SKELETAL SHORT BONES

✔
SYSTEM
Generally cube-shaped or they are as wide as they
are long
FUNCTIONS AS: ✔ Contain mostly spongy bone
✔ Support ✔ Includes bones of the wrist and ankle
✔ Assistance in movement ✔ Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone which form
✔ Protection within tendons (patella)
✔ Primary function is to provide support and stability
✔ Blood cell formation
with little to no movement.
✔ Storage

✔ Triglyceride storage FLAT BONES

✔ Thin, flattened, and usually curved or are expanded
Parts of the skeletal system into broad.
▪ Bones (skeleton)
▪ Joints ✔ Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of
▪ Cartilages spongy bone
▪ Ligaments ✔ principal function is either extensive protection or
▪ Tendons
the provision of broad surfaces for muscular
Two subdivisions of the skeleton: attachment.
✔ Axial skeleton
IRREGULAR BONES
✔ Appendicular skeleton ✔ Irregular shape

✔ Do not fit into other bone classification categories

✔ The skeleton has 206 bones

✔ The structure of bones make it both strong and light

Two basic types of bone tissue
Compact bone weight.
• Dense and looks smooth ✔ 20 % of an adults body weight is bone.
• Homogeneous

Spongy bone ✔ Bone is made up of 2 minerals:

• Small needle-like pieces of bone ►Calcium
• Many open spaces ►Phosphorus

Diaphysis (shaft)
LONG BONES ✔ Makes up most of bone’s length
✔ Typically longer than they are wide
✔ Composed of compact bone
✔ Shaft with heads situated at both ends

✔ Contain mostly compact bone Epiphysis (ends)

✔ Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin
✔ Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are
layer of compact Bone
subjected to most of the load during daily activities
and they are crucial for skeletal mobility.
Articular cartilage ✔ Terms often begin with ―F‖
✔ Covers the external surface of the epiphyses

✔ Made of hyaline cartilage

✔ Decreases friction at joint surfaces

Periosteum
✔ Outside covering of the diaphysis

✔ Fibrous connective tissue membrane

✔ Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to

underlying bone

Epiphyseal line
Osteocytes
✔ Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
✔ Mature bone cells situated in bone matrix
✔ Seen in adult bones
Lacunae
Epiphyseal plate
✔ Cavities in bone matrix that house osteocytes
✔ Flat plate of hyaline Cartilage seen in young,
growing bone
✔ Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone

Endosteum
✔ Lines the inner surface of the shaft

✔ Made of connective tissue

Medullary cavity
✔ Cavity inside the shaft

✔ Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults

✔ Contains red marrow for blood cell formation in Lamellae

infants until age 6 or 7 ✔ Concentric circles of lacunae situated around the
central (Haversian) canal
Bone markings
✔ Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and Central (Haversian) canal
ligaments ✔ Opening in the center of an osteon (Haversian
✔ Passages for nerves and blood vessels system)
Categories of bone markings ✔ Runs lengthwise through bone

✔ Projections or processes grow out from the bone ✔ Carries blood vessels and nerves
surface
✔ Terms often begin with ―T‖

✔ Depressions or cavities—indentations

Osteon (Haversian system)
✔ A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix
rings
✔ Structural and functional unit of compact bone
Canaliculi
✔ Tiny canals
✔ Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
✔ Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to
a nutrient supply
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
✔ Canal perpendicular to the central canal
✔ Carries blood vessels and nerves
✔ Bone is relatively lightweight and resists tension and
other forces
✔ Organic parts (collagen fibers) of the bone make
bone flexible and have great tensile strength
✔ Calcium salts deposited in the bone make bone hard
to resist compression
✔ As an infant, most of your skeleton is cartilage.
✔ Cartilage is a strong flexible tissue.
✔ Over time the cartilage is replaced by solid bone,
usually complete by the time you stop growing.
✔ Not all cartilage is replaced in adults. Many joints
contain cartilage, protecting the ends of bones (ears
and the end of the nose is also cartilage).
Bone formation and growth
✔ Ossification is the process of bone formation
✔ Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous
membranes
✔ Long bone growth involves two major phases
Two major phases of ossification in long bones
✔ Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) cover hyaline
cartilage model with bone matrix
✔ In a fetus, the enclosed cartilage is digested away,
opening up a medullary cavity
✔ Osteogenic cell or osteoprogenitor cells, are
mitotically active stem cells found in the
membranous periosteum and endosteum.
Osteocytes - mature bone cells; monitor and
maintain the bone matrix
Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts - giant bone-destroying cells
- Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium in response to parathyroid hormone
✔ Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts
and osteoclasts

By birth, most cartilage is converted to bone
except for two regions in a long bone
1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates
✔ New cartilage is formed continuously on external
face of these two cartilages
✔ Old cartilage is broken down and replaced by bony
matrix
Appositional growth (growth from outside)
✔ Bones grow in width
✔ Osteoblasts in the periosteum add bone matrix to
the outside of the diaphysis
✔ Osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the
inner surface of the diaphysis
Interstitial growth (growth from within)
✔ Bones expands
✔ Lacunae bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new
matrix
✔ Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such as
growth hormone and sex hormones
✔ Bones are remodeled throughout life in response to
two factors
1. Calcium ion level in the blood determines when bone
matrix is to be broken down or formed
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
determines where bone matrix is to be broken down
or formed
Calcium ion regulation
✔ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
▪ Released when calcium ion levels in blood are low
▪ Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells)
▪ Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium ions
into the blood
✔ Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts
calcium storage to bones by osteoblasts
Fracture: break in a bone
✔ Types of bone fractures
▪ Closed (simple) fracture is a break that does not
penetrate the skin
▪ Open (compound) fracture is a broken bone that
penetrates through the skin
✔ Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
▪ Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into
position by physician’s hands
▪ Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or wires
during surgery
▪ Healing time is 6 - 8 weeks
Repair of bone fractures involves four major events
✔ Hematoma (blood-filled swelling, or bruise) is
formed
✔ Fibrocartilage callus forms
▪ Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the
broken bone
✔ Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus
▪ Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
✔ Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical
stresses
 ✔ Bones are joined by sutures

✔ Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable

joint

✔ 8 cranial bones protect the brain

1 Frontal bone
2 Occipital bone
3 Ethmoid bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair)
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)

✔ 14 facial bones
1, 2 Maxillae (pair)
3, 4 Palatine bones (pair)
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair)
7, 8 Zygomatic bones (pair)
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair)
11 Vomer bone
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair)
AXIAL SKELETON 14 Mandible
✔ Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax

✔ Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the

cranial bones
▪ Known as soft spot
▪ Allow skull compression during birth
▪ Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and
infancy
▪ Usually ossify by 2 years of age

✔ Growth of cranium after birth is related to brain

SKULL
✔ Two sets of bones form the skull
1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones
▪ Hold eyes in anterior position
▪ Allow facial muscles to express feelings
growth
▪ Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows tooth
development and enlargement of the respiratory
Passageways
Size of cranium in relationship to body
✔ 2 years old - skull is three-fourths the size of adult
skull
✔ 8 or 9 years old - skull is near adult in size and
proportion
✔ Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the
skull
Skeletal changes
✔ At birth, the head and trunk are proportionately
much longer than the lower limbs
✔ During puberty:
▪ Female pelvis broadens
▪ Entire male skeleton becomes more robust

✔ By the end of adolescence:

▪ Epiphyseal plates become fully ossified

✔ Paranasal sinuses
▪ Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity

✔ Functions of paranasal sinuses

▪ Lighten the skull
▪ Amplify sounds made as we speak

HYOID BONE
✔ Closely related to mandible and temporal bones

✔ The only bone that does not articulate with another

bone
✔ Serves as a movable base for the tongue

✔ Aids in swallowing and speech

VERTEBRAL COLUMN/SPINE
✔ Vertebral column provides axial support
▪ Extends from skull to the pelvis

✔ 26 vertebral bones are separated by ✔ Primary curvatures

intervertebral discs
▪ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
▪ 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
▪ 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
▪ Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae)
▪ Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5 vertebrae)
▪ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
▪ Present from birth
▪ Form a C-shaped curvature in newborns
✔ Secondary curvatures
▪ Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
▪ Develop after birth
▪ Form an S-shaped curvature in adults

Parts of a typical vertebra

✔ Body (centrum)

✔ Vertebral arch
▪ Pedicle
▪ Lamina
✔ Vertebral foramen

✔ Transverse processes

✔ Spinous process

✔ Superior and inferior articular processes

 APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
✔ Composed of 126 bones
▪ Limbs (appendages)
▪ Pectoral girdle
▪ Pelvic girdle

THORACIC CAGE
✔ Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects organs of the
thoracic cavity
✔ Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
▪ True ribs (pairs 1–7)
▪ False ribs (pairs 8–12) Bones of the shoulder girdle
▪ Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3.Thoracic vertebrae ✔ Also called pectoral girdle

✔ Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb

to the axial skeletal
1. Clavicle
2. Scapula
✔ Light, poorly reinforced girdle ✔ Radius - lateral bone in anatomical position
✔ Allows the upper limb a exceptional flexibility ▪ Proximal end articulation
▪ Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus

Bones of the Upper Limbs

✔ Humerus
▪ Forms the arm
▪ Single bone

✔ Proximal end articulation Hand

▪ Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula ✔ Carpals - wrist bones
✔ Distal end articulation ▪ 8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand
▪ Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the
forearm ✔ Metacarpals - palm bones
▪ 5 per hand

✔ Phalanges - fingers and thumb

▪ 14 phalanges in each hand
▪ In each finger, there are 3 bones
▪ In the thumb, there are only 2 bones

The forearm has two bones

✔ Ulna - medial bone in anatomical position
▪ Proximal end articulation
▪ Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the
humerus
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
✔ Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones

✔ Composed of three pairs of fused bones

1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
✔ Sacrum is shorter and less curve
✔ Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones, sacrum
✔ Ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus, the
✔ Pelvis = two coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx outlet is larger
✔ The total weight of the upper body rests on the ✔ Pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the
pelvis pubic arch is greater
✔ Pelvis protects several organs
▪ Reproductive organs Bones of the Lower Limbs
▪ Urinary bladder ✔ Femur - thigh bone
▪ Part of the large intestine
▪ The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
▪ Proximal end articulation
▪ Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone

▪ Distal end articulation

▪ Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg

The female’s pelvis

✔ Inlet is larger and more circular

✔ Shallower, on the whole, and the bones are lighter

and thinner
✔ Ilia flare more laterally
 ▪ Hold bones together securely
▪ Allow for mobility
The lower leg has two bones
✔ Tibia - shinbone; larger and medially oriented ✔ Two ways joints are classified
▪ Proximal end articulation ▪ Functionally
▪ Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to ▪ Structurally
form the knee joint
▪ Distal end articulation
▪ Medial malleolus forms the inner part of the ankle
Functional joint classifications
✔ Synarthroses
✔ Fibula - thin and stick like; lateral to the tibia ▪ Immovable joints
▪ Has no role in forming the knee joint ✔ Amphiarthroses
▪ Distal end articulation ▪ Slightly movable joints
▪ Lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle
✔ Diarthroses

✔ Foot
▪ Freely movable joints

▪ Tarsals has 7 bones Structural joint classifications

✔ Fibrous joints
Two largest tarsals are the:
▪ Generally immovable
▪ Calcaneus (heel bone)
▪ Talus ✔ Cartilaginous joints
▪ Immovable or slightly movable
▪ Metatarsals has 5 bones form the sole of the foot
▪ Phalanges has 14 bones form the toes ✔ Synovial joints
▪ Freely movable

✔ Arches of the feet Fibrous joints

▪ Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong ✔ Bones are united by fibrous tissue
arches
▪ Two longitudinal ✔ Types
▪ One transverse ▪ Sutures
- Immobile
▪ Syndesmoses
- Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile
- Found on the distal ends of tibia and fibula
▪ Gomphoses
- Immobile
- Found where the teeth meet the facial bones

JOINTS
✔ Joints are articulations
▪ Occur where two or more bones meet

✔ Functions of joints
Cartilaginous joints
✔ Bones are connected by fibrocartilage

✔ Types
▪ Synchrondrosis
- Immobile
- Found in epiphyseal plates of growing long bones
▪ Symphysis
- Slightly movable
- Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints

Synovial joints
✔ Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity

✔ Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

✔ Four distinguishing features of synovial joints

1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments
 Hinge Joint

✔ Bursae - flattened fibrous sacs Pivot Joint

▪ Lined with synovial membranes
▪ Filled with synovial fluid
▪ Not actually part of the joint

✔ Tendon sheath
▪ Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

✔ Types of synovial joints based on shape

▪ Plane joint Condylar
▪ Hinge joint
▪ Pivot joint
▪ Condylar joint
▪ Saddle joint
▪ Ball-and-socket joint

Saddle

Plane Joint