Alangui, Hannah Vannerie A.

BSN1-C

MODULE 3: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

MULTIPLE CHOICES:
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. C
10. D
11. C
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. B
LESSON 1: STRUCTURE OF BONE
Diaphysis:
 This is the shaft and main portion of the bone. It is long and cylindrical in shape.
Metaphyses:
 These are between the diaphysis and the epiphyses.
Articular cartilage:
 This is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphysis of one bone where it
forms a joint with another bone.
 It is responsible for reducing friction and absorbing shocks at freely movable joints
Periosteum:
 .It has two layers: an outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue and an inner layer
of osteogenic cells that can develop bone width but not length.
 protect and nourish the bone tissue;
 act as an attachment site for ligaments and tendons; assist in bone repair.
Medullary cavity:
• This cylindrical cavity within the diaphysis contains blood vessels and bone marrow. It
helps to reduce the density and weight of bone whilst the cylindrical shape means it
retains strength to withstand the forces exerted upon it.
Endosteum:
• This single layer of bone-producing cells lines the inner surfaces of the cavities within
the bone.
2. Describe the components of the extracellular bone matrix and state the function
of each.
• Extracellular matrix, which is made up of an organic matrix (30%) containing
proteoglycans (but less than cartilage), glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins,
osteonectin (anchors bone mineral to collagen) and osteocalcin (calcium binding
protein).
3. List each type of bone cell and discuss the function.
 Osteogenic Cell- responsible for forming new bones.
  Osteoblasts- Responsible for building a bone cells, it synthesize and secrete collagen
fibers and other organic components needed to build the extracellular matrix of bone
tissue, and initiated calcification.
 Osteocytes- It main cells in bone tissue and maintain its daily metabolism, such as the
exchange of nutrients and wastes with the blood resulting cells develop into osteoblasts
 Osteoclasts- Release enzymes that digest the mineral components of bone matrix
(resorption) and regulate blood calcium level.
4. Explain the structural differences between compact and spongy bone.
COMPACT BONE SPONGY BONE
 strongest type of bone tissue  dried bone
 largely set out in cylinder around  referred to as trabecular or cancellous
central canals through which blood bone tissue
vessels and nerves pass  always located in the interior of a bone,
 dense and contains few spaces, protected by a covering of compact
 found beneath the periosteum of all bone
bones and accounts  consists of lamellae that are arranged
 for the majority of the diaphyses of long in an irregular pattern of thin columns
bones called trabeculae
 living bone
5. Describe the blood and nerve supply of bone.
 The bone is richly supplied with blood. Blood vessels, which are especially abundant in
portions of bone containing red bone marrow, pass into bones from the periosteum.
 Periosteal arteries accompanied by nerves supply the periosteum and compact bone
 Metaphyseal arteries enter the metaphyses of a long bone and, together with the
nutrient artery, supply the red bone marrow and bone tissue of the metaphyses.
 Epiphyseal arteries enter the epiphyses of a long bone and supply the red bone
marrow and bone tissue of the epiphyses.
 Veins that carry blood away from long bones are evident in three (3) places:
nutrient veins, epiphyseal veins, periosteal veins

6.
7. Using a table, describe the principal surface markings on bones and the functions of
each.
MARKINGS: DESCRIPTION:
DEPRESSIONS AND OPENINGS: SITES ALLOWING THE PASSAGE OF SOFT TISSUE(NERVES,
BLOOD VESSELS, LIGAMENTS, TENDONS)OR FORMATION OF JOINTS
1. Fissure(FISH-ur) 1. It is a narrow slit between the adjacent parts
2. Foramen(fo-Ra-men= hole;plural is of bones through which blood vessels or
formina) nerves pass.
3. Fossa(FOS-a= trench;plural is fossae, 2. Opening through which blood vessels,
FOS-e) nerves, or ligaments pass.
4. Sulculus(SUL-kus= groove;plural is sulci, 3. A shallow depression.
SUL-si) 4. Furrow along a bone surface that
5. Meatus(me-A-tus=passageway;plural is accommodates a blood vessel, nerve, or
meati, me-A-ti) tendons.
5. Tubelike opening
PROCESSES: A PROOJECTIONS OR OUTGROWS ON BONE HAT FORMS JOINTS OR
ATTACHMENT POINTS FOR CONNECTIVE TISSUE, SUCH AS LIGAMENTS AND TENDONS.
Processes that forms joints.
1. Condyle(KON-dil;condyles=knuckle 1. Large, round protuberance at the end of a
2. Facet(FAS-et or fa-SET) bone
3. Head 2. Smooth flat articular surface
3. Rounded articular projection supported on
the neck( constricted portion) of a bone
Processes that form attachment points for
connective tissue

1. Crest 1. Prominent ridge or elongated projection.

2. Epicondyle(epi=above) 2. Projection above a condyle
3. Line(linea) 3. Long, narrow ridge or border(less prominent
4. Spinous process than a crest)
5. Trochanter(tro-KAN-ter) 4. Sharp, slender projection
6. Tubercle(TOO-ber-kul;tuber=knob) 5. Very large proection
7. Tuberosity 6. Small, rounded projection
7. Large, rounded, usually roughened
projection.
9.Using a table, describe the structure and function of hyaline, fibrous and elastic
cartilage.
DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
1. HYALINE CARTILAGE  Amorphous but firm  Supports and
matrix reinforces; has
 Collagen fibers form resilient cushioning
an imperceptible properties; resists
network compressive stress.
 Chondroblasts
produce the matrix and
when mature
(chondrocytes) lie in
lacunae.
2. FIBROUS  A matrix similar to but  Tensile strength with
CARTILAGE less firm than in the ability to absorb
hyaline cartilage compressive shock.
 Thick collagen fibers
predominate

LESSON 2: FUNCTIONS OF BONE AND THE SKELETAL SYSTEM BONE FORMATION

1. Describe the six (6) main functions of the skeletal system.
 Support- Supports the upper body weight, rib cage and balances the body.
 Protection- It protects the vital internal organs from injury.
 Movement- Provides points f attached for skeletal muscle.
  Production of blood cells- red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets, a process called hemopoiesis
 Mineral homeostasis- Stores several minerals,
 Triglyceride Storage- It stores triglycerides which are a potential chemical energy
reserve.

3. Explain how bone grows in length and thickness.

 The diaphysis can only lengthen through the action of the epiphyseal plate. On the
epiphyseal side of the plate, chondrocytes multiply as a bone develops. On the
diaphyseal side of the plate, cartilage is replaced by bone as younger chondrocytes
replace older ones that are damaged by calcification. In this approach, the
diaphysealside bone lengthens while the epiphyseal plate's thickness largely remains
unchanged. Only appositional growth beneath the periosteum increases the thickness of
bones. Osteoblasts become surrounded by extracellular matrix, leading to the formation
of ridges on either side of the periosteal blood vessel. These ridges fuse together to form
a tunnel enclosing the blood vessels. As new bone is added to the outer surface, bone
thickness increases. The diameter of the medullary cavity increases due to the bone
lining it being destroyed by osteoclasts.Periosteal cells near the surface of the bone
develop into osteoblasts, which produce collagen fibers and other organic substances to
create the extracellular matrix of the bone.
4. Discuss the factors affecting bone formation.
 Minerals like calcium and phosphorus are needed in large amounts while bones
are growing, as are smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese.
These minerals are necessary during the bone remodelling.
 Vitamin A stimulates the activity of osteoblasts. Vitamin C is needed for the
synthesis of collagen, the main bone protein. Vitamin D helps build bones by
increasing the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract into
the blood. Vitamins K and B12 are also needed for the synthesis of bone
proteins.
 Thyroid hormones also promote bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts. Insulin
promotes bone growth by increasing the synthesis of bone proteins. Estrogen
 and testosterone cause a dramatic effect on bone growth. Cause of the sudden
"growth spurt" that occurs during the teenage year Promote changes in females,
such as widening of the pelvis. Shut down growth at epiphyseal plates
Parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin are other hormones that can affect
bone remodeling.
5.Enumerate and differentiate the types of fracture.
TYPES OF FRACTURE:
1. Comminutes- A bone fragments into three or more pieces. Particularly common in the
aged, whose bones are more brittle.
2. Spiral- Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone.
Common sports fracture.
3. Depressed- Broken bone is pressed inward. Typical of skull fracture
4. Compression- Bone is crushed. Common in porous bones subjected to extreme trauma,
as in a fall.
5. Epiphyseal- Epiphysis separates from diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate.
6. Greenstick- Bone breaks incompletely, like how a green twig breaks. Common in
children, wjose relatively more organix matrix and more flexible than those of adults

7. Describe the importance of calcium in the body.

 Calcium is necessary for our body since it secrete hormones, move muscles, and
circulate blood. Also, it helps our muscles to contract, maintains regular heartbeats,
and sustains nerve and blood clotting capabilities.
8. Explain how blood calcium level is regulated.
 Blood calcium level is regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH). Then PTH raises
osteoclast activity and numbers. Also, PTH affects the kidneys to lessen the loss of
Ca2+ in the urine. Additionally, PTH encourages the production of calcitriol, a
hormone that aids in the gastrointestinal tract's ability to absorb calcium from the
diet.
9. Describe how exercise and mechanical stress affect bone tissue.
  Because of variations in the mechanical pressures applied to it, bone tissue can
change in strength. More mineral salts are deposited in the body when it experiences
more strain, and osteoblasts also manufacture more collagen fibers. Gravity and the
pull of skeletal muscles exert the primary mechanical pressures on bones. As a
result, bone formation will be stimulated more by high-impact stressors like jumping
or weightlifting activities than by low-impact stressors like walking.
10. Describe the effects of aging on bone tissue.
 Loss of bone mass
• Results from the loss of calcium from bone matrix
• The loss of calcium from bones is one of the symptoms in osteoporosis
 Brittleness
• Results from a decreased rate of protein synthesis
• Collagen fibers gives bone its tensile strength
• The loss of tensile strength causes the bones to become very brittle and susceptible to
fracture.
LESSON 3: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: AXIAL SKELETON

1. Describe how the skeleton is organized into axial and appendicular divisions.
 Axial skeleton
 Consists of the bones that lie around the longitudinal axis of the human body which
are the skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone, ribs, sternum
(breastbone), and bones of the vertebral column
 Appendicular skeleton
 Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs (extremities),plus the bones forming
the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton
2. Using a table, name the cranial and facial bones and indicate whether they are
paired or single.
CRANIAL BONES FACIAL BONES
 PARIETAL BONES(2)  MANDIBLE(1)
 FRONTAL(1)  MAXILLA(2)
 OCCIPITAL(1)  ZYGOMATIC(2)
 TEMPORAL(2)  NASAL(2)
 SPHENOID(1)  LACRIMAL(2)
 ETHMOID(1)  PALATINE(2)
 VOMER(1)
 INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA(2)
 AUDITORY OSSICLES(malleus,
incus and stapes) (2 each)
6.Identify the regions and normal curves of the vertebral column, describing its
structural and functional features.

 CERVICAL VERTEBRAE(7)  From the second cervical vertebra
 THORACIC VERTEBRAE(12) to the sacrum, there are
 LUMBAR VERTEBRAE(5) intervertebral discs, which make
SACRAL up about 25% of the height of the
 SACRUM(5, FUSED) vertebral column. They are located
 COCCYX(4,FUSED) between the bodies of adjacent
 Cervical and lumbar(anteriorly vertebrae. Each disc consists of
convex curves) an inner nucleus pulposus that is
 Thoracic and sacral(anteriorly
concave(outwards) curves
 Lordosis- an increase in the lumbar
curve of the vertebral column
 Kyphosis -increase in the thoracic
curve of the vertebral column
 Scoliosis - most common of the
abnormal curves, is a lateral
bending of the vertebral column
 The curves of the vertebral column
increases its strength, help maintain
balance in the upright position and
absorb shocks during walking, and
help protect the vertebrae from
fracture
 Cervical Vertebrae:
 The bodies of the cervical vertebrae
(C1-C7) are smaller than all other
vertebrae except those that forms
the coccyx
 The first two cervical vertebrae differ
considerably from the others. The
atlas (C1), is the first cervical
vertebra inferior to the skull.The
second cervical vertebra (C2), the
axis, does have a vertebral body.
 Thoracic Vertebrae:
 Thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12) are
considerably larger and stronger
than cervical vertebrae. In addition,
the spinous processes on T1
through T10 are long, laterally
flattened, and directed inferiorly. The
bones in the Thoracic Vertebrae
articulate with the ribs
 Lumbar Vertebrae:
 The lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) are
the largest and strongest of the
unfused bones in the vertebral
column (Figure 7.20) because the
amount of body weight supported by
the vertebrae increases toward the
inferior end of the backbone. Their
various projections are short and
thick.
 Sacral and Coccygeal Vertebrae:
 The sacrum is a triangular bone
formed by the union of five sacral
vertebrae (S1-S5) and 4 coccyx
bone. Positioned at the posterior
soft, pulpy, and highly elastic, as
well as an outside fibrous ring
made of fibrocartilage called the
annulus fibrosus. Each disc
consists of an inner nucleus
pulposus that is soft, pulpy, and
highly elastic, as well as an
outside fibrous ring made of
fibrocartilage called the annulus
fibrosus.
 Processes
 At the point where a lamina
and pedicle join, a transverse
process extends laterally on
each side. A single spinous
process (spine) projects
posteriorly from the junction of
the laminae.
 The vertebral body, the thick, disc-
shaped anterior portion, is the
weight-bearing part of a vertebra.
The anterior and lateral surfaces
contain nutrient foramina
:openings through which blood
vessels deliver nutrients and
oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide and wastes from bone
tissue.
 - The vertebral arch extends
posteriorly from the body of the
vertebra; together, the vertebral
body and the vertebral arch
surround the spinal cord by
forming the vertebral foramen. The
vertebral foramen contains the
spinal cord, adipose tissue, areolar
connective tissue, and blood
vessels.
 - Seven processes arise from the
vertebral arch.
 portion of the pelvic cavity medial to
the two hip bones, the sacrum
serves as a strong foundation for the
pelvic girdle.

LESSON 4:
4.Using a table, compare and contrast the false and true pelves.
FALSE PELVES
 false pelvis is the pelvis major and is
the space between the iliac crests (iliac
fossae) its inferior boundary is the
pelvic brim.
 Contains no pelvic organs except
urinary bladder (when full) and uterus
during pregnancy
TRUE PELVES
 It is the bony pelvis inferior to the pelvic
brim, has an inlet, an outlet and a
cavity
 It is the pelvis minor and is the space
inferior to the pelvic brim. It is enclosed
by sacrum, ischium, pubis, and pelvic
portions of the ilium
 Contains the rectum, bladder, pelvic
ureters

5.Explain why the false and true pelves are important clinically.
 False pelvis:
- Superior
- Contains the superior part of the urinary bladder when full, the lower intestines, and the
female uterus, ovaries, and uterine tubes
 True pelvis:
- Inferior of Pelvic Brim
contains the rectum, urinary bladder, female vagina and cervix, and the male prostate.
During childbirth, the pelvic axis is the route taken by the baby's head as it descends
through the pelvis.
6.Compare the principal differences between female and male pelves.
 The male pelves are larger and have enormous surface markings. Its general structure
is heavy and thick. The false pelves are deep. The acetabulum is large and faces
laterally. The obturator foramen is round. The pubic arch is less than 90 degrees. The
iliac crest is more curvy. The illium is more vertical. The greater sciatic notch is narrow.
The coccyx is less movable and less curved anteriorly. The sacrum is longer, narrower,
and more curved anteriorly. The pelvic outlet is narrower. The ischial tuberosity is longer,
closer together, and more laterally projecting.
 Female Pelvis: It is generally light, thin, and shotrer. The false pelvis is shallow. The
pelvic brim is wide and more oval. The acetabulum is small and faces anteriorly. The
obtruator form is oval. The pelvic arch is greater than 90 degrees. The iliac crest is less
curvy. The illium is less vertical. The greater sciatic notch is wide. The coccyx is more
movable and more curved anteriorly. The sacrum is shorter, wider, and less curved
anteriorly. The pelvic outlet is wider. the Ischial tuberosity.