Unit three

GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE OF SKELETAL

SYSTEM (OSTEOLOGY)

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 …

Without bones, you could not survive.

oYou would be unable to perform movements such as
walking or grasping, and
oThe slightest blow to your head or chest could damage your
brain or heart.

oThe skeletal system forms the framework of the body.

√ a familiarity with the names, shapes, and positions
of individual bones will help you locate and name
many other anatomical features.

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 Skeletal system…
 Osteology is the part of anatomy devoted to the study of the bone
 its formation, form, structure and functions.

 The word Skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning “Dried up
Body”.

 The skeleton accounts for about 18-20 % of our body weight.

 It consists of bones, cartilages, joints and ligaments.
 Each individual bone is an organ.

 Locomotory system: is formed by bones, joints and muscles.

Bones and cartilages are passive parts and muscles and joints
are active parts of the locomotory system.
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 Function of the skeletal system.

1. Formation of the supportive framework and permanent shape

of the body.
2. Protection of some soft and delicate organs.
A. Bones of the head protect the brain and the sensory organ.
B. Bones of the thoracic wall protect intrathoracic organs like
the lungs, the heart and great vessels.
C. Bones of the vertebral column protect the spinal cord.
D. Pelvic bones protect some organs of the genitourinary
system and Gastro Intestinal tract (GIT).
A. Movement.
B. Storage of minerals and fat.
C. Production of blood cells.
D. To provide an attachment site for muscles and act as rigid
lever to move the body and its parts.

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 Classification of bones
 Bones are classified by their shape rather than size as long, short, flat and
irregular.
 Is based in the three dimension of the space (length, width and thickness)).
I. Long bones: cylindrical & are considerably longer than they wide.
E.g. The bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet (but not the wrists and
ankles).

II. Short bones: are roughly cubed shaped. E.g. The bones of the wrists
and ankles.

III. Flat Bones: they are longer and wider than thicker (thin, flattened and
usually somewhat curved).
 Forming by an inner and outer thin lamina of compact bone (inner
and outer lamellar) between which lies a spongy substance. e.g.
bones of the skull (diploe), scapula, hip bone and ribs.

IV. Irregular Bones: they have various shapes that do not fit into any of
the above categories.
 They have similar structure to short bones. E.g. bones of the
vertebral column.
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 .
1. Sesamoid bone: usually have a shape similar to a sesame seed.
o They are situated at the end of long bones of the limbs. E.g.
patella or knee cap
o This bone helps the tendons to glide over the bony surfaces and
prevent excessive wear and tear and at the same time they act
alter the direction of pull of the tendons.
2. Pneumatic Bones: they contain air filled cavities lined with
mucous membrane. e.g. maxilla, frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid
bones.
3. Wormian or sutural bones: small fragments of bones between
bones of the skull.
4. Heterotopic bones: are the abnormal calcifications in soft tissues.
 Short, flat, and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of compact bone.

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 Structures of typical long bone
 With few exception, all bones in the body have the same general
structure.
I. Diaphysis: also called shaft, forms the long axis of a long bone/the
shaft or long main cylindrical portion

II.Epiphysis: end of a long bone

III.Metaphyses: are the areas between the epiphysis and diaphysis

and include the epiphyseal plate in growing bones.

IV.Articular cartilage: over joint surfaces acts as friction reducer &

shock absorber

V.Medullary cavity: marrow cavity

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 Membrane

Endosteum:
 lining of marrow cavity and central canals of osteons
 is osteogenic  bone producing  containing bone depositing
cells and bone destroying cells.

Periosteum:
 tough membrane covering bone but not the articular
cartilage
 Richly supplied by nerves and blood vessels
 Secured to the underlying by perforating fibers
sharpey’s fiber
Fibrous layer  dense irregular CT
Osteogenic layer  bone cells

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Structures of typical long bone

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 Bone tissue
 Consists of widely separated cells surrounded by large amounts of
extracellular matrix.
 Has both organic and inorganic components.
 Chemical Composition
o Healthy bone is half as strong as steel in resisting compression
and equally strong in resisting tension.
 Bone is composed of the following:
o 35% organic components cells, fibers, and ground substance
o The organic substance particularly collagen, contribute the
flexibility and tensile strength that allow bone resists stretching
and twisting.
o 65% inorganic components minerals, mostly calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate
o Provides bones hardness
o Bone is not completely solid since it has small spaces for vessels
and bone marrow
Spongy bone has many such spaces
Compact bone has very few such spaces
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 Classification of the Bones
According to their Location.
A) Axial Skeleton:
 This is located around the longitudinal axis of the body.
 i.e. most of the bones of the axial skeleton constituted the central
body core of the body, the axis.
 This group is composed of 80 Bones

B) Appendicular Skeleton:
 This is composed of bones found in the limbs and their
corresponding girdles forming a total of 126 bones.

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Based on gross observation bone has two different structures:
Compact bone
 Dense outer layer that looks smooth and solid to the naked eye.
 outer layer provides strength.
 Makes up the shaft of long bones and the external layer of all bones
 Resists stresses produced by weight and movement

Spongy (cancellous)
 consists of trabeculae (a honeycomb of small needle like),
containing marrow for blood cell production or fat storage.
 It forms most of the structure of short, flat, and irregular bones, and
the epiphyses of long bones.
 Spongy bone tissue is light and supports and protects the bone
marrow.

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 According to their microscopic appearances.
1. Non - lamellar, Immature or Woven Bones: The term woven denotes
that it has a network of randomly oriented large collagen fibres in its
matrix.
2. Lamellar Bones: All mature bones are Lamellar.

According to their developmental origin.

1. Membranous (mesenchymal, dermal).
2. Cartilaginous (Chondral).
According to their Form and Shapes:
 is based in the three dimension of the space (longth, width and
thickness).
I. Long Bones.
II. Short Bones.
III. Flat Bones.
IV. Irregular Bones.
V. Pneumatic Bones
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 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone

 Nutrient arteries:
enter through nutrient foramen
supplies compact bone of diaphysis & red marrow
 Metaphyseal a:
supply the metaphysis and are a branch from the nutrient artery
 Periosteal arteries:
supply periosteum and are branches of Nutrient and epiphyseal aa
 Epiphyseal aa.:
supply red marrow & bone tissue of epiphyses

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 Innervations of bones
Blood vessels of bones are accompanied by many nerve
fibers most of which are vasomotor.

 Some sensory fibers are also end in the periosteum and

adventitia of blood vessels.

Some of these sensory fibers to the periosteum are pain fibers,

due to which the periosteum is specially sensitive to tearing
and tension.

The vasomotor nerves serve for constriction and dilation of

the blood vessels.

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 BONE FORMATION

All embryonic connective tissue begins as mesenchyme.

Bone formation is termed osteogenesis or ossification and begins when
mesenchymal cells provide the template for subsequent ossification.
Prior to week 8
Embryonic skeleton is comprised of hyaline cartilage and fibrous
membranes
Week 8 and beyond
Bone tissue begins to develop
Majority of fibrous or cartilaginous structures eventually replaced
with bone
Fibrous membrane: membrane bone (Intramembranous
ossification)
Hyaline cartilage: cartilage bone (Endochondral ossification)

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.

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 Intramembranous ossification
Forms the flat bones of the skull, the mandible and clavicle.

An ossification center forms from mesenchymal cells, they convert to

osteoblasts and lay down osteoid matrix.

The matrix surrounds the cell and then calcifies as the osteoblast becomes an
osteocyte.

The calcifying matrix centers join to form bridges of trabeculae that constitute
spongy bone with red marrow in between.

On the periphery the mesenchyme condenses and develops into the periosteum

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 Endochondral ossification
 Involves replacement of cartilage by bone and form most of the bones
of the body.
 The first step in endochondral ossification is the development of the
cartilage model.

I. Development of Cartilage model

 Mesenchymal cells form a cartilage model of the bone during
development.

 Growth of cartilage model in length by chondrocyte cell division

and matrix formation ( interstitial growth) in width by formation of
new matrix on the periphery by new chondroblasts from the
perichondrium (appositional growth)

 Cells in mid region burst and change pH triggering calcification

and chondrocyte death 23
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 Endochondral ossification…
Development of Primary Ossification Center
Perichondrium lays down periosteal bone collar
Nutrient artery penetrates center of cartilage model
Periosteal bud brings nutrient artery and vein and osteoblasts and
osteoclasts to center of cartilage model
Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix over calcified cartilage forming
spongy bone trabeculae
Osteoclasts form medullary cavity

Development of Secondary Ossification Center

blood vessels enter the epiphyses around time of birth
spongy bone is formed but no medullary cavity

Formation of Articular Cartilage

cartilage on ends of bone remains as articular cartilage.
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 BONE GROWTH
Growth in Length
 Bone grows in length occurs at the epiphyseal or growth plate
 The activity of the epiphyseal plate is the only means by which the
diaphysis can increase in length.
 When the epiphyseal plate closes, is replaced by bone, the epiphyseal
line appears and indicates the bone has completed its growth in length.

Epiphyseal plate or cartilage growth plate

 Cartilage cells are produced by mitosis on epiphyseal side of plate
 Cartilage cells are destroyed and replaced by bone on diaphyseal side of
plate
 Between ages 18 to 25, epiphyseal plates close.
 Cartilage cells stop dividing and bone replaces the cartilage (epiphyseal
line)
 Growth in length stops at age 25

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 Zones of Growth in Epiphyseal Plate

I. Zone of resting cartilage  anchors growth plate to bone

II. Zone of proliferating cartilage  rapid cell division (stacked
coins)
III. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage  cells enlarged & remain in
columns
IV. Zone of calcified cartilage  thin zone, cells mostly dead since
matrix calcified
 Osteoclasts removing matrix
 Osteoblasts & capillaries move in to create bone over calcified
cartilage
V. Ossification zone is a region of transformation from cartilage
tissue to bone tissue.

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 Growth in Thickness

Bone can grow in thickness or diameter only by appositional growth

Two processes
Osteoblasts beneath periosteum secrete bone matrix onto external
bone surface
Osteoclasts on endosteal surface remove bone

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 Bone Remodeling
Remodeling: is the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue
by new bone tissue.

Old bone is constantly destroyed by osteoclasts, whereas

new bone is constructed by osteoblasts.

Continual redistribution of bone matrix along lines of

mechanical stress.
e.g. distal femur is fully remodeled every 4 months

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 Fracture and Repair of Bone

A fracture is any break in the continuity of a bone.

Healing is faster in bone than in cartilage due to lack of blood vessels
in cartilage
Healing of bone is still slow process due to vessel damage.

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 Fracture repair involves
I. Formation of fracture hematoma
 Damaged blood vessels produce clot in 6 - 8 hours, after bone cells
die
 Inflammation brings in phagocytic cells for clean-up duty
 New capillaries grow into damaged area

II. Formation of fibrocartilagenous callus formation ~3 weeks

 Fibroblasts invade the procallus & lay down collagen fibers
 Chondroblasts produce fibrocartilage to span the broken ends of the
bone

III. Formation of bony callus

 Changes to spongy bone that joins 2 broken ends of bone
 Lasts 3-4 months
IV. Bone remodeling
o Compact bone replaces the spongy in the bony callus
o Surface is remodeled back to normal shape 36
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 Osteoporosis
 is (bone porous condition) low bone mass due to deterioration and bone
reabsorption is faster than bone deposition.
 Fractures occur easily, especially in the vertebrae, femur, or hip.

 The basic problem is that bone resorption (breakdown) outpaces bone

deposition (formation).
 In large part this is due to depletion of calcium from the body—more calcium
is lost in urine, feces, and sweat than is absorbed from the diet.

 Bone mass becomes so depleted that bones fracture, often spontaneously,

under the mechanical stresses of everyday living.
 For example, a hip fracture might result from simply sitting
down too quickly.
 Osteoporosis primarily affects middle-aged and elderly people,
80% of them women.
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 Osteoporosis
 Older women suffer from osteoporosis more often than men for two reasons:
I. Women’s bones are less massive than men’s bones
II. production of estrogens in women declines dramatically at menopause,
while production of the main androgen, testosterone, in older men
diminishes gradually and only slightly.
 Estrogens and testosterone stimulate osteoblast activity and synthesis of bone
matrix.
 Besides gender, risk factors for developing osteoporosis include a
 family history of the disease,
 European or Asian ancestry,
 thin or small body build,
 an inactive lifestyle,
 cigarette smoking,
 a diet low in calcium and vitamin D,
 more than two alcoholic drinks a day, and
 the use of certain medications.

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 There are two Categories of bone markings.

A. Projections or Processes: Which grow out from the surface

of the bone provides a site for the attachment of structures
like muscles and help in the formation of joints.

B. Depressions or cavities: Which are indentations.

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 Projection as site of muscle attachment:

I. Crest: a narrow ridge of bone.

II. Spine: a sharp slender projection.
III. Trochanter: a very large irregular process.
IV. Tubercle: small round projection.
V. Tuberosity (Tuberositas): a large tubercle
VI. Epicondyle: raised area on a condyle

Projections that help in the formation of the Joints:

A. Condyle: a round projection.
B. Head: extension or expanded portion carried on a narrow neck.
C.Facets: small flattened depression.

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 Depression commonly seen in bones:
I. Fissure: a narrow slit like opening.
II. Foramen: opening though a bone.
III. Fossa, Pit or Fovea: a Shallow depression in a bone.
IV. Meatus or Canal: an elongate foramen.
V. Sinus: a depression within a bone filled with air and lined with a
mucous membrane.
VI. Notch or ncissure: a depression in the margin of bones.
VII. Ramus: arm like bars of bone that forms an angle with the main part of
the bone.

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 RELATED CLINICAL TERMS
 Bone graft:
 Transplantation of a piece of bone from one part of a person’s
skeleton to another part where bone has been damaged or lost.
 The graft, often taken from the crest of the iliac bone of the hip,
encourages regrowth of lost bone.
 Bony spur:
o An abnormal projection on a bone due to bone overgrowth; is
common in aging bones.
 Ostealgia: Pain in a bone.
 Osteomyelitis ( “bone and marrow inflammation”).
 Bacterial infection of the bone and bone marrow.
 The pathogen enters bones either from infections in surrounding
tissues or through the bloodstream, or follows a compound bone
fracture.
 Pathologic fracture
 Fracture occurring in a diseased bone and involving slight or no
physical trauma.
 An example is a broken hip caused by osteoporosis.
 The hip breaks first, causing the person to fall.
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 Classification of bones based on their locations

 206 named bones of the human skeleton are grouped in to axial

and appendicular skeletons in adults.
 At birth, the skeleton consists of approximately 270 bones.
Axial skeleton
 Forms long axis of the body
 80 bones (skull, hyoid bone, auditory ossicles, vertebral column,
thoracic cage)

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Classification of the Bones
According to their Location.
A) Axial Skeleton: This is located around the longitudinal axis of the
body that is most of the bones of the axial skeleton constituted the
central body core of the body, the axis.
This group is composed of 80 Bones constituted by:
1- Skull a) Cranium ------ 8
b) Face ----------- 14
2- Hyoid --------------------- 1
3- Auditory Ossicles ------- 6
4-Vertebral Column ------- 26
5-Thorax a) Sternum ------1
b) Ribs ------- 24
Total 80

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B) Appendicular Skeleton: This is composed of bones found in the
limbs and their corresponding girdles forming a total of 126 bones:

1- Shoulder Girdle a) Clavicle ------- 2

b) Scapula ------- 2
2- Upper Limb a) Humerus -------- 2
b) Ulna ------------ 2
c) Radius --------- 2
d) Carpals ---------16
e) Metacarpals ---10
f) Phalanges -----28
3- Pelvic Girdle Coxal, Hip, Pelvic or Innominate bones-----2

4-Lower Limb a) Femur -------------2

b) Tibia ------------- 2
c) Fibula ----------- 2
d) Patella ------------ 2
e) Tarsals --------- 14
f) Metatarsals -----10
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g) Phalanges ------28 50
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 Cartilage
 Consists of cells (chondrocytes) in lacunae
 Matrix is gel like and contains collagenic and elastic fibers
 Has no blood vessel, it receives nutrients through diffusion
Three types
1. Hyaline cartilage
o Firm and somewhat flexible
o Matrix contains many collagenic fibers
o Found at end of long bones (articular cartilage), in nose and at the
ends of ribs
2. Fibrocartilage
 Matrix contains wide rows of thick collageneous fibers
 Able to with stand tension and pressure
 Found in menisci(knee joint) and discs between vertebrae
3. Elastic cartilage
 Matrix contains elastic fibers
 Very flexible
 Found in epiglottis and ear flaps 52
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 Arthrology

 Arthrology is a branch of anatomy concerned with joints or

articulations.
 Joints are sites where two or more bones meet

oA joint or articulation is the arrangement whereby separate bone or

cartilage are attached each other or it is a place where rigid
elements of the skeleton meet.
o In another terms a joint is the relation of two or more bones or
cartilages to one another at their region of contact.

In most of the joints bones are joined to bones, but some of them join
bones to cartilages, cartilages to cartilages and teeth to their bony
sockets.

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 Structural Classification
In the formation of a joint, the structure found b/n the adjoining ends
of the bones is either a cavity or connective tissue.
The cavity separates the bone ends while the connective tissue
interconnects them, therefore:
The articulating ends of bones in some joints are separated by a fluid
containing articular cavity which is enclosed by a synovial membrane,
i.e. the ends are discontinuous which renders them a free movement.
 Such joints are grouped as synovial joints, freely moveable joints or
diarthrosis.
It includes the following varieties.
o Hinge joint
o Pivot joint
o Ball and socket joint
o Gliding (plane) joint
o Saddle joint

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 Structural classification…

Adjoining ends of articulating bones can be attached to each other by

an interposed connective tissue without a remarkable separation.

 In such joints the ends of the bones are said to be continuous, due to
which there is little or no movement.

 This type is constituted by:

1. Fibrous joints: when the tissue b/n the articulating ends of bone
is a dense fibrous connective tissue.

2. Cartilaginous joints (articulation cartilaginea)

where the tissue separating the articulating ends is cartilage

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 Classification of joints based on their structure
Joints are classified based on the presence or absence of joint cavity
and kind of supportive CT surrounding the joint.
Three types: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial.

They are classified based on two factors

A.Structurally  according to the structures found b/n the adjoining
end of bone.
B.Functionally  according to their degree of freedom (axis of
movement or extent of movement that take place at the joint

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Classification of joints according to their axes of movement
or degrees of freedom.
 Based on the extent of movement joints are classified into:
Synarthrosis (immovable) joints
Amphiarintosis (slightly movable) joints
Diarthorosis (freely moveable) joints
 1. Synarthrosis 2. Amphyarthosis
a. Sutures a. symphysis
b. Sychondrosis b. Syndesmosis
c. Gomphosis c. Some synovial joint
3.Diarthrosis
a. Uniaxial (Monaxid) joints
b. Biaxial
c. Triaxial (Multiaxial, Polyaxial)
The first two are mainly restricted to the axial skeleton while the
third dominants in the limbs.
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 Fibrous joints
Fibrous joints are classified into three types.
A.Syndesmosis:
Bones are interconnected by bundles of dense collagenous or
elastic connective tissue.

This fibrous connective tissue b/n the bones can be organized as

an interosseous membrane or a ligament.

E.g. Interosseous membranes of the forearm and the leg,

ligamentum nuchae, distal tibofibular joint.

Such joints are slightly moveable.

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 B. Sutures
The immovably interconnected flat bones of the skull are joined
by short collagen fibers trapped b/n their opposing edges.
e.g. Joints between bones of the skull.

These sutures help the compression of fetal head during

delivery and allow free growth of the brain.

The sutures ossify after birth and the bones become fused by
bony fusion or synostosis.

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 Fibrous joints…
Sutures…
 Immovable and held by thin layer of dense regular CT
Common in skull
oSerrate suture  saw like articulation e.g. sagittal suture
oSquamous suture  margin of the bone overlaps with that of
articulating bone e.g. Squamous suture
oPlane suture  margins of articulating bones are fairly smooth e.g.
Median palatine suture

Gomphosis: this is the fixation of the teeth in their alveoli or sockets

by collagenous fibers (dento-alveolar articulation) forming a
synarthrotic (immoveable) joint.

 All the fixing ligaments around the root of a tooth form the
periodontal ligament.

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 Cartilaginous joints

 The cartilaginous joints include transitional stages in complete bony

fusion and joints which retain at least a modified cartilage throughout
life.
 There are two types of cartilaginous joints:
A.Synchndrosis:
(Primary cartilaginous joints) bones are temporarily and immovably
interconnected by a hyaline cartilage until a complete bony
continuity occurs.

Such joints are found in the growth centers, e.g. Epiphyseal plate,
articulation of the first rib with the sternum…

Synchondrotic joints ossify later in life usually at around the age of

25 years.
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 …
Symphsis:
(Secondary cartilaginous joints) bones are permanently interconnected
by a fibrocatilage coated with a hard hyaline cartilage.
This is a slightly movable type of cartilaginous joint.
All midline joints of the body are said to be symphysis.
E.g. pubic symphysis, manubrio-sternal symphysis and
intervertebral joints.

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Cartilaginous joints

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 Synovial joints
 Most common and important one
 Joint is freely movable
 Synovial joints are characterized by the following basic features:
1.Articular head (male part of a joint) the convex end of bone
usually covered by a hyaline cartilage but sometimes by a
fibrocartilage.
2.Articular fossa (Socket, Female part of a joint) a concave
surface into which the head fits. It is similarly covered by an
articular cartilage.
3.Articular (Synovial) cavity a thin capillary space b/n the
articulating ends of bones and the articular capsule

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 Synovial joints…
Articular capsule encloses the joint all around and it consists of two
layers.
a.An outer or fibrous layer (stratum fibrosum):
Consists of dense irregular connective tissue composed of collagen
and elastic fibers, hence also called fibrous capsule.
This layer is reinforced or strengthened by ligaments and is continuous
with the periosteum of the adjoining bones.
It is free of blood vessels but contains receptors concerned with joint
position and some sensory fibers conducting pain impulses.

b. An inner or synovial layer (stratum synovial):

Consists of loose CT composed of elastic fibers.
The inner surface of the synovial membrane is lined by fibrocytes and
macorophages (not by epithelium).
This layer contains non-myelinated nerve fibers.
Besides lining the inner surface of the articular capsule it covers all the
internal surfaces of a joint not covered by cartilage.

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 Synovial joints…
Synovial fluid (synovia):
 produced and absorbed by the synovial membrane in to or out
of the articular cavity.
It serves as:
A sliding (slippery) lubricant material so that there will be a reduced
friction b/n the articulating ends of bones.
A transport medium for the nutrition of the articular cartilage, which has
no blood vessels.
 The synovial fluid is formed by the fibrocytes of the synovial
membrane (transudate).
 It contains few glycoproteins (mucin), hyaluronic acid …
 Hyaluronic acid is a glycosaminoglycan forming the gelatinous
material in tissue spaces that acts as cement substance.

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 Synovial joints…
Articular cartilage
 Is hyaline cartilage, covering articulating surfaces of bones in
a synovial joint.

 The articular cartilage is nourished by diffusion from the

synovial fluid and gets an additional nutritional supply from the
subchondral vascular plexus.

Function of articular cartilage:

1.For a uniform pressure distribution on the articular surfaces
2.At areas of high pressure it is thickened and protects the
underlying structures by acting like a cushion.
3.Together with synovia it reduces friction between the articular
surfaces.

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 Classification of Synovial joints

Structurally based on the number of articulating bones.

1. Simple joint: when only two bones participate in the formation of a

joint. e.g. shoulder joint.

2. Compound joint: when more than two bones take part in the
formation of a joint. e.g. elbow joint.

3. Complex joint: when discs and menisci are involved. e.g. knee joint.

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 Types of synovial joints
o Plane joints  allow gliding or sliding movement (uniaxial) e.g. b/n scapula
and clavicle b/n carpal and tarsal bones

o Hinge joints permit flexion and extension only (uniaxial) e.g. elbow, knee
and interphalangeal joints

o Condyloid joints allow movement in two direction (biaxial) e.g. radiocarpal

joint of the wrist and MCP joint
o Saddle joints opposing surfaces of bones are like a saddle (biaxial) e.g.
trapeziometacarpal at the base of the thumb (CMC joint of the thumb)

o Ball and socket joints allow multidirectional movement (multi axial joint)
e.g. shoulder and hip
o Pivot joints allow rotation (uniaxial joint) e.g. at atlantoaxial joint, proximal
radioulnar

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 Other structures associated with synovial joint:

Discs and Menisci

oDiscs divide an articular cavity completely whereas menisci divide it
partly.

oDiscs and meniscus are structures found within the articular cavity
consisting of connective tissue of fibrocartilage. (e.g.
temporomandibular joint, intervertebral join), where as menisci
divide it partly (e.g. knee joint).

oImportant for directing of a given movement in a joint & for the

uniform distribution of pressure on the bones

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Synovial bursae
…
Are small flattened fibrous bag filled with synovial fluid
Found b/n the joints and their surrounding muscles, tendons, and
ligaments that move on each other
Reduce friction
Two types
Some of them communicate with the articular cavity
(communicating bursae) and therefore directly affected by diseases
of the joint and others are non-communicating bursae having no
direct communication with the articular cavity.
Articular labrum (lip)
oAn articular labrum enlarges the articular fossa of the socket so that
the articular head of a bone correctly fits into its socket to form a
stable joint. E.g. glenoidal labrum in the shoulder joint, acetabular
labrum in the hip joint.

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 Ligaments
oAre CT structures that hold the body together
oTherefore two major types of ligaments are distinguished:
1. Those that connect the viscera together
2. Those that connect bones together

oThose ligaments joining bones are of three types:

a. Reinforcing (Strengthening) ligs:  providing support and
strength to the articular capsule.
b. Guiding (directing) ligs:  determine the type and direction of
movement in a given joint.
c. Restricting ligs:  they limit the extent of a joint movement.

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Some clinical terms related to bones and joints
 Joints are usually injured by tensional and compressional forces applied on
them.
 Therefore, there are some terms related to these injuries.
1. Contusion: injury by increased compression.
2. Distortion: injury by increased tension.
3. Ligament or capsular rapture.
4. Dislocation (Luxation or sublaxtion)  when bones of a joint are forced
out of a ligament, commonest site being the shoulder joint.
5. Rapture and herniation of discs and menisci  usually due to excessive
compression.
6. Sprain  when the ligaments reinforcing an joint are over stretched of torn.
7. Osteitis  inflammation of a bone.

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8. Osteochondristis  inflammation of a bone and its cartilage.
9. Osteomyelitis  inflammation of a bone and its marrow.
10. Osteoarthritis (Osteoarthrosis)  degenerative disease of bone and articular
cartilage.
11. Osteosarcoma  maligament cancer of a bone.
12. Osteomalacia  adult rickets
13. Osteoporosis  atrophy of skeletal tissue in old age.
14. Bursitis  Inflammation bursae ,e.g. Housemaid’s knee or subcutaneous pre
patellar bursitis, students elbow of olecranon bursitis.
15. Tendosynovitis  Inflammation of a tendon and its synovial sheath at the
level of joints, also called tendovaginitis.
16. Arthritis  disease of the joints, which can be caused by infection (e.g.
Pyogenic athrists, lyme’s disease) or degenerative process like
osteoarthritis.

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