Skeletal Cartilage: High resilient cartilage tissue made of
water, contains no blood vessels or nerves
Perichondrium: layer of dense connective tissue
surrounding cartilage; resists outward expansion;
contains vessels for nutrient delivery
Cartilage is made up of chondrocytes, cells encased in
small cavities (lacunae) within ECM.
Hyaline cartilage – provides support, flexibility, and
resilience; articular (joints), costal (ribs), respiratory
(larynx), nasal cartilage (nose tip)
Elastic Cartilage: Similar to hyaline but has elastic fibers;
ears and epiglottis
Fibrocartilage: Thick collagen fibers; has great tensile
strength; knee, vertebral discs
7 BONE FUNCTIONS
1. Support: for body and soft organs
2. Protection: protect the brain, spinal cord, and
vital organs
3. Movement: Levers for muscle action
4. Mineral and growth factor storage: Calcium and
phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir
5. Blood cell formation: Hematopoiesis occurs in
red marrow cavities of certain bones
6. Triglyceride storage: Fat is stored in bone
cavities
7. Hormone production: Osteocalcin secreted by
bones regulates insulin secretion, glucose levels,
and metabolism
206 named bones in the human skeleton are divided
into two; axial and appendicular
Axial (80) skeleton: Long axis of the body; skull,
vertebral column, rib cage
Appendicular (126) skeleton: Bones of upper
and lower limbs; girdles attaching limbs to the
axial skeleton
Four classifications of bone shape:
1. Long bones: Longer than they are wide;
limb bone
2. Short bones: Cube-shaped bones (wrist and
ankle); Sesamoid bones from within
tendons (patella); vary in size and number in
different individuals
3. Flat bones: thin, flat, slightly curved;
sternum, scapulae, ribs, most skull bones
4. Irregular bones: complicated shape;
vertebrae and hip bones
Bones = Organs, because they contain different tissue
types. Bone (osseous tissue) predominates, but also has
nerve, cartilage, fibrous ct, muscle, and epithelial
Three levels of structure: Gross, microscopic, and
chemical
GROSS ANATOMY
Compact bone: dense outer layer that appears smooth
and solid
Spongy bone: made up of honeycomb of small needle-
like or flat pieces called trabeculae (hollows between
trabeculae are filled with red or yellow marrow)
Diploe – thin plates of spongy bone covered by compact
bone

Compact bones are sandwiched between connective

tissue membranes

Periosteum covers the outside of the compact bones

Endosteum covers the inside portion of compact bones

Layers of periosteum

Fibrous layer – outer layer consisting of dense irreg. ct.

consisting of Sharpeys fibers that secure to matrix

Osteogenic layer: Inner layer

Nutrient artery – blood vessels on the shaft that come

in through nutrient foramen

Hematopoietic tissue: Red marrow is responsible for

hematopoiesis

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

5 major cells of bone tissue:

1. Osteogenic Cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Bone-lining cells
5. Osteoclasts

Shaft/Diaphysis = middle part of bone Osteogenic/Osteoprogenitor: Bone creation cells;

Epiphysis = ends of long bones (articular cartilage at
both ends)
Epiphysial line = line separating diaphysis and epiphysis
MEMBRANES: walls
Periosteum – white, double-layered membranes that
cover external; anchor point for tend. & lig.
Endosteum - delicate connective tissue covering internal
bone; covers trabeculae, lines canals that pass through
compact; contains osteogenic that can differentiate into
other bone cells.
mitotically active stem cells; transform into
osteoblast/bone-lining cells when stimulated (Some
remain the same)
Osteoblasts: actively mitotic; Bone-forming cells that
make unmineralized bone matrix (osteoid) – made up of
collagen and calcium-binding protein.
Osteocytes: Maintains bone matrix; mature cells in
lacunae no longer divide; acts as stress sensor
(communicates info to osteoblast and osteoclast so
bone remodeling can occur)
Osteoclasts: giant, multinucleate cells that break down
the bone; located in bays called resorption bays
Canals and canaliculi

-Central (harvesian) canal: runs through core of osteon

(contains blood vessels and nerve fibers)

-Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals: canals lined with

endosteum that occur at right angles to central canal
(connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum,
medullary cavity, and central canal [vertical])

Bone-lining cells: Cells for alignment (external:

periosteal cells) (internal: endosteal cells)

Compact bone/Lamellar bone: Osteon, Canals,

interstitial and circumferential lamellae

Lacunae: Small cavities that contain osteocytes

Osteons
Canaliculi: hair-like canal that connect lacunae to each
Osteon/Haversian system – structural unit of the
other and to the central canal (allow communication
skeletal system; consists of an elongated cylinder that
between osteocytes and permits nutrient&wastes to be
runs parallel to the long axis of the bone
relayed)
Osteon Cylinder consists of several rings of bone matrix
called lamellae (contains collagen fibers; withstand and
resist stress; bone salts/hydroxy-apatite salts found Interstitial and circumferential lamellae
between fibers)
-Interstitial lamellae: lamellae not part of the osteon;
fills gaps between forming osteons; others are remnants
of osteons from remodeling

-Circumferential lamellae: Deep to periosteum, but

superficial to endosteum; extend around entire surface
of diaphysis; help long bone to resist twisting
 6.5_Bone Development

Ossification/Osteogenesis: process of bone tissue

formation

-formation of bone skeleton begins in 2 months of

development

-postnatal bone growth occurs until early adulthood

-bone remodeling and repair are lifelong

Endochondral Ossification: Bone forms by

replacing hyaline cartilage; bones are called
cartilage bones (endochondral); forms most of
the skeleton

Intramembranous Ossification: bone develops

from fibrous membrane; bones are called
membrane bones

Spongy bone: Appears unorganized but actually

organized to resist stress; trabeculae (cable-like
suspension bridge) confer strength to the bone

CHEMICAL ANATOMY

Bone is made up of both organic and inorganic

components

Organic components: Includes cells (Refer to

microscopy)
Osteoid, makes up 1/3 of organic bone matrix

Inorganic Components: Hydroxyapatites (salts) make up

65% of bone by mass; consist of tiny calcium phosphate
crystals in and around collagen fibers; responsible for
hardness and resistance to compression
AXIAL SKELETON: three major regions (skull, vertebral
column, thoracic cage)
Three functions;
1. Form longitudinal axis of body
2. Support head, neck, and trunk
3. Protect brain, spine, thoracic
7.1_Skull: most complex bony structure in the body;
formed by two sets of bones:
Cranial (cranium): encloses brain and provide
sites of attachment for head and neck muscles
Facial bones: form the framework of face; has
different cavities; provide opening for air and food
passage; secure teeth; anchor facial muscles
-Most bones are flat and locked (except
mandible [mouth]), Joints are called sutures (saw-tooth
appearance)
Cranium is composed of 8 cranial bones: frontal bone, 2
parietal bone, occipital bone, 2 temporal bones,
sphenoid bone, ethmoid bone
Frontal Bone: shell-shaped bone (forehead)
-Supraorbital foramen (notch) allows
supraorbital artery and nerve to pass to forehead
-Glabella is area of bone between orbits
: Frontal sinuses located lateral to
glabella
Parietal Bones and major sutures
- Two large parietal bones form most of superior
and lateral aspects of cranial vault
- 4 sutures mark articulations of parietal bones
with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:
1. Coronal Suture: between parietal and
frontal
2. Sagittal suture: between right and left
parietal
3. Lambdoid suture: between parietal and
occipital
 4. Squamous suture: between parietal and Ethmoid bone: deepest skull bone; formed by cribriform
temporal on each side of the skull plates (responsible for smell)

Sutural bones: tiny, irregularly shaped bones that

appear within sutures (not everyone has these)

______________________________________________

Facial Bones: made up of 14 bones, 12 are paired;

-Mandible and vomer are single

-Maxillary, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, palatine,

inferior nasal conchae are paired

Mandible: largest and strongest bone; houses masseter

(strongest muscle)
Occipital bone: forms skull posterior and posterior
cranial fossa; connects with parietal, temporal, and
sphenoid

Foramen Magnum: big hole papunta sa brain lmao

Maxillary bones: medially fused to form upper jaw

External occipital protuberance: protrusion just superior

to foramen magnum

Temporal bones: bones that make up inferolateral

aspect of skull; has three major regions

1. Squamous: zygomatic processes connect with

zygomatic bone(facial bone) to form zygomatic
arch and mandibular fossa
2. Tympanic: surround external acoustic meatus
(external ear canal) Zygomatic bones: form cheekbones
3. Petrous: houses middle and internal ear cavities;
makes up middle cranial fossa

Sphenoid bone: complex, bat shaped bone; “Keystone

bone”
 The hyoid bone: Not a bone of skull; bone not
connected to other bones but connected to liga. and
muscles

Nasal bones: forms bridge of the nose

Lacrimal bones: forms medial walls of orbits

7.2 Vertebral Column: Extends skull to pelvis; transmit
weight of trunk to lower limbs, protect spine, provide
attachment points; contains 26 irregular bones called
vertebrae in five regions (~28” long):

1. Cervical: consist of 7 vertebrae

2. Thoracic: 12 vertbrae

3. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae

4. Sacrum: one bone, connects with hip

5. Coccyx: fused bones that form terminus

Palatine Bones: L-shaped bones made from two bony
plates
Curvatures: four main curves to help increase resilience
and flexibility

Cervical and lumbar curvature: concave

Thoracic and sacral curvature: convex

Vomer: Plow-shaped bone; forms part of nasal septum

Inferior Nasal conchae: upper part of vomer; largest of

3 pairs of conchae
 Basic parts of vertebra

Posterior: mostly patusok

Spinous process: sa gitna

Transverse process: sa gilid

Anterior: Makapal na part

Body: yung umbok ng vertebra

Vertebral foramen: butas sa gitna (daanan ng spinal

cord)

Lamina: Gitna ng spinous and transverse process

Pedicle: gitna ng transverse process and body

Superior anticular facet: yung white part (up pag

superior down pag inferior)

Intervertebral discs: Cushion-like pad sandwiched

between vertebrae that act as shock absorber;

Nucleus pulposus: Inner gelatinous nucleus; gives

elasticity and compressibility

Anulus Fibrosus: Outer collar composed of collagen and

fibrocar. Limits expansion of Nucl. Pul.

Cervical Vertebrae

C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae

C3 to C7: oval-shaped body; large triangular vertebral

foramen; transverse foramen; spinous process also
knows as bifid process (U-shaped)
C7 is an exception; vertebra prominens; large and can
be felt so used as a landmark
C1 (Atlas) and C2 (Axis) have unique features
Atlas: No body or spinous process; carries the skull
Axis: has body and process but small;
“dens/odontoid process” – missing body of atlas
______________________________________________
Thoracic vertebrae: T1 to T12 increase in size and
articulate with ribs; Body is heart shaped with two small
demifacets that connect with ribs (T10 to T12 only have
single facet); long, sharp spinous process; transverse
process has facets that connect with ribs (except
T11,12)
-Downward spinous process
Lumbar veterbrae: L1 to L5 “small of back”; receives
most stress therefore huge structure; short laminae; flat
has spinous pointing posterior, triangular vertebral foramen,
facets lock lumbar together to prevent rotation
 Body: middle

Xiphoid process: bottom

Sacrum: triangular bone made from five fused vertebrae

(S1 – S5); superior articular process connects with L5;

Sacral canal: continuation of vertebral canal

Sacral hiatus: large opening at end of canal

Filum terminale: holes for nerves

Coccyx: tailbone formed from 3 to 5 fused vertebrae, Three important anatomical landmark:
little function
Jugular notch: top

Sternal angle: middle

Xiphisternal joint: bottom

7.3 Thoracic Cage: composed of thoracic vertebrae,

sternum and costal cartilage, and ribs; func. Protect vital
organs of thor. cavity, support shoulder girdles and
upper limb, provides attachment site

Sternum: Also called breastbone; consists of 3 fused

bones:

Manubrium: Top
12 pairs of ribs form thoracic cage

True ribs (1-7): attached to sternum

False ribs (8-10): not attached to sternum,

attached to costal cartilage of rib 7

Floating ribs(11,12): only attached to vertebra

Main parts of ribs:

Shaft: flatbone that makes up the rib (Costal groove:

houses nerves and vessels)

Head: connects with facets

Neck: constricted portion beyond head

Tubercle: knoblike structure lateral to neck (tubercle ->

tube -> may tumubo)