Introduction to the Skeletal

System
Structure, function, and
classification of bones
Skeletal System
 Interconnected
system of bones
ligaments and
tendons

 Provide support and

protection for body

 Composed of 206
bones
Functions of Skeletal System
 1)Support – provides
solid axis for muscles
to act against,
creating motion.
 2)Protection- bones
such as skull provide
barrier of protection
from external forces
 3)Hematopoiesis-
production of red
blood cells
Types of Bones
 Bones are divisible
into 5 class.
 Long
 Short
 Flat
 Irregular
 Sesamoid
Long Bones
 Found in the limbs
 Each bone is made of
a body (diaphysis)
and two extremities
(epiphyses)
 Wall consists of
dense tissue
 Central canal called
medullary canal is
filled with marrow
Short Bones
 Found in skeleton
where strength,
compactness, and
limited movement are
desired
 2 main examples
 Tarsus
 Carpus
Flat Bones
 Used in spots where
protection or
muscular attachment
is desired

 Main locations are

skull and scapula
Irregular Bones
 Bones which don’t fit
into other categories
due to irregular
shapes

 Examples:
vertebrae;sphenoid;
hyoid
Sesamoid (Round)
Bones
 Usually small and
round.
 Embedded within
tendons adjacent to
joints.

 Example: patella
(knee cap)
Bone Formation and Fractures
Fetal Skeleton

 Begins as mainly
cartilage

 Calcifies in utero

 At birth, fontanels
remain
Ossification
 Bone production process gives bone
extreme tensile and compressional
strength
 Several things contribute to strength
Factors which contribute to bone growth

 Nutrition
 Exposure to sunlight
 Hormonal Secretion
 Physical Exercise
Nutrition
 Mainly calcium
consumption
 Increased blood
calcium triggers
release of calcitonin
 Causes uptake of
calcium by
osteoblasts (bone
builders)
Nutrition (contd)

 Decrease in calcium
triggers release of
Parathyroid hormone

 Triggers osteoclasts
to break down bone,
releasing calcium
into blood
Exposure to Sunlight

 UV light on the skin causes Vitamin D

production
 Promotes proper absorption of calcium in
the bones
Hormonal Secretion

 Human growth
hormone

 Somatotropin (GH)

 Both hormones
stimulate activity in
the epiphyseal plate
Physical Activity

 Increase in physical
exertion on bone
tissue actually
increases bone
density and strength
Bone maintenance
 Osteoblasts-
constantly producing
new bone tissue
 Osteoclasts – clean
out old bone tissue
 Causes holes or
tunnels in bone which
osteoblasts then fill in
with calcium and
phosphate compounds
Fractures
Simple Fracture
 Also called closed
fracture

 Bone breaks cleanly,

and does not
penetrate skin.

 Little chance of
infection
Compound Fracture
 Bone breaks
completely

 Bone ends protrude

through skin

 Major chance of
serious bone infection
Comminuted Fracture
 Bone breaks into
many fragments

 Common in elderly
Compression Fracture
 Bone is crushed

 Common in porous
bones

 Especially common in
vertebrae of
osteoporosis patients
Depression fracture
 Broken bones are
forced inward

 Common in skull
fractures
Impacted Fracture
 Broken bone ends are
forced into each other

 Common in falls (ie.

From ladder) where
person attempts to
break their fall
Spiral Fracture
 Occurs from
excessive twisting
force on bone

 Common in sports
injuries
Greenstick Fracture
 Bone breaks
incompletely

 Common in children
due to more collagen
in bones
Repairing Fractures
Closed reduction = bones
are eased back into
alignment and “reset”

Open reduction = bones are

surgically reset using
screws or wires

After either, a cast is usually

applied to immobilize the
bone; healing begins
Internal Bone Repair
 1)Hematoma forms from
ruptured blood vessels.

 2)After new capillaries

form, fibrocartillage callus
“splints” broken bone
using cartilage and bony
matrix.

 3)Osteoblasts migrate to
area, forming bone
“patch” over break.
Fibrocartilage is replaced
by bony callus.
The Axial Skeleton
Divisions of the Skeletal System
 Skeletal system is
divided into two main
division
 Axial – central skeleton
that protects and
supports vital organs

 Appendicular –
skeleton of the
extremities
Axial Skeleton
 Composed of skull and
vertabrae

 Mainly flat and irregular

bones

 Serve to protect organs

such as brain, heart, and
lungs

 Also helps to support

body along central axis
(backbone)
 Parts of the axial skeleton
 Skull – protects brain

 Vertebrae – protect
spinal chord ;also serves
to keep skeleton upright

 Ribs – protect lungs and

heart ; gives intercostal
muscles a hard surface
to move against for
breathing
Divisions of the skull
 Skull is divided into 2
sets of bones
 Cranium – collection of
8 bones which hold and
protect brain

 Facial bones – 14
bones that make up the
face; all but 2 are
paired
 Cranium
 Frontal Bone – makes up
forehead, eyebrows, and
superior section of eye orbital

 Parietal Bone – form most of

the superior and lateral walls
of cranium

 Temporal bones – lie inferior

to parietal bones

 Occipital bone – forms back

and floor of cranium; foramen
magnum (large hole) allows
spinal chord to meet brain
Facial Bones
 Mandible- lower jaw
bone
 Maxillary bones
(maxillae) fuse
together to form
upper jaw
 Palatine processes –
directly posterior to
maxillae; forms rear
of hard palate
 Facial Bones Contd.
 Zygomatic bones –
cheekbones

 Lacrimal bones –
inferior section of orbital
bones; provides
passageway for tears

 Ethmoid bone- forms

roof of nasal cavity
More Facial Bones
 Nasal bones- form
bridge of nose

 Vomer – divides nasal

cavity in half

 Inferior conchae- thin

curved bones which
project from interior of
nasal cavity
Axial Skeleton
Intervertebral Discs
Spinal curvatures
Bony Thorax
Intervertebral Discs
 Pads of cartilage
between each vertebrae
 Provide cushioning;
reduce shock
 High water content
 As you age, water
content lowers, drying
discs
 Can cause herniated
(slipped) disc; where disc
protrudes from spine
Bony Thorax
 Made of bones which
connect and protect
heart and lungs

 Ribs, Costal
Cartilage, and
Sternum
Ribs  12 pairs of ribs, each
connects to a thoracic
vertebrae

 First 7 pairs = true ribs;

attach directly to sternum

 Last 5 pairs = false ribs;

indirect or no attachment;
last two are floating (no
sternal attachment)
Sternum
 Fusion of three bones
 1) Manubrium (top)
 2) Body (middle)
 3) Xiphoid Process
(bottom)
 Location for rib
attachment
 Surrounded by costal
cartilage
Sternal Puncture
 Process by which
marrow is removed
from sternum

 Good location
because of proximity
to body surface
The Spinal Column
 Supports body
 Connects skull to
pelvis
 Sends weight
down to pelvis,
where it is
transmitted
through the legs
 Surrounds and
protects spinal
cord
 26 total bones
Divisions of the Spinal Column

 4 main divisions
 1) Cervical
curvature
 2)Thoracic
curvature
 3)Lumbar
curvature
 4)Pelvic
 Sacrum
 Thorax
Cervical curvature

 Begins where skull meets spine

 Composed of 7 vertebrae
 Labeled C1-C7, starting at skull
 First two vertebrae (C1 and C2)are different
C1 and C2
 Perform different
jobs than other
vertebrae
 C1 (atlas) has
depressions that
accept the occipital
codyles (“yes nod”)
 C2 (axis) acts as
pivot point for skull
(“no” head shake)
Thoracic
Curvature
 12 bones

 T1-T12

 Costal
demifacet –
point of
attachment of
ribs
Lumbar
Vertebrae

 5 vertebrae

 (L1-L5)

 Sturdiest
because under
the most stress
Sacrum
 1 bone composed of
5 fused vertebrae

 “wing-like” alae
connect laterally
with hip bones
(forms sacroiliac
joints)

 Makes up posterior
wall of pelvis
Coccyx
 1 bone formed by
fusion of 3
vertebrae

 Tailbone

 Thought to be left
over from when
our ancestors
had tails
 Spinal Curvatures
 Scoliosis- lateral
curvature
 Lordosis- Apex
towards anterior (ie.
Lumbar curvature)
 Kyphosis- Apex
towards posterior
(Osteoporosis
patients)
Appendicular Skeleton
Pelvic Girdle
Pelvis
 Juncture point for
axial skeleton and
lower body
 Holds internal
organs
 Distributes weight
down legs
 3 fused bones
 Obturator foramen-
large hole through
which nerves and
muscles pass
Bones of the Pelvis
 Ilium
 Ischium
 Pubis

 Become
fused into
“pelvis” at
puberty
Ilium
 Makes up top
of hip (iliac
crest)

 Lateral
portions of the
pelvis

 Contains hip
socket
  Iliac crest – rounded
projection on superior
surface; makes up “hip”

 Acetabulum- joint between

femure and pelvis
Features of the Ilium
 Width from crest to crest =
false pelvis
 Width of actual inlet = true
pelvis
Ischium

 Inferior portion
of pelvis

 Ischial
Tuberosity –
point of muscle
attachment; “sit
bones”
Pubis
 Anterior portion of pelvis
 Joined medially by pubic symphysis
Leg bones
Hands and Feet
Appendicular Skeleton
Superior Extremities
 Shoulder Girdle

 Also called
pectoral
girdle

 Composed
of only two
bones
 Clavicle
 Scapula
Clavicle
 Collar bone

 Double-curved

 Attaches medially to manubrium

of sternum

 Attaches laterally to scapula

 Acts as a brace, keeping arm

away from thorax

 Also prevents shoulder

dislocation
 Scapula
 Shoulder Blade

 Main function is
attachment of shoulder

 Major point of muscle

attachment for movement
of arms

 Weakly attached to
thorax, so moves easily
Major Processes of the Scapulae

 1)Acromion – extends
from spine of
scapulae
 Point of attachment of
clavicle

 2)Coracoid- main site

of arm muscle
attachment
Glenoid Cavity
 Socket of arm joint

 Shallow

 Allows for great range

of motion

 Also dislocates easily

Movement in the Shoulder Girdle

 Very free moving because

1)Only attaches at one point to axial
skeleton
2)Loose attachment of scapula allows it to
slide
3)Glenoid cavity very shallow
Arm Bones
 Arms composed of
long bones

 Humerus (upper arm)

 Radius and Ulna

(forearm)
Humerus
 Simple long bone

 Greater and lesser

tubercle allow for
muscle attachment

 Deltoid tuberosity-
place of attachment
for deltoid muscle
Attachment to the forearm
 Trochlea articulates
against bones of
forearm

 Olecranon fossa
shaped like spoon
Forearm bones
 Ulna – pinkie-side of
forearm

 Radius – Thumb side

of forearm
Processes of the ulna
 Olecranon process
attaches to humerus
at olecranon fossa

 Allows for articulation

between upper and
lower arm
Hands and Feet
Joints
 Any point where bones
meet

 Also called
articulations

 Every bone (except

hyoid) articulates with
at least 1 other bone
Classifications of Joints
 Can be classified by
mobility, or by the
type of tissue which
connects the bones
Joint classification by Mobility

 Can be one of
three types.
 1) Synarthroses –
immovable joint
 2)amphiarthroses-
slightly moveable
joint
 3)diarthroses-
freely movable
Classification by connective tissue
type
 Joints are connected by
either fibrous, cartilage,
or synovial connective
tissue.

 Fibrous is usually
synarthroses,
 Synovial – diarthroses
Fibrous Joints

 Fibrous tissue
 Example= sutures of
the skull
 Tight fibrous tissue
allows for essentially no
movement
Cartilaginous Joints
 Cartilage

 Example=
intervertebral joints

 Can express either

type of movement
Synovial Joints

 Bones separated by
synovial cavity

 Empty pocket serves to

reduce friction between
moving bones

 Usually located in
extremities, where
movement is necessary
So… What does it mean to be
double-jointed?
 Usually not actually
two joint cavities

 Ligaments are simply

less taut than
normal, allowing for
more flexibility

 Can be indicative of
serious genetic
defects
Joint Problems

 Osteoarthritis –
general break-down
of joints, leading to
ossification, and
then pain.
 Rheumatoid Arthritis
– autoimmune
disease where body
attacks its own
tissues; cause
unknown
Features of the Skull
Sutures of the cranium
 Suture – location
where flat bones of
the cranium meet
and fuse
 Squamous- fuses
temporal and
parietal
 Coronal – fuses
frontal to parietal
 Saggital – fuses
plates of parietal
bones
 Lambdoid – fuses
occipital to parietal
Bone markings of the Temporal Bones
 1) external auditory
meatus – canal which
leads to inner ear
 2) styloid process – sharp,
needlelike projections
inferior to the
e.a.m.;location of muscle
attachment
 3) zygomatic process-
forms cheek bones;forms
large hole which allows
jaw muscles to pass
through to mandible
Temporal bone markings (contd.)
 4) mastoid process –
posterior and inferior to
e.a.m.;location of muscle
attachment for muscles of
the neck
 5) jugular foramen- at
junction of occipital and
temporal bones; allows
jugular vein to pass
through from brain
 6) carotid canal – anterior
to j.f. Allows carotid
artery to pass to brain
  Lie lateral to
Occipital Condyles the foramen
magnum

 Rest upon the

spinal column

 Provides point
of attachment
for skull to
spinal column
 Cribriform Bones

 Cribriform bones –
“holey” bone plates
which make up roof of
nasal cavity;allow for
olfactory sensors to
pass from nose to brain
Sinuses
 Empty pocket inside
bones which are lines
with mucous
membranes
 Paranasal sinus-
surrounds nasal
cavity
 Lighten skull, and
thought to amplify
sounds when
speaking
Deformations
 Cleft palate = when
palatine bones fail to
properly or completely
fuse.

 Leads to inability to
nurse, due to failure
to form a vacuum.
Male vs. Female Skeleton
In general

 Male skeleton is larger, with thicker bones

 Female bones maintain many

characteristics of prepubescent skeleton

 Male features change at puberty (usually

at points of muscular attachment)
Skull
 Male mastoid process
more pronounced

 Superior portion of
female orbital (brow
ridge) less pronounced

 Female mandible is
pointed, while male is
squared
Facial Differences
 Female face wider than
male

 Females have more

pointed nose, while
males are more blunt

 Female forehead less

sloping

 Eyebrows positioned
higher in females
Pelvis
 Female Pelvis wider
and more shallow

 Male iliac crests more

pointed

 Male pelvis more

narrow
Sacrum
 Female sacrum wider and flatter

 Usually more rounded than male

Forensic anthropology

 Most will say that there is no exact way to

determine sex from skeleton (not exact
science)

 Pelvis is probably most reliable feature to

analyze, followed by mandible