Skeletal System

1
 Functions
1. Support – forms a rigid framework where tissues
and organs are attached

2. Protection –
- Skull and vertebrae – protect and
enclose the CNS
- Rib cage – protects the heart, lungs,
major blood vessels, liver and spleen
Pelvic girdle – protects and support the
pelvic viscera
2
3. Body movement – bones serve as
attachment for most skeletal muscles
functioning as levers during muscle
movement with joits functioning as pivots

4. Hemopoiesis (blood formation)

- Red bone marrow produces wbc,rbc, and
platelets
( sternum, vertebrae, pelvis, epiphysis of
femur and humerus)

3
5. Mineral storage-
- Calcium and Phosphorus – 2/3 of its
weight

- 95% Ca and 90% P are deposited in the

bones and teeth

Importance of Calcium:
- Bone formation, muscle contraction,
hormonal action, blood clotting,
proper membrane permeability 4
Importance of P:
- synthesis of nucleic acids, ATP utilization

5
 Skeleton
Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
(w/in the integument) (deep w/in the body)

Keratinized Bony
exoskeleton exoskeleton

Bony Cartilagenous Notochord

6
 Skeleton

Cranial Post Cranial

(skull)

Axial Appendicular

Vertebral Notochord Limbs Girdle

column
(cervical, thoracic, lumbar)
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 Skeletal system
Cranium : vertebrate skull (brain case: fused cranial
components)

Vertebral Column: vertebrae

1. Cervical
2. Thoracic
3. Lumbar
4. Caudal

Girdles
8
Appendages
 Composition of the Skeleton
1. Mineralized connective tissue
* bone
* dentin (dentine)
* cartilage
* enamel or enameloid substances
2. Ligaments - tough fibrous band of connective
tissue connecting bones together
3. Tendons – flexible cord of strong fibrous tissue
attaching muscle to a bone
9
 SOME PRODUCTS OF MESENCHYME

BONE CARTILAGE DENTIN ENAMEL

osteoblast chondroblast odontoblast ameloblast

collagen fibroblast scleroblast myoblast muscle cells

MESENCHYME
(a mesodermal cells that dispersed and fused to neural crest forming later
a loosely connected cells) 10
 COLLAGEN
• a proteinaceous fibril produced by fibroblasts

• collagen synthesis is the preliminary step in the

formation of skeletal tissues

1. fibrils aggregate to form collagen fibers

2. collagen fibers form dense collagen bundles

woven into a compact network of dense
connective tissue

3. minerals deposited on the network and form into

cartilage and bone 11
 Cartilage
• Covered by a dense connective tissue
called perichondrium (where muscles,
tendons ligaments are attached)

12
 Kinds of Cartilage:
1.Hyaline cartilage – larynx, trachea,
bronchi

13
2. Elastic cartilage – external ears,
epiglottis

14
3. Fibrous cartilage – intervertebral discs,
point of attachment of tendons and
ligaments (attaches bone to bone)

15
 Bone – living tissue that make up the
skeleton

Composed of:

1. matrix of collagenous fibers

2. hydroxyapatite crystals (calcium, phosphate,

hydroxyl ions)

3. cementing substance (composed of water

and mucopolysaccharides; binds crystals
16
to matrix)
4. lacunae

5. Canaliculi

Osteocytes – bone cells

Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells

Periosteum – outer covering of the bone

(connective tissue)
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 4 Principal Types of Bone Cells:
1. Osteogenic cells – respond to trauma (ex.
fractures) by giving rise to osteoblasts
and osteoclasts
2. Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
3. Osteocytes – mature bone cells that are
derived from the osteoblasts, maintain
healthy bone tissue , regulate the calcium
release from the bone tissue to blood
4. Osteoclasts – enzymatically breakdown
bone tissue --- impt. in bone growth,
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remodelling , and healing
 COMPACT BONE
• consists of lamellae of mineralized collagenous bundles arranged
concentrically around a haversian canal

• osteon or haversian system consists of:

haversian canal (w/ arteriole, venule,
lymph vessel, nerve fibers) and
surrounding lamellae

• vessels in the canals continuous

with those in bone marrow

• haversian systems characteristic

of amniotes

• Ex. Long bones

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 SPONGY BONE

• consists of bony trabeculae

and bone marrow

Trabeculae: assemblage of
beams, bars and rods that
form a rigid framework which
provides maximum strength
at areas of stress

 composed of irregularly
arranged lamellae without haversian systems 20
MARROW: occupies cavities between
trabeculae

 consists of connective tissue fibers that

support blood vessels, nerve fibers, and
adipose tissue (yellow marrow)

 red marrow (hemopoietic tissue) -

produces red blood cells and some types
of white blood cells

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endosteum: thin connective tissue membrane
lining the marrow cavities; has the capacity
to deposit or remodel bone

Ex. flat bones (ribs, scapulae,

membrane bones of skull)

DENTINE

• same components as compact and spongy

bones except that odontoblasts are not
trapped in lacunae during osteogenesis 22
• odontoblasts (give rise to teeth) retreat
as they deposit dentin; thus, they are
found only in inner border

• dentin forms only in outer layer of

dermis and is frequently coated on its
surface by enamel or enameloid

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Parts of the Long Bone
1. Diaphysis – tubular shaft that
runs between the prroxima3
and distal ends of the bone.
The walls are composed of
dense and hard compact bone.

2. Epiphysis – wider section at

each end of the bone which is
filled with spongy bone.

3. Medullary cavity – hollow part

in the diaphysis which is filled
with yellow bone marrow
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 Differences Between Spongy
Bones and Compact Bones
Spongy Bones Compact Bones
Also called cancellous Also called cortical bones
bones
Light, spongy and soft Heavy, tough and compact in
in nature nature
Made up of trabeculae Made up of osteons
Fill the inner layer of Fill the outer layer of most
most bones bones
Form the ends or Form the shaft or diaphysis
epiphysis of long bones of long bones

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 ACELLULAR BONE

 type of bone where osteoblasts (bone-

forming cells) retreat as they deposit bone
and do not leave behind processes or
canaliculi

 constitutes fibrous plates of flexible scales

of modern fishes and cementum of
vertebrate teeth
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 MEMBRANE BONE
 bone deposited directly within a membranous
blastema without having been preceded by a
cartilaginous model

 intramembranous ossification gives rise to:

* certain bones of lower jaw, skull, & pectoral girdles

* dentin and other bone that forms in dermis of skin

* vertebrae in teleosts(ray-finned fishes), urodeles

(newts, salamanders), apodans (caecillians) only

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 may be compact or spongy; lamellar or non-
lamellar

 lacks haversian canals

 Ex. periosteal bone

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 DERMAL BONE

DERMAL BONE
any bone derived ontogenetically or
phyllogenetically derived from dermis of
skin

Ex. dermatocranium bones, bones that

invest Meckel’s cartilage of lower jaw,
membrane bones of pectoral girdles

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Dermatocranium – portion of the cranium
composed of dermal bone

Composed of:

roof of the skull,

facial skeleton,
opercular bone in fishes

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 Joints

 Refers to the articulation between cartilages

or bones

 Types:

1. synarthroses – immovable joints

2. diarthroses – freely movable joints

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 Synarthroses – immovable joints

Sutures

 Sutures – skull

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 Gomphoses – binds the
teeth to the bony socket

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Schindylesis – articulation of ethmoid
bone with vomer

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 Diarthroses – freely movable
joints

1. Enarthroses - ball-and-socket joints (hip,

shoulder)

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2. Ginglymi – hinge joints –
limited to one plane (elbow , knee)

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3. Rotatoria – pivotal or rotatory
( atlas and axis)

3. Rotatoria – pivotal or rotatory (atlas,

axis)

37
4. Arthrodia – gliding joints
(wrist, ankle)

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Two Divisions of Skeleton

 Axial Skeleton – skull, vertebral column,

pectoral bones (80 bones)

 Appendicular Skeleton – appendages

(126 bones)

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 Bones of the Axial Skeleton (80)
1. Skull 3. Hyoid - 1
Cranium
Ethmoid - 1 4. Vertebral column
Frontal – 1 Cervical - 7
Occipital – 1 Thoracic - 12
Parietal –2 Lumbar - 5
Sphenoid – 1 Sacrum - 1
Temporal – 2 Coccyx - 1
Ear ossicles – 6 26
14
2. Face
Inferior nasal concha – 2
Lacrimal – 2 5. Thoracic cage
Mandible – 1 Ribs - 24
Maxilla – 2 Sternum - 1
Nasal – 2 25
Palatine – 2
Vomer – 1
Zygomatic – 2
14
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Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
(126)
1. Pectoral Girdle 2. Pelvic Girdle
Clavicle – 2 Coxal bones - 2
Scapula – 2
4

3. Upper Extremities 4. Lower Extremities

Humerus – 2 Femur - 2
Ulna – 2 Patella - 2
Radius – 2 Tibia - 2
Carpals – 16 Fibula - 2
Metacarpals – 10 Tarsals - 14
Phalanges – 28 Metatarsals – 10
60 Phalanges – 28
60 41
42
 Notochord – primitive axial skeleton which is
replaced by vertebral column

 Lies beneath neural tube, extending from the

diencephalic region of the brain to the
posterior end of the body

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•
Vertebral
Protects the spinal cord
column
• Composed of segmentally
• arranged vertebrae.

• Provides support and

• movement of the head and
• trunk

• Gives rigidity to the body

• Provides attachment of the

• girdles and muscles

• Composed of 33 individual vertebrae

- 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 4 or 5 fused sacral, and 4 or 5 fused

coccygeal vertebrae 44
 Parts of the vertebra:
1. Centrum – solid mass replace the notochord
2. Neural arch – dorsal side of the centrum; surrounds
and protects the neural tube
3. Neural canal – occupied by spinal cord

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4. neural spine – projection of the
neural arch

5. processes or apophyses – project from arch

or centrum

6. hemal arch – ventral side

encloses the blood vessels
(absent in trunk vertebrae)

7. haemal spine – projection of

the haemal arch
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8. Intervertebral discs – fibrocartilage

9. Intervertebral foramina – passage of

spinal nerves

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 Different Shapes of Centrum
1. Amphicoelous – centrum is concave at
each end

Ex. fish

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 2. Opisthocoelous –convex at anterior end and
concave at posterior end

Ex. Salamanders

3. Procoelous – concave at the anterior face and convex at

the posterior end
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Ex. reptiles, frogs
mammals
fish

salamanders
Reptiles,
frogs

50
birds
4. Acoelous or amphiplatyan – both ends flat
Ex. Mammals

5. Heterocoelous – saddle-shaped; anterior face

– convex in a dorsoventral direction, but
concave from side to side
Ex. birds 51
mammals
fish

salamanders
Reptiles,
frogs

52
birds
• Hemal arch – fish tail - beneath the
centrum and serves as the passage of
caudal artery and vein. (ventral arches)

- In reptiles, birds
and mammals – chevron bone
(ventral side of a tail) attachment of muscles 53
 Processes (Apophyses)

• They articulate with the ribs

• Serve as attachment for some of the

muscles that flex with the vertebral
column

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 Zygapophyses
– paired processes at the anterior and
posterior ends of trunk vertebrae
(prezygapophyses, postztgapophyses)

• Serve to join the

neural arches of
adjacent vertebrae.

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56
 Intervertebral foramen – opening
between two vertebrae

- servers as the passage of the

spinal nerves

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 Frogs
a. Atlas – single cervical
vertebra which articulates
with the skull

b. Trunk vertebrae (6)

c. 8th vertebra
d. Sacral vertebra – 9th vertebra;
caudal end bears two convex
projections which fit into the
concavities of the 10th vertebra

c. Urostyle – 10th vertebra 58

 Reptiles
• Cervical – neck region; freely movable

• Thoracic – bear arched ribs which articulate

ventrally with the sternum

• Lumbar – movable but don’t bear ribs

• Sacral – where pelvic girdle is attached sacrum

– fusion of two vertebrae gives strength to the pelvic
girdle

• Caudal region

Chevron bones – small V-shape bones on the ventral

side of caudal vertebrae – remnants of hemal
arches 59
 Turtles
• lack lumbar region

• Axis – second vertebra bears a projection

called odontoid process, at the anterior end
of the centrum

- allows greater head movement

10th thoracic vertebrae – lack transverse

processes
- neural arches as well as those of the sacrum
and first caudal vertebra are united with the
carapace. 60
61
62
 Birds
• Rigidity – most distinctive feature of the
spinal column of birds – advantage for
flight

• neck veretebrae - Heterocoelous type -

flexibility

• but, Cervical region – movable

• Posterior thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and

anterior caudal regions are firmly united 63
• Atlas – small, narrow, and ringlike

– Centrum – represented by odontoid

process of the axis

– Transverse processes of the cervical

vertebrae are pierced by
transverse foramen

passage of the vertebral arteries and

veins 64
Bird Pectoral girdle

65
 Vertebrae - Birds
• Numerous cervical vertebrae

• Single occipital condyle

• Trunk = Thoracic vertebrae (tend to fuse)

• Synsacrum
– Last thoracic, all lumbar, 2 sacral, some caudal

• Caudal vertebrae
– Pygostyle supports tail feathers 66
Thoracic vertebrae – bear ribs that unite
ventrally with sternum

Fowl – 7 thoracic vertebrae

6th and 7th are ankylosed to the 1st lumbar

vertebra

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68
Pelvic Girdle
Posterior thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and the
first few caudal vertebrae are fused to
form a single bony mass called
synsacrum.

70
71
72
6th to 10th posterior caudal vertebrae
fused to form the “plowshare” bone or
pygostyle

* supports the large

tail feathers

synsacrum
73
74
 Mammals
• Outstanding feature of the cervical vertebrae –
constant number of vertebrae – 7 in human

• Except: sloth – 6, manatee – 6, ant bear – 8

• Atlas – first vertebra; ring-shaped with winglike

lateral projections and opening called vertebral
canal.

• Axis – second vertebra; have a very large

elongated neural arch and a neural spine which
projects forward over the atlas
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Cervical vertebra

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77
 ATLAS
• Atlas – first vertebra; ring-shaped with
winglike lateral projections and
opening called vertebral canal.

78
 Atlas - Cat
1.Anterior articular process 2. Posterior articular process
4. Body 5. Vertebral foramen
6. Transverse process 8. Foramen transversarium

79
 AXIS
• Axis – second vertebra; have a very
large elongated neural arch and a
neural spine which projects forward
over the atlas

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• Thoracic vertebrae – bear long
ribs, reaching the ventral side

• 13 – cat

• 12 - man

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• Thoracic vertebrae bear ribs connected directly
or indirectly to the sternum. Some may not
reach the sternum – floating ribs

• Facets – flat surface of bones for articulation

with another bone

1. Tubercular facets – ventral sides of the free

ends of the transverse processes

2. Costal demifacets – dorsolateral angles of the

centrum

for reception of the head or capitulum of the rib

84
 Thoracic vertebra
1. Anterior articular process 6. Transverse process
2. Posterior articular process 9. Costal facets
3. Spinous process
4. Body
5. Vertebral foramen

85
 RIBS

• provide sites for secure muscle attachment

• help suspend the body

• form a protective case around viscera (rib
cage)
• Important in the process of respitation

86
In tetrapods ribs are bicipital that is
having two heads that articulates with
the vertebrae.

1.capitulum : ventral rib head, that

articulates in parapophysis

2. tuberculum : dorsal rib head, that articulates

in diapophysis 87
fishes have two sets of ribs:
ventral and dorsal rib

88
89
 STERNUM
• Midventral skeletal structure
• Offers site for origin of chest
muscle
• fish lack sternum
• Xiphisternum in anurans
• Keel, or “carina” in birds
• absent in turtles,snakes, and
many limbless lizards
• Manubrium and Xiphisternum
modified in most mammals to
consist the sternum.

91
 Manubrium
1st

Stenebrae -
Body of the
Stenebra Sternum
2nd to 7th

Costal
cartilage

Xiphisternum-
8th 92
Xiphoid process
 Lumbar vertebrae
• Mammals – vary from 2 to 24;
generally – 4 to 7

• Man – 5

• Transverse processes-
prominent and directed forward

• Anterior lumbar vertebrae

may bear mammilary
processes dorsolateral to the
prezygapophyses
– attachment of heavy back muscles. 93
 Sacral vertebrae
• Consist of 3 to 5 vertebrae – firmly united

• For articulation with

the pelvic girdle

The presence of sacral foramina – on both dorsal

and ventral sides provides for the passage of
dorsal and ventral rami of sacral spinal nerves
which communicate with the neural canal.
94
• First sacral vertebra – most important
in supporting the pelvic girdle and
hindlimbs

Large lateral masses bear auricular

surfaces for articulation with the ilium 95
Caudal vertebrae
 Range from 3 to 4 (man) ; 50 in scaly
anteater

 Few caudal vertebrae in man unite to form

a single coccyx (tail bone)

96
Human Spine

97
98
 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelvic Girdles

Characteristic Male pelvis Female pelvis

General appearance More massive; More delicate;

prominent processes processes not so
prominent
Anterior superior iliac Close together Wider apart
spines

Pelvic inlet Heart-shaped Round or oval

Pelvic outlet Narrower Wider

Obturator foramen Oval Triangular

Symphysis pubis Deeper, longer Shallower, shorter

Pubic arch Acute (less than 90º ) Obtuse (greater than

90º
99
Forelimbs

100
101
102
103
Humerus

104
Radius and Ulna

105
Radius and Ulna

106
Femur

107
108
Femur

109
Tibia and Fibula

110
Cat Skeleton

111
Cat Skull (Dorsal View)
Nasal

112
113
 Skull – Lateral View
Zygomatic arch

Infraorbital
foramen

114
115
116
117
118
 Infraspinous
fossa Forelimb

Supraspinous
spine fossa

Metacromion
process

119
Hindlimb

120
 head
Greater
Lesser tuberosity
tuberosity

Lateral
epicondyle

121
Pelvic girdle

122
123
END

124