Skeletal System

4 Components of Skeletal System

1. Bones
2. Cartilage
3. Tendons
4. Ligaments
Functions of the Skeletal
System
1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
Cartilage
3 Types of Cartilage:
1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic cartilage
Introduction

 Skeleton: supporting structure

 Bones and associated cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments
 Works with muscles for movement
 Mineral salts form the inorganic matrix of bone
 Leonardo da Vinci: constructed first correct
illustrations of all bones
The Functions of the Skeletal System

Supports surrounding tissues

Protects vital organs and soft tissues
Provides levers for muscles to pull on
Manufactures blood cells
Stores mineral salts
The Functions of the Skeletal System
(cont’d.)
 Cartilage
 Connective tissue
 Environment in which bone develops in fetus
 Found at ends of bones and in joints
 Ligaments
 Attach bones to bones
 Tendons
 Attach muscles to bones
The Growth and
Formation
of Bone
Introduction

 A three-month fetal skeleton is completely

formed (cartilage)
 Ossification and growth begin
 Longitudinal growth continues until:
 15 years of age for girls
 16 years of age for boys
 Bone maturation until 21 years of age
Deposition of Bone

 Osteoblasts: embryonic bone cells

 Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts
 Strain
on bone (exercise) increases bone
strength
 Osteoclasts: bone reabsorption and
remodeling
Types of Ossification

 Intramembranous
 Dense connective membranes replaced by
calcium salts
 Cranial bones
 Endochondral
 Bone develops inside cartilage environment
 All other bones of the body
Maintaining Bone

 Endocrine system control

 Calcium storage
 Blood calcium levels
 Excretion of excess calcium
 Parathyroid hormone: calcium release
 Calcitonin: calcium storage
Histology of Bone
Introduction

 Two types of bone: compact and cancellous

(spongy)
 Osteocytesare same but the arrangement of
blood supply is different
 Cancellous has bone marrow
The Haversian System of Compact Bone

CloptonHavers: histology of compact

bone
Haversian canals: run parallel to surface
Surrounded by concentric rings of bone
Lacunae: cavity containing osteocyte
Lacunae connected by canaliculi
Cancellous Bone

Trabeculae:meshwork of bone
Spongy appearance created by
trabeculae
Bone marrow fills spaces between
trabeculae
Bone Marrow

Red marrow
Hematopoiesis
Ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis
Yellow marrow
Fat storage
Shafts of long bones
Bone Histology
Consist of:
Extracellular bone matrix
Bone cells
Bone Matrix
By weight, mature bone matrix
normally is approximately:
35% organic (collagen and proteoglycans)
65% inorganic materials (calcium
phosphate crystals called
hydroxyapatite) Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Collagen and Mineral
Collagen
Flexible strength to the matrix

Mineral
Compression (weight-bearing strength)
Compact and Cancellous Bone

1. Cancellous = less bone matrix, more space

2. Compact = more bone matrix, less space

Cancellous Bone
Consistsof thin rods or plates of
interconnecting bone called
trabeculae.

Trabeculae = bears weight, resist

bending and stretching
Compact Bone
Isdense with few spaces
Consists of organized lamellae:
Circumferential (outer surface)
Concentric (surround central canal,
forming osteons)
Interstitial (remnants of lamellae)
Osteon
A.k.a Haversian System
Consists of:
Single central canal
Its contents
Associated concentric lamellae
Osteocyte
Bone Classification According to
Shape
1. Long (most bones of UE and LE)
2. Short (carpals, tarsals)
3. Flat (skull, ribs, sternum, scapula)
4. Irregular (vertebrae, facial bones)
5. Seasamoid (patella)
Long Bones

Length exceeds width

Consist of
Diaphysis: shaft
Metaphysis: flared portion
Epiphysis: extremity
Long Bones (cont’d.)

Structure of
a long bone
Short Bones

Not merely shorter versions of long

bones
Lack a long axis
Somewhat irregular shape
Flat Bones

 Thin
bones found wherever need for
extensive muscle attachment
 Usually curved
Irregular Bones

Very irregular shape

Example: vertebrae
Spongybone enclosed by thin layers of
compact bone
Sesamoid Bones

Small rounded bones

Enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue
Located adjacent to joints
Processes: projections
Fossae: depressions
Functions: muscle attachment,
articulation, passageways
Processes

Processes: projections from the

surface
Spine,condyle, tubercle, trochlea,
trochanter, crest, line, head, neck
Fossae

 Fossae: depressions
 Suture, foramen, meatus, sinus, sulcus
General Considerations of Bones

206 bones = average adult skeleton

Bones can be categorized as:

Paired bone = two bones of the same type located
on the right and left sides of the body. (86)
Unpaired bone = is a bone located on the midline
of the body. (34)
General Anatomical
Terms for Various
Features of Bones
Term Description
Body Main part
Head Enlarged (often rounded) end
Neck Constriction between head and body
Margin or border Edge
Angle Bend
Ramus Branch off the body (beyond the angle)
Condyle Smooth, rounded articular surface
Facet Small, flattened articular surface
General Anatomical
Terms for Various
Features of Bones
(Ridges)
Term Description
Line or line Low ridge
Crest or crista Prominent ridge
Spine Very high ridge
General Anatomical
Terms for Various
Features of Bones
(Projections)
Term
Process
Description
Prominent projection
Tubercle Small, rounded bump
Tuberosity or tuber Knob, larger than a tubercle
Trochanter Tuberosity on the proximal femur
Epicondyle Upon a condyle
General Anatomical
Terms for Various
Features of Bones
(Openings) Description
Term
Foramen Hole
Canal or meatus Tunnel
Fissure Cleft
Sinus or labyrinth Cavity
General Anatomical
Terms for Various
Features of Bones
(Depressions)Description
Term
Fossa General term form depression
Notch Depression in the margin of a
bone
Groove or sulcus Deeper, narrow depressions
Axial Skeleton
Forms the upright axis of the body.
Divided into:
Skull
Auditory ossicles
Hyoid bone
Vertebral column
Thoracic cage/Rib cage
Skull
Bones of the head for the skull, or
cranium.

22 bones divided into two groups:

Braincase = 8 bones
Facial bones = 14 bones
Braincase (8 bones) (PT FOSE)

Paired:
Parietal
(2)
Temporal (2)

Unpaired:
Frontal (1)
Occipital (1)
Sphenoid (1)
Ethmoid (1)
Facial Bones (14 bones)
Paired:
Maxilla (2)
Zygomatic (2)
Palatine (2)
Lacrimal (2)
Nasal (2)
Inferior concha (2)

Unpaired:
Mandible (1)
Vomer (1)
Facial Bones
Supportthe organs of vision, smell, and taste.
Attachment points for muscles involved in:
Mastication (TIME)
Facial expression
Eye movement
Jaw (mandible and maxillae) = holds the teeth.
Temporal bones = hold ossicles.
Skull
The bones of the skull, except for
the mandible, are not easily
separated from each other.
Single unit, except for the mandible.

Calvaria = top of the skull.

Posterior View of the Skull

Occipital bone
Lambdoid suture
Sutural, or wormian bones
External occipital protuberance
Ligamentum nuchae
Nuchal lines
Processes and Other Features of
the Skull
Lateral View of the Skull

Parietal
Temporal
Squamous suture
External auditory/acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Mastoid air cells
Lateral View of the Skull
Superiorand inferior temporal lines
Greater wing of the sphenoid
Zygomatic arch
Processes of the:
 temporal
zygomatic bone.
Mandible
Body
Ramus (Branch)
Lateral View of the Skull

Angle of the mandible

Mandibular condyle
Coronoid process of the mandible
Alveolar processes (sockets for the
attachments of the teeth)
Maxillae and mandible
Anterior View of the Skull
Frontal bone (forehead)
Zygomatic bone (cheekbones)
Maxillae
Mandible

Two prominent cavities:

Orbits
Nasal cavities
Anterior view of the Skull
Superior and inferior orbital fissures
Optic canal
Nasolacrimal canal
Nasal septum
Vomer
Ethmoid (perpendicular plate)
Septal cartilage
Anterior View of the Skull
Nasal concha
Superior
Middle
Inferior

Paranasal sinus
Ethmoidal labyrinth/sinus

Sinuses:
Frontal
Maxillary
Sphenoidal
Inferior View of the Skull

Foramen magnum
Occipital condyles
Carotid canals
Jugular foramina
Styloid processes
Mandibular fossa
Inferior View of the Skull
Medial pterygoid plates
Lateral pterygoid plates
Vomer
Soft palate
Hard palate/bony palate
Palatineprocesses of the two maxillary bones form
the anterior two-thirds of the palate
Horizontal plates of the two palatine bones
Interior of the Cranial Cavity

Cranial cavity
Anterior, middle, cranial fossae
Crista galli
Point of attachment for the meninges
Cribriform plates of the ethmoid
Olfactory foramina
Sella turcica
Interior of the Cranial Cavity

Petrous part of the temporal bone

Middle ear
Auditory ossicles
Inner ear
Carotid canal
Skull foramina, fissures and
canals
Hyoid Bone
Unpaired
No direct attachment to the skull
Floats in the superior aspect of neck
Below the mandible
Vertebral column
A.k.abackbone
Central axis of the skeleton
5 major functions:
1. Supports head and trunk
2. Protects SC
3. Allows spinal nerves to exit SC
4. Site for muscle attachment
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk
Vertebral column
26 bones
Grouped into 5 regions:
Cervical 7
Thoracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacral 5 (fuse into 1)
Coccygeal 4 (fuse into 1)
4 Major Curvatures of the Spine

Primary curves:
Thoracic curves
Sacral curves

Secondary curves:
Cervicalcurves
Lumbar curves
General Plan of the Vertebrae

Body
Vertebral arch
2 pedicles
2 laminae
Vertebral foramen
Vertebral canal
Transverse process
Intervertebral Disks
Pads of fibrocartilage between the
bodies of the adjacent vertebrae.
Annulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
General Plan of the Vertebrae

Each vertebra has:

2 superior articular processes
2 inferior articular processes
Articular facet

Intervertebral foramina
Intervertebral notches
Regional Differences in Vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae
Transverse foramen
Atlas (C1)
Axis (C2)
Bifid spinous processes
C7 (not bifid but prominent) (Its spinous
process is called Vertebral prominens)
Thoracic Vertebra
Attachment sites for ribs
First 10 thoracic vertebrae
(articulates with the ribs)
Long and thin spinous processes,
directed inferiorly
Lumbar Vertebrae
Large thick bodies
Heavy and rectangular transverse
processes
Stability
Sacral Vertebrae
5 bones fused into 1 = sacrum
Alae
Auricular surfaces
Median sacral crest
Sacral hiatus
Sacral canal
Sacral promontory
Coccyx
A.k.a. Tail-bone
Easily broken in a fall
Thoracic Cage
A.k.a Rib cage
Ribs and Costal Cartilages

12 pairs of ribs

Costal cartilages
Attached ribs anteriorly to the sternum
True ribs (1-7)
False ribs (8-12)
Floating ribs (11-12)
Ribs
Most ribs have 2 articulations with the thoracic
vertebrae
Head
Neck

 Angle
 Body
 Sternal end
Sternum
Has 3 parts:
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid process

Jugular notch
Sternal angle
Appendicular Skeleton
UE and LE bones

Where limbs are attached to the body:

Pectoral girdle
Pelvic girdle
Pectoral girdle
A.k.a Shoulder Girdle
Consist of the:
2 scapula
2 clavicles
Scapula
Scapular spine
Supraspinous fossa
Infraspinous fossa
Subscapular fossa
Acromion process
Coracoid process
Clavicle
Acromial (lateral) end
Sternal (medial) end
Body
Upper Limb
UE consist of the bones of the:
Arm
Forearm
Wrist
Hand
Arm
Humerus
Head
Anatomical neck
Surgical neck
Greater tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Bicipital groove
Deltoid tuberosity
Capitulum
Trochlea
Medial and lateral epicondyle
Forearm
Radius
Head
Radial notch
Radial tuberosity
Ulna
Head
Trochlear notch
Olecranon process
Coronoid process
Ulnar tuberosity
Ulnar tuberosity
Wrist
8 carpal bones
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Hand
5 metacarpals
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Sesamoid bone
Pelvic Girdle
Attachment for the lower limbs.
Coxalbones = join anteriorly
Sacrum = posteriorly

Pelvis = pelvic girdle + coccyx

Coxal Bone
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Symphysis pubis
Sacroiliac joint
Acetabulum
Lunate surface
Obturator foramen
Iliac crest (at the level of L4)
ASIS
PSIS (S2)
AIIS
PIIS

Ischial spine
Ischial tuberosity
Auricular surface
Greater sciatic notch
Lesser sciatic notch
Comparison of the Male and
Female Pelvis
Lower Limb
Consist of the bones of the:
Thigh
Leg
Ankle
Foot
Thigh
Femur
Head
Neck
Body/Shaft
Greater trochanter

Pectineal line
Gluteal tuberosity
Linea aspera
Thigh
Medialand lateral condyles
Adductor tubercle

Patella
Patellar groove
Leg
Consist of the:
Tibia
Fibula

Intercondylar eminence
Tibia
Medial condyle
Tibial tuberosity
Anterior crest/Tibial crest
Medial malleolus
Fibula
Head
Lateral malleolus
Foot
7 Tarsals
Talus
Calcaneus
Cuboid
Navicular
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
5Metatarsals
Phalanges
3 Major Arches of the Foot

Medial longitudinal arch*

Lateral longitudinal arch
Transverse longitudinal arch
JOINTS
Articulations/Joints
A place where two or more bones
come together.
Classes of Joints
Fibrous
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial
Fibrous joints
Are those in which bones are
connected by fibrous tissue with
no joint cavity.
Little or no movement
Fibrous joints
Sutures= held together by dense fibrous
connective tissue. Ex: Sutures in the skull

Syndesmoses = fibrous ligaments. Ex: Radio-ulnar

syndesmosis

Gomphoses = pegs held in place within sockets of

fibrous tissue. Ex: teeth
Cartilaginous Joints
Unite two bones by means of either hyaline
cartilage or fibrocartilage.

Synchondrosis = joined by hyaline cartilage.

Ex: Epiphyseal plates

Symphyses = slightly movable, fibrocartilage.

Synovial Joints
Arecapable of considerable movement.
They consist of the following:
Articular cartilage
Joint cavity
Articular disk
Meniscus
Bursa
2 Layers of the Joint Capsule
Fibrous capsule
Synovial membrane

Hyaluronic acid
Types of Synovial Joints

Plane
Saddle
Hinge
Pivot
Ball and socket
Ellipsoid
Movements at Synovial Joints

Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
Plane/Gliding Joints
Uniaxial
Consist of two opposed flat surfaces
of about the equal size in which a
slight amount of gliding motion
occurs.
Ex: AC, CC, IV, SI, TMT joints
Pivot Joints
Cylindrical bony process that
rotated within a ring composed
partly of bone and partly ligament.
Uniaxial
Ex: PRUJ, DRUJ
Hinge Joints
A convex cylinder in one bone
applied to a corresponding
concavity in the other bone.
Uniaxial
Ex: Elbow and Knee Joint
Ellipsoid Joints
Ellipsoid concave and convex
Biaxial
Ex:
AO
MCP
MTP
Wrist
TMJ
Saddle
Consist of two saddle-shaped
articulating surface.
Biaxial
Ex: CMC (thumb)
Ball and Socket Joints
Consist of a:
Ball(head)
Socket
Multiaxial
Ex: Shoulder and Hip
Types of Movement
Glidingmovements
Angular movements
Angular movements
Flexion
Extension
Hyperextension
PF
DF
Angular movements
Abduction
Adduction
Lateral flexion
Circular movements
Rotation
IR
ER
Pronation
Supination
Circumduction
F, E, Abd, Add
Special Movements
Elevation and depressions
Protraction and retraction
Excursion
Opposition and Reposition
Inversion and Eversion
Temporomandibular Joint

Fibrocartilage articular disc

Superior joint cavity
Inferior joint cavity
Motions:
Shoulder Joint
Glenohumeral joint
Ball and socket joint
Glenoid labrum
Subacromial bursa
Rotator cuff
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Subscapularis
Elbow joint
A.k.a
humero-ulnar joint
Compound hinge joint

Humeroradial joint
Proximal radioulnar joint

Olecranon bursa
Hip Joint
A.k.a coxal joint
Ball and socket joint
Acetabular labrum
Y Ligament of Bigelow
Knee Joint
Modified hinge
Lateral and medial meniscus
ACL
PCL
MCL
PCL
Ankle Joint and Arches of the Foot

Modified hinge joint

Aka talocrural
Effects of Aging
Less flexible connective tissues of
the joints
Joint rigidity
Wear and tear