BONE

Bone is highly vascularized, mineralized rigid types of connective tissue which form the
frame-work of our body.
FUNCTIONS OF BONES
1. Bones give shape and support to the body and resist all forms of stress.
2. They provide surface for the attachment of muscles, tendons, ligaments etc. These
serve as levers for muscular actions.
3. Bones store 97% of the body calcium and phosphorus.
4. Bone marrow manufactures blood cells.
5. The skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage protect brain, spinal cord and thoracic
viscera.
6. The larger paranasal air sinuses affect the timber of the voice.
7. Bone marrow contains reticulo-endothelial cells which are phagocytic in nature and
take part in immune responses of the body.
8. Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing
alkaline salts.
COMPOSITION OF BONE
Bone is made up of extra cellular matrix and bone cells.
1. Extra cellular matrix
The extracellular matrix consists of two types of materials such as organic and inorganic
materials.
Organic matrix
The organic matrix is formed by the protein fibers known as collagen fibers, which are
embedded in the gelatinous ground substance. These collagen fibers form about 30-35 %
of the bone. The ground substance is formed by the extracellular fluid and proteoglycans
(protein + polysaccharide).These substances are concerned with the regulation and
deposition of bone salts.
Inorganic matrix
The inorganic matrix is primarily calcium and phosphate salts, especially hydroxyapatite
[Ca10 (Po4)6(OH2] .It constitutes about 65-70% of bone.
2. Bone cells
 Osteoblast – These are bone forming cells.
 Osteoclast – These resorb or breakdown bone.
 Osteocytes – These are mature bone cells.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classified on different bases of classification. Generally four types of
classifications are followed each dividing bones into different types.
1. According to shape and size:-
 Long bones:-Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia, and Fibula.
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 Short bones: - Carpal and Tarsal bones.
 Flat bones: - Scapula, Sternum, Ribs and vault of the skull.
 Irregular bones:-Hip bone, Vertebra and Bones of the base of skull.
 Pneumatic bones:-Maxilla, Sphenoid, Ethmoid.
 Sesamoid bones:-Patella, Pisiform.
2. Developmental classification:-
 Membrane bones:-ossify in membrane.e.g:-Bones of the vault of skull and facial
bones.
 Cartilaginous bones:-ossify in cartilage e.g.:-Bones of limbs, vertebral column and
thoracic cage.
 Membrano-cartilaginous bones:-ossify partly in membrane and partly in
cartilage.e.g:-clavicle, mandible, occipital, temporal, sphenoid.
3. Regional classification
 Axial skeletal:-It includes skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
 Appendicular skeletal:-It includes bones of the limbs.
4. Structural classification
 Compact bone: - Compact bone is the hard and dense material forms about 80% of
the bone in the body.
 Spongy bone:-Spongy bone is the soft material forms about 20% of the bone in the
body.
GENERAL STRUCTURE/PARTS OF BONE
Long bones are formed by a cylindrical tube of bone tissue which has three portions:
 Epiphysis: -The ends and tips of bone.
 Diaphysis:-The mid portion or mid shaft.
 Metaphysis:-The portion between the diaphysis and epiphysis.
 Metaphysial plate: - In growing age, a layer of cartilage called epiphyseal cartilage
or growth plate is present in between epiphysis and Metaphysis. The epiphyseal plate
is responsible for the longitudinal growth of the bones.

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 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF BONE
The longitudinal sections of most of the bones reveal two layers of structures namely.
 Compact bone
 Spongy bone
Compact bone:-
The compact bone is also known as cortical bone. It is hard and dense material forming
about 80% of bone in the body. Its main functions are mechanical function and the
protection of bone marrow. The cavity in the compact bone is called medullary cavity
and it contains yellow bone marrow.
The compact bone consists of cylindrical structures called osteones or Haversian system,
which are formed by concentric layers of collagen. In the center of each osteon, there is a
canal called Haversian canal that contains the blood vesels, lymph vessels and nerve
fibres. The Haversian systems communicate with each other by transverse canal called
Volkmann’s canal. Within Haversian system, there are small cavities called lacunae
inside which the Osteocytes are trapped.
Spongy bone:-
The spongy or trabecular or cancellous bone forms 20% of bone in the body. It is made
up of spicules which are separated by spaces. The spongy bone contains red bone
marrow.

OSSIFICATION OF BONE
Formation of the bone is called ossification. This begins before birth and is not complete
until about the 21st year of life.The process of gradual bone formation by depositing
minerals from membranous.
Bones of the skeleton are developed in two ways:
1. Some bones develop in membranes (intra- membranous ossification).
2. Other bones develop in cartilage (intra- cartilaginous ossification).In both cases,
bone cells called osteoblast occupy the area of ossification, here calcium salts are
deposited to give the necessary hardness. This process of bone development
occurs before birth.
After birth, the bone grows from certain centers in it. The centre in
the shaft is called diaphysis. The two centers in the ends are called as epiphysis.
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 The layer of cartilage in between the epiphysis and diaphysis is called as
epiphyseal cartilage. This is gradually replaced by bone. This replacement occurs
till the epiphysis and diaphysis unite to form a single bone structure, after this,
growth of bone stops.
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Carpals-8:-[Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform]

[Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate]
 Tarsals-14:- (Talus, Calceneum, Navicular, Cuboid, Medial cuneiform, Intermediate
cuneiform, Lateral cuneiform)
 Ribs-12:-1- 7 true ribs.8, 9, 10 false ribs. 11, 12 floating ribs

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 JOINT
Joint is a junction between two or more bones or cartilages. It is a device to permit
movements in a hard and rigid skeleton.
Types of Joint:
 Fibrous joints
 Cartilaginous joints
 Synovial joints
FIBROUS JOINTS
The bones joined by fibrous tissue are known as fibrous joints. They are also known as
fix joints or immovable joints. These joints are either immovable of permit a slight
degree of movement. E.g.:- Sutures, Inferior tibiofibular joints, Root of the tooth in its
bony socket.
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CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
The bones joined by cartilage are known as cartilaginous joints. They are also known as
slightly movable joints.
Types of cartilaginous joints
 Primary cartilaginous joints: - The primary cartilaginous joints are also known as
synchondrosis or hyaline cartilage joints. The bones are united by a plate of hyaline
cartilage so that the joint is immovable and strong. These joints are temporary in
nature because after a certain age the cartilaginous plate is replaced by bone. E.g.:-
Joint between epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing long bone, Spheno-occipital joint.

 Secondary cartilaginous joints: - The secondary cartilaginous joints are also known
as the symphysis or fibro cartilaginous joints. The articular surfaces are covered by a
thin layer of hyaline cartilage and united by a disc of fibro cartilage. These joints are
permanent and persist throughout life. E.g.:-Symphysis pubis, manubriosternal joint,
intervertebral joints.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
A joint in which there is a cavity within the capsule separating the bones so that the joint
can move freely is known as synovial joint.Varying degrees of movements are always
permitted by the synovial joints.
Types of synovial joints:-
No. Joint types Examples
1. Ball and socket joints Shoulder joints, hip joints.
2. Hinge joints Elbow joint, ankle joint, Interphalangeal joints.
3. Pivot (Trochoid) joints Superior and inferior radioulnar joint, atlantoaxial joint.
4. Condylar (Bicondylar) Knee joint, Right and left jaw joint or temporomandibular
joints joint.
5. Ellipsoid joints Wrist joint, atlantooccipital joint, metacarpophalangeal

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 joints.
6. Saddle (Sellar) joints Sternoclavicular joint, calcaneocuboid joint.
7. Plane synovial joints Intercarpal joint, Intertarsal joint, sacroiliac joint.
STRUCTURE OF SYNOVIAL JOINT
Synovial joint is freely movable joint. The ends of the bones are covered with articular
cartilage and separated by a joint cavity filled with clear, viscous synovial fluid.
Articular cartilage:-
 The parts of the bones which are in contact are always covered with hyaline cartilage.
 This provides a smooth articular surface.
 The cartilage lining, this is up to 7mm thick in young people. Becomes thinner and
less compressible with age.
 It is Avascular and contains no nerves.
Synovial membrane:-
 This is composed of epithelial cells and is found in covering those parts of the bones
within the joint not covered by articular cartilage.
Synovial fluid:-
 Synovial fluid plays an important role in the nutrition of the avascular articular
cartilage.
 It is also known as lubricants of joints.
 It maintains joint stability
 It prevents the joint friction.
Extra capsular structure:-
 Ligaments, Muscles, Tendons: - They provide additional stability at most joints.

MUSCLE
Muscle is a type of tissue composed of the contractile cells or fibers which by
contraction causes the movement of an organ or part of the body.
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction was given by Hugh Huxley and Jean
Hanson (1953). In their sliding hypothesis of muscle contraction the cyclic steps are:
 The contraction of muscle fibers is brought about by sliding movement of actin
filaments over the myosin filaments.

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 Calcium ion is the most important element for the contraction muscle, in the
presence of calcium ions and energy from ATP, actin and myosin intact forming
actinomyosin.
 Actinomyosin helps in contraction of muscle.
 During muscle contraction, chemical energy is changed into mechanical energy.
 The shortest duration of contraction of muscle is seen in eye.

STEPS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE RELAXATION

1. Ca++ pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum.
2. Release of Ca++ from troponin.
3. Cessation of interaction between actin and myosin.
CO-ORDINATION OF MOVEMENT
 Co means same and ordination means to arrange. The Co-ordination is normal pattern
of movement or posture. The working tighter of various muscles is to produce certain
movement or posture.
 The ability to produce co-ordinate movement or posture is necessary to execute a fine
motor skill, which is under control of basal ganglion, manipulate object and perform
gross motor task.
 Co-ordinate movement of posture requires sequencing of muscle activity and stability
of proximal musculature.
 Co –ordination is a complex phenomenon mainly cerebellum play a hall mark role to
produce normal pattern of movement or posture.
 As cerebellum is initiator to any movement or posture once the movement is initiated
the cerebellum and basal ganglion has burden to produce the normal pattern of
movement or posture which was initiated by cerebrum.
 Any damage to cerebellum leads to in co-ordination is known as ataxia i.e. abnormal
pattern of movement in the form of symptom like dysynergia- Lake of fallowness and
fluidity of movement.
 Dysmetria- Loss of ability to measure the course of movement i.e. eighter over
shooting or under shooting of movement.
 Dysdydokinesia: - Inability to perform alternate movement pendular jerk.
 Hystagmus: - Rotary movement of eye ball.

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TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
i. Aerobic respiration
 From moderate activity longer than 30 sec (marathon is 100% aerobic).
 Fatty acids, glucose or glycogen is broken down into pyruvic acid that is used
by mitochondria to from ATPs.
 Slower than Glycolysis but yields more ATP (36net/ glucose molecule).
 Monosaccharide preferred but can also break down fatty acids and amino acids.
 Aerobic requires oxygen and is limited by oxygen availability, oxygen in blood
is bound to Hb and in muscle is bound to muscle Myoglobin.
ii. Anaerobic respiration
 Up to 3 min supply at maximal muscle activity (aerobic respiration continues to
produce about 30% of ATP consumed).
 Glucose or glycogen is break down into pyruvic acid in a series of reactions called
Glycolysis in the muscle cytoplasm (2 ATP net/ glucose molecule). Pyruvic acid is
formed to rapidly for mitochondria to use and is converted into acid which diffuses
out of the muscle, anaerobic requires no oxygen.
iii. Cori cycle
 During maximal activity lactic acid accumulates in blood and muscle (oxygen
debt).
 When oxygen is available lactic acid is converted back into pyruvic acid in the
liver and then into glucose and is returned to skeletal muscle to be stored as
glycogen.
 In skeletal muscle there is different muscle fiber types specialized for different
forms of respiration.

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