LIFE SCIENCES

GRADE 10
Life Processes in Plants and
Animals
Topic 2: Support Systems in
Animals

Human Skeleton System

Tissues in the Skeletal
System
SUMMARY OF PRESENTATION
Types of skeleton

Human skeleton

Structure of Long Bone

Bone tissue

Cartilage

Joints

Structure of skeletal muscles

TYPES OF SKELETONS:

We shall look at the 3 main types of skeletons.
 These are the:
1. Hydrostatic skeleton
2. Exoskeleton
3. Endoskeleton
 We shall now look at each of these skeletal
types in a little detail.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
HYDROSTATIC SKELETON:
 Hydrostatic skeleton is one in which muscles act
against fluid to bring about movement.
 The earthworm is an example of an animal with a
hydrostatic skeleton. Also found in flatworms,
jelly-fish and roundworms.
 This skeleton is made up of fluid.
 This fluid is found in a closed body compartment.
 This fluid is under pressure.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
 The muscles contract and relax against the fluid in
the animal’s body compartment.
 This enables the animal to move.

Advantages:
 They are found mainly in animals living in the aquatic
environment.
 They also help terrestrial animals to crawl and
burrow by providing support.
 This skeleton also acts as a shock absorber and can
therefore provide the internal organs with
protection.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
Disadvantage:
 This type of skeleton is unable to provide the
support for movements such as walking and
running.
 The skeleton can only provide support for the
type of movement where the animal lies on the
substrate.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
EXOSKELETON:
 This is an external skeleton.
 It is a very hard case formed on the outside of the
animal e.g. Shells of molluscs and outer coverings of
arthropods like crabs etc.
 The shells are mainly made up of calcium carbonate.
 Therefore it is said to be calcareous.
 The exoskeleton of arthropods is a cuticle secreted by
the epidermis.
 The exoskeleton is made up of a polysaccharide
called chitin. Therefore it is a carbohydrate.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
 Muscles are attached to the inside of the
exoskeleton.
 The animal is able to move when the muscles
contract and relax against the exoskeleton.

Advantages:
1. It protects the animal from its predators.
2. It prevents the animal from losing water
(dehydration).
3. Protects the animal against injury from the
objects around it, like rocks and stones.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
Disadvantages:
1. The exoskeleton is very hard, therefore it cannot
stretch to accommodate the growth of the
animal. This limits the growth of the animal.
2. In order for the animal to grow it sheds its

exoskeleton. This is called moulting or

ecdysis. While the new exoskeleton grows
the animal cannot move and can be easily
attacked by its predators.
3. Since the exoskeleton is hard it reduces
movements at the joints. To overcome this the
exoskeleton is thin and flexible at the joints.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
ENDOSKELETON:
 This skeleton occurs within the soft tissue of the
organism.
 It is made up of hard supporting structures.
 For example the endoskeleton of vertebrates is made up
of bone.
 The endoskeleton of some sponges is made up of
spicules. These spicules are made up of inorganic matter.
 Other sponges have endoskeletons made up of softer
fibers, that are made up of protein.
 The endoskeleton of Echinoderms, e.g. starfish, are made
up of small hard plates called ossicles.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
 Like all the other skeletons this skeleton also has
muscles attached to it.
 The contraction and relaxation of these muscles
brings about movement.
 These muscles are attached to the outside of the
endoskeleton.

Advantages:
1. It protects the internal organs.
2. It allows for movement, since there are joints
between the bones.
TYPES OF SKELETONS:
3. The parts, that is the spicules, bones and
ossicles, that make up the skeleton can grow
therefore the bodies of animals with
endoskeletons can grow continuously.

Disadvantage:
4. Since the skeleton is found on the inside of the
body, many parts are exposed. These exposed
parts are not offered any protection against its
predators and dehydration.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE:
 Long bones are
made up of 2 parts: head
 Head (epiphysis)
 Shaft (diaphysis)
 The entire bone is
covered by a strong,
tough membrane
called the shaft
periosteum
Diagram showing head and
shaft of long bone
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE LONG BONE:
 There is a hollow cavity in the
center of the shaft called the
marrow cavity.
 The marrow cavity is lined by a
thin, soft membrane called the
endosteum.
 The marrow cavity is filled with
yellow bone marrow.
 Contains fat cells and white blood
cells

T/s of the long bone

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LONG BONE:
 The heads are covered
by articular/hyaline
cartilage.
 The spongy bone in the
heads contain red bone
marrow.
 Produces red blood cells
 Contains white blood cells
ADAPTATION OF BONE TISSUE TO
CARRY OUT ITS FUNCTION:
1. In the heads of the long bone the spongy tissue
is laid down in a criss-cross fashion with many
gaps in- between. This makes the bone lighter
but stronger.
2. The shaft has a hollow cavity in the centre. The
hollow cavity is surrounded by compact bone.
3. The hollow cavity makes the bone light, while
the compact bone makes it strong.
ADAPTATION OF BONE TISSUE TO
CARRY OUT ITS FUNCTION:
4. The heads of the long bones are covered by
articular cartilage. This cartilage reduces
friction at the joints.
5. The bone marrow of the breast bone, skull, hip,
ribs and spine contain stem cells. Therefore
they are able to make blood cells. This process
is called haemopoiesis.
 TISSUES:
Bone:
 There are 2 types of bone
tissue:
1. Compact bone:
 Hard, dense bone tissue
 Surface of the bone and in
the shaft
 Provides strength and
support
2. Spongy bone:
 Softer, lighter bone tissue
 Forms heads of bone
 Contain red bone marrow
TISSUES:
Cartilage:
 Cartilage is described as a semi-transparent,
tough, flexible connective tissue.

 There 3 types of cartilage.

 They are:

1. Hyaline cartilage
2. White-fibro cartilage
3. Yellow elastic cartilage
STRUCTURE:
 Cartilage has a ground
CARTILAGE:
substance.
 The ground substance is chondrocyte lacuna
made up of the protein
called chondrin.
 Within the matrix there are
fluid filled spaces called
lacunae.
 The lacunae contains the
cartilage cells.
 These cartilage cells are
chondrin
called chondrocytes.
 These chondrocytes can Diagram of Hyaline cartilage
occur singly, in pairs or in
groups of 4’s in the lacunae.
 CARTILAGE:
 All 3 types have the
same basic structure
with small differences.
 The white fibro-
cartilage has many
bundles of non –
elastic white fibres.
 These fibres make the White fibro-cartilage
cartilage very strong.
CARTILAGE:
 Yellow elastic
cartilage has the
same basic structure
has hyaline cartilage.
 But is has large
amounts of single
elastic yellow fibers.
 These fibres make
Yellow elastic fibres
the cartilage very
flexible.
CARTILAGE:
FUNCTIONS:
 The ear-lobe is made up of cartilage.
 The c-shaped cartilage rings keep the trachea
open.
 The epiglottis is a leaf shaped cartilage found at
the opening of the trachea.
 There are cartilaginous discs that are found
between the vertebrae, they act as shock
absorbers.
 The articular cartilage at joints reduces friction
between the bones.
CARTILAGE:
ADAPTATIONS:
1. Cartilage is strong but softer than bone to
reduce friction at the joints.
2. It is strong but softer than bone to act as a
shock absorber between the vertebrae.
3. Its flexibility allows it to stretch when necessary,
therefore it is an ideal component of the
oesophagus, which needs to stretch as the food
moves down the oesophagus.
TISSUES:
Tendons:
 Tendons are made up of white,
fibrous connective tissue.
 This tissue is made up of a
large number of non-elastic
fibres.
 This makes the tendon
inelastic.
 The inelasticity enables the
tendon to transmit the
relaxation and contraction of
the muscle to the bone, to
bring about movement. Tendon
 Tendons attach muscle to
bone.
TISSUES:
Ligaments:
 Ligaments are made up of
yellow, elastic connective
tissue.
 This tissue is made up of a
large number of elastic
fibres.
 They make the ligament
flexible, enabling it to
stretch to allow for a wide
range movement at the
joint.
 The ligaments join bone to Ligament
bone at the joints.
TISSUES:
Joints:
 A joint is a place where 2 or
more bones meet and are
joined by ligaments.
 There are 3 types of joints.

1. Fixed or immovable joints

 E.g. the sutures of the skull.
2. Partially/semi-movable
joints
 E.g. the joint between the
vertebrae
3. Freely movable/
synovial joints
 E.g. the ball and socket
joints.
TISSUES:
Structure of synovial joint:
 The end of each bone at the joint is
covered by a hyaline cartilage to reduce
friction.
 The bones are held together by
ligaments.
 The entire joint is enclosed by a sac
made from a ligament called the joint
capsule.
 The joint capsule is lined by a
membrane called the synovial
membrane.
 The function of the synovial membrane
is to secrete the synovial fluid.
 It is to prevent friction
SKELETAL MUSCLES
 The skeletal muscle is attached to the bones by
tendons.
 These skeletal muscles are striated muscles.
 There are light and dark bands
 These muscles are responsible for voluntary
actions, such as running and walking.
ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES
 Skeletal muscles are mostly arranged in pairs.
 These muscles work in opposition to each other.
 Therefore when one muscle contracts the other
relaxes, this brings about movement.
 This is called antagonistic muscles.
ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES
For example:
 The triceps and biceps are examples of
antagonistic muscles.
 The bicep is found in the front of the arm and the
tricep is found at the back of the arm.
 When the bicep contracts, the tricep relaxes the
arm is raised.
 When the bicep relaxes and the tricep contracts
the arm is lowered.
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
Structure of striated
muscles:
 Each muscle is enclosed
in a connective tissue
called the epimysium.
 The epimysium is the
outer membrane of the
bundles of muscle fibres.
 Each bundle of muscle
fibre (fascicle) is enclosed
by the perimysium. Diagram showing the striated
muscle
STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY
SKELETAL MUSCLES
Structure of muscle fibre:
 The muscle fibre is an elongated, cylindrical
muscle cell.
 It is surrounded by a membrane called the
sarcolemma.
 Each fibre consists of:
 Sarcoplasm
 Large number of oval shaped nuclei
 Mitochondria
STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY
SKELETAL MUSCLES

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY
SKELETAL MUSCLES
Structure of myofibrils:
 The muscle fibres consist of
thousands of myofibrils.
 Each myofibril is made up of
protein filaments called
myosin and actin.
 The myosin are the thick
filaments (dark), while the
actin are the thin filaments
(light).
 This gives the skeletal muscles
its striated appearance.
STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY
SKELETAL MUSCLES
Contraction of muscles:
 Nerves sends messages to
the muscle fibre to contract
or relax.
 During contraction the actin
filaments to slide inwards
past the myosin filaments
so that there is a bigger
overlap.
 Therefore, the myofibril
shortens, causing the entire
muscle to shorten and
therefore contract.
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
ROLE OF BONE, JOINTS, LIGAMENTS,
TENDONS & MUSCLES IN MOVEMENT
 Bones have joints. These joints enable the
different parts of the skeleton to work separately
to bring about movement.
 Ligaments hold together the bones at joints. This
ensures the bones stay together and work
together. Remember ligaments stretch, therefore
allowing bones to move in different directions.
 Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by means
of tendons. The tendons cannot stretch.
Therefore they pass the tension created in the
muscle during contractions onto the bone
causing the bone to move.
 INJURIES TO THE SKELETON
Sprains:
 Stretching or tearing of ligaments
 Caused by a sudden twisting or
stretching in a joint
 Causes bruising, swelling, pain
and limited movement in the
joint
Strains:
 A muscle or tendon that is over-
stretched or torn
 Causes pain, weakness and
muscle spasms
INJURIES TO THE SKELETON
Cramps:
 Develops when a
muscle contracts
suddenly and painfully
 Caused by an imbalance
of minerals, cold, poor
blood circulation,
dehydration,
medication or position
of body during sleep
INJURIES TO THE SKELETON
Dislocations:
 Occurs when a ligament is exposed to a sudden
impact and the bones in the joint are separated
 Causes a lot of pain and can lead to permanent
nerve damage
INJURIES TO THE SKELETON
Fractures:
 A break in the bone
 Caused by high impact
forces placing pressure on
bone
 Cast will be used to
immobilise bone to allow
for healing
TERMINOLOGY:
 Hydrostatic skeleton: is one in which muscles act
against fluid to bring about movement.
 Exoskeleton: is a hard outer skeleton.
 Calcareous: made up of calcium carbonate
 Chitin: substance that makes up the exoskeleton in
arthropods.
 Endoskeleton: is an internal skeleton.
 Cartilage: is a semi-transparent, tough, flexible tissue.
 Tendons: attach muscle to bone.
 Ligaments: join bone to bone at the joints.
 Haemopoiesis: making blood cells from stem cells
TERMINOLOGY:
 Cardiac muscle: striated, involuntary muscle
 Smooth muscle: unstriated, involuntary muscle
 Striated muscle: striped, voluntary muscle.
 Voluntary muscle: under the control of the will.
 Involuntary muscle: cannot be controlled by the
will.
 Skeletal muscle: striated, voluntary muscle
 Antagonistic muscles: a pair of muscles that work
in opposition to each other.
 QUESTION 1
Muscles that work in opposition to each other are…

A. Antagonistic
B. Cardiac
C. Smooth
D. A and C
 QUESTION 2
Involuntary muscles that are striped are …

A. Antagonistic
B. Cardiac
C. Smooth
D. A and C
 QUESTION 3
The voluntary muscle is …

A. Antagonistic
B. Cardiac
C. Smooth
D. A and C
 QUESTION 4
The involuntary muscle is…

A. Antagonistic
B. Cardiac
C. Smooth
D. A and C
 QUESTION 5
The filaments in the myofibrils are called…

A. Bicep and tricep

B. Actin and myosin
C. Perimysium and epimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 6
The outer covering of the muscle fibre is called the…

A. Bicep
B. Actin and myosin
C. Epimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 7
The connective tissue that holds together a bundle of
muscle fibres is called the…

A. Epimysium
B. Actin
C. Perimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 8
The outer membrane of muscle fibre is called…

A. Sarcoplasm
B. Sarcolemma
C. Perimysium and epimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 9
The ground substance of the muscle fibre is called the…

A. Sarcoplasm
B. Sarcolemma
C. Perimysium and epimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 10
The light and dark bands on the muscle fibre is known
as…

A. Sarcoplasm
B. Sarcolemma
C. Perimysium and epimysium
D. Striations
 QUESTION 11
Fixed or immovable joints are…

A. The sutures in the skull

B. The pivot joint
C. The hinge joint
D. The ball and socket joint
 QUESTION 12
An example of a freely movable joint is the…

A. Sutures in the skull

B. Synovial joint
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above
 QUESTION 13
The synovial joint is enclosed by a tissue called the…

A. Capsular ligament
B. Synovial membrane
C. Hyaline cartilage
D. Ligament
 QUESTION 14
The tissue that secretes the synovial fluid in a synovial
joint is called the…

A. Capsular ligament
B. Synovial membrane
C. Hyaline cartilage
D. Ligament
 QUESTION 15
The cartilage that covers the bones at the joint is called…

A. Capsular ligament
B. Synovial membrane
C. Hyaline cartilage
D. Ligament
 QUESTION 16
The tissue that holds the bones together at a joint is
called the…

A. Tendon
B. Synovial membrane
C. Hyaline cartilage
D. Ligament
 QUESTION 17

The tissue that joins muscle to bone is called…

A. Tendon
B. Synovial membrane
C. Hyaline cartilage
D. Ligament
 QUESTION 18
The cartilage that a large number of bundles of white
non-elastic fibres is called…

A. Hyaline
B. White fibro cartilage
C. Yellow elastic cartilage
D. Both A and B
 QUESTION 19
The cartilage cells are called…

A. Chondrocytes
B. Chondrin
C. Lacuna
D. Fibres
 QUESTION 20
The ground substance of cartilage is called…

A. Chondrocytes
B. Chondrin
C. Lacuna
D. Fibres
SOLUTIONS TO FINAL ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
1. A 11. A
2. B 12. B
3. A 13. A
4. C 14. B
5. B 15. C
6. C 16. D
7. C 17. A
8. B 18. B
9. A 19. A
10. D 20. B