis
 Slightly movable
 Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
Joints
 Synovial joints
o Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
o Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
o Four distinguishing features of synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments

Joints
 Synovial joints (continued)
o Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
o Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Joints
 Types of synovial joints based on shape
o Plane joint
o Hinge joint
o Pivot joint
o Condylar joint
o Saddle joint
o Ball-and-socket joint

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Birth to adulthood
o First “long bones” of a fetus are hyaline cartilage
o Earliest “flat bones” of the fetal skull are fibrous membranes
o As fetus grows, all bone models are converted to bone

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Fetal skull
o Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
 Known as “soft spots”
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and infancy
 Usually ossify by 2 years of age

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Growth of cranium after birth is related to brain growth
o Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows tooth development and enlargement of the
respiratory passageways

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Size of cranium in relationship to body
o 2 years old—skull is three-fourths the size of adult skull
o 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult in size and proportion
o Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Skeletal changes
o At birth, the head and trunk are proportionately much longer than the lower limbs
o During puberty:
 Female pelvis broadens
 Entire male skeleton becomes more robust
o By the end of adolescence:
 Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified

Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton

 Older adults
o Osteoporosis
 Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
 50 percent of women over age 65
 20 percent of men over age 70
 Disease makes bones fragile, and bones can easily fracture
 Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as “dowager’s hump”)
 Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton