SKELETAL SYSTEM
➔ Skeleton derived from the Greek word
dried
➔ Consists of dynamic, living tissue that are
able to grow
➔ Maintains body’s shape
➔ Enables us to move normally
➔ Muscles and bones work together to move
our body
➔ 206 bones- average adult
➔ Number of bones decreases when you
age
➔ Tubercle- lump on a bone
➔ Process- projection from a bone
➔ Foramen - opening through which nerve
or blood vessel passed
- Hole in a bone
➔ Canal/Meatus- if hole is elongated into a
tunnel-like passage through the bone
➔ Fossa- depression in the bone
➔ Sinuses- mucous membrane-lined air
spaces
➔ Condyle (knuckle)- smooth rounded end
of bone, where it forms a joint with another
bone
➔ Collagen- tough, rope-like protein
➔ Proteoglycans- large molecules
consisting of polysaccharides attached to
core proteins; like pine tree
➔ Hydroxyapatite- mineral in bone is in the
form of calcium phosphate crystals
Major Functions of Skeletal System
1. Support- well suited for bearing weight
● Cartilage- firm yet flexible support
● Ligaments- bands of fibrous tissue
that are attach to bones
2. Protection- protects the surrounding
organs
● Skull- encloses the brain
● Vertebrae- surround spinal cord
● Rib cage- thoracic area
3. Movement
4. Storage- minerals in the blood (calcium
and phosphorus)
● Adipose tissue- in the bone
cavities
5. Blood cell production- red bone marrow
produces blood cells and platelets
- Hematopoiesis- production of
blood cells
- Yellow marrow- mostly consists of
adipose tissue
4 Categories of Bone
1. Long bones- longer than they are wide
- upper and lower limbs
2. Short bones- as broad as they are long
- wrist and ankle
3. Flat bones- relatively thin flattened shape
- skull bones, ribs, scapulae,
sternum
4. Irregular bones- have shapes that do not
fit
- vertebrae and facial bones
Structure of Long Bone
● Diaphysis- growing between
- consists of a central shaft; makes
half most of
- fibrous connective tissue
membrane the periosteum
- Has medullary cavity which
contains soft tissues called
marrow
-
● Epiphysis- growing upon
- Gigantism pag sumobra ang
growth hormone
- Dwarfism pag kulang sa growth
hormone
- Epiphyseal plate- flat plate of
hyaline cartilage; can cause
lengthwise growth
● Periosteum (peri- around; osteo-bone)-
outer surface of bones covered by dense
connective tissue
- Contain blood vessels and nerves
● Endosteum (endo-inside)- surface of
medullary cavity that is lined with a thinner
connective tissue
Histology of Bones
● Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells
- Inside periosteum and endosteum
● Osteocytes- bone cells
 -When osteoblasts are surrounded
by matrix
- Located in lacunae
➔ Lamellae (plates)- formed in thin sheets of
extracellular matrix
➔ Lacunae- osteocytes located between the
lamellae between spaces
➔ Canaliculi- cell processes extend from
the osteocytes across the extracellular
matrix of lamellae within tiny canals
- Giving osteon the appearance of
having tiny cracks within lamellae
2 Major Types of Bones
1. Compact Bone
➔ Mostly solid matrix and cells
➔ Central Canal (Haversian)- most of
lamellae of compact bone are organized
into sets of concentric rings
➔ Osteon (Haversian System)
- each central canal with lamellae
and osteocytes surrounding it;
- Each osteon seen in cross section
looks like microscopic target with
the central canal as the “bull’s eye”
- A predictable pattern of repeating
units.
➔ Nutrients leave blood vessels of central
canal
➔ Diffuse to the osteocytes through the
canaliculi
➔ Blood vessels in central canal are
connected to the blood vessels in the
periosteum and endosteum
2. Spongy Bone
➔ Located mainly in epiphyses
➔ Forms interior of all other bones
➔ Trabeculae (beams)- delicate
interconnecting rods or plates of bone
- Resembles beams or scaffolding
of building
- No blood vessels penetrate
- No central canal
➔ Add strength to a bone without the added
weight that would be present if the bones
were solid mineralized matrix
➔ Spaces bet the trabeculae are filled with
marrow
➔ Nutrients exit vessels in marrow and pass
by diffusion through canaliculi to the
osteocytes of trabeculae
Bone Ossification
➔ Ossification (facio- to make)- formation
of bone by osteoblast
- After osteoblast becomes
completely surrounded by matrix it
becomes mature bone cell or
osteocyte
➔ Intramembranous Ossification- occurs
when osteoblasts begin to produce bone
in connective tissue membranes
- Mostly occurs in skull
- Osteoblasts line up on the surface
of connective tissue fibers and
begin depositing bone matrix to
form trabeculae
- Ossification centers- area where
the process begins
- 2 or more ossification center exist
in each flat skull bone
- Skull bones result from fusion of
these center as they enlarge
➔ Endochondral Ossification- bones at the
base of the skull and most of the
remaining skeletal system develop
through this process
- Cartilage models general shape of
the mature bone
- Chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
increase in number, enlarge, and
die
- Cartilage matrix becomes calcified
- Blood vessels accumulate in the
perichondrium
- Presence of blood vessels causes
some unspecified connective
tissue cells on the surface to
become osteoblasts
- Osteoblasts produce a collar of
bone around part of the outer
surface of the diaphysis
- Primary ossification center- center
of diaphysis; where bone first
begins to appear
- Osteoblasts invade spaces in the
center of the bone left by dying
cartilage cells
 - Osteoclasts (bone-eating cells)-
removes calcified cartilage matrix
- Osteoblasts line up on the
remaining calcified matrix then
begins to form bone trabeculae
- Medullary cavity forms in the
center of the diaphysis
- Osteoclasts remove bone and
calcified cartilage; replaced by
bone marrow
- Secondary ossification centers
form in epiphyses
Bone Growth
➔ Deposition of new bone lamellae onto
existing bone or other connective tissue
➔ Appositional growth- Osteoblasts deposit
new bone matrix on the surface of bones
between periosteum and existing bone
matrix, bone increases in width or
diameter
➔ Growth in the length of bone- major
source of increased height occurs in the
epiphyseal plate; happens in
endochondral ossification
➔ Chondrocytes increase in number on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
➔ Line up in columns parallel to the long axis
of the bone; causing the bone to elongate
➔ Chondrocytes enlarge and die
➔ Cartilage matrix becomes calcified
➔ Mch of the cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells is removed by osteoblasts
➔ Osteoblasts start forming bone by
depositing bone lamellae on the surface of
the calcified cartilage
➔ Process produces bone on the diaphyseal
side of the epiphyseal plate
Bone Remodeling
➔ Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
and deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts
➔ Occurs in all bone
➔ Responsible for changes in bone shape,
adjustment of bone to stress, bone repair,
and calcium ion regulation in the body
fluids
➔ Involved in bone growth when newly
formed spongy bone in the epiphyseal
plate forms compact bone
➔ Bone is removed from inner, medullary
surface of the bone
➔ Bone diameter increases, the thickness of
the compact bone relative to the medullary
cavity did not increase as bone size
increased
➔ Compact bone of the diaphysis would
become thick and very heavy
➔ Major storage site for calcium in the body
➔ Important to maintain blood calcium levels
within normal limits
➔ Calcium is removed from bones when
blood calcium levels decrease deposited
when dietary calcium is adequate
Bone Repair
➔ Vessels bleed and
➔ Clot forms in the damaged area
➔ Blood vessels are also damaged
➔ 2-3 days after injury, blood vessels and
cells from surrounding tissues begin to
invade the clot
➔ Some cells produce fibrous connective
tissue between broken bones which holds
the bone fragments togethers and fills the
gap between them
➔ Callus- network of fibers and islets of
cartilage between the two bones
➔ Osteoblasts enter the callus and begin
forming spongy bone, 4-6 weeks
➔ Immobilization of the bone is critical up to
this point because movement can
refracture the delicate new matrix
➔ Spongy bone is slowly remodeled to form
compact and spongy bone and the repair
is complete
➔ Complete immobilization is not good for
the bone, muscles, or joints
➔ Common practice is to immobilize bone
completely for as long as 10 weeks,
muscles associated with with that bone
may lose half their strength
➔ Bone matrix is reabsorbed; strength of
bone decreases
➔ “Walking casts”- allow some stress and on
the bone and some movement
➔ Total healing of fracture may require
several months
➔ If healed properly it can be stronger than
the adjacent bone

Bone Fractures
● Fracture- bones
● Complete- complete break in the
continuity of the bones; nahati sa dalawa
● Incomplete- doesn’t completely break into
two; comminuted and greenstick fracture
● Open type (compound)- lumabas ang
buto; probability of bleeding; integrity of
skin, penetration on the skin
● Close type (simple)- hindi lumabas sa
skin, walang damage sa skin, more on
internal damage
● Fractures According to Direction
1. Linear- vertical
2. Transverse- horizontal
3. Oblique/Spiral- diagonal
❖ Dislocation- joints ang affected
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
- Bone is the major storage site for calcium
- Movement of calcium into and out of bone
helps determine blood calcium levels
- Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts
build new bone and out of bone as
osteoclasts break down bone
- When blood calcium level is low
osteoclast activity increases (release
calcium from bone into the blood), blood
calcium levels are too high
- Blood calcium levels are too high,
osteoclast activity decreases, osteoblasts
remove calcium from the blood to produce
new bone, blood calcium levels decrease
➔ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- secreted
from parathyroid glands
- When blood calcium levels are too
low, stimulates increased bone
breakdown and increased blood
calcium levels by indirectly
stimulating osteoclast activity
- Also increases calcium uptake
from the urine in the kidney
- Stimulate kidney to form active
vitamin D which increases calcium
absorption from small intestine
-Decreasing blood calcium levels
stimulate PTH secretion
➔ Calcitonin- secreted from thyroid gland
when calcium blood levels are too high
- Decreases osteoclast activity and
thus decreases blood calcium
levels
- Increasing blood calcium levels
stimulate calcitonin secretion
AXIAL SKELETON- skull, vertebral, thoracic cage
❏ Skull
➔ Braincase- encloses cranial cavity
- Consists of 8 bones that
immediately surround and protect
the brain
➔ Facial bones- form the structure of the
face
- 14 bones
- 13 bones facial bones are rather
solidly connected to form the bulk
of the face
- Mandible forms a freely movable
joint with rest of skull
- 3 auditory ossicles in each middle
ear (6 total)
Lateral view
➔ Suture- joint uniting bones of the skull
➔ Parietal bones (wall)
➔ Temporal bones- temporal refers to time,
hairs of temple turns white
➔ Squamous suture- joining parietal and
temporal bones
➔ Parietal bone is joined to the frontal bone
by the coronal suture posteriorly is it is
joined to the occipital bones by the
lambdoid suture
➔ External auditory canal- enables sound
waves to reach the eardrum
➔ Mastoid process- temporal bone can be
seen and felt as a prominent lump just
posterior
➔ Sphenoid bone- single bone that extends
completely across the skull
➔ Zygomatic bone (cheekbone)
➔ Zygomatic arch- joined processes of the
temporal and zygomatic bones
- Forms a bridge across the side of
the face
 - Provides a major attachment site
for a muscle moving the mandible
➔ Maxilla (jawbone)- upper jaw
- Articulates by suture s to the
temporal bone
- Contains superior set of teeth
➔ Mandible (jaw)- lower jaw
- Contains inferior teeth
➔ Orbit (eye sockets) - protection for the
eyes
➔ Superior and inferior orbital fissures
➔ Optic foramen
➔ Nasolacrimal canal- passes from the orbit
into the nasal cavity
- Contains a duct that carries tears
from the eyes to the nasal cavity
➔ Lacrimal bone- can be seen in the orbit
just above the opening of this canal
➔ Nasal septum (wall)- nasal cavity is
divided into right and left halves
➔ Bony part of the nasal septum consists
primarily of the vomer inferiorly
➔ Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
(sieve-shaped)
➔ Nasal bones- bridge of the nose
➔ Nasal conchae- increase the surface area
of the nasal cavity, facilitates moistening
and warming of the air inhaled through
nose
➔ Paranasal sinuses
- Decrease the weight of the skull
- Act as resonating chambers during
voice production
- Frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and
sphenoidal sinuses
- Mastoid air cells- located inside
mastoid processes of temporal
bone; middle ear instead of into
the nasal cavity
➔ Auditory tube connects the middle ear to
the nasopharynx
Interior of Cranial Cavity
➔ Foramen magnum- through which the
spinal cord joins the brain; located in the
posterior fossa
➔ Sella Turcica- contains pituitary gland
➔ Occipital condyles- smooth points of
articulation between the skull and
vertebral column
➔ Styloid processes- project from the inferior
surface of the temporal bone
➔ Mandibular fossa- where the mandible
articulates with the temporal bone,
anterior to the mastoid process
➔ Hard palate- forms the floor and the roof
of the mouth
➔ Palatine bones- posterior one-third
➔ Soft palate- extend posteriorly from hard
or bony
❖ Hard and soft palate separate nasal cavity
and nasopharynx from mouth, enables us
to chew and breathe at the same time
➔ Hyoid Bone- unpaired, U-shaped
- Provides an attachment for some
tongue muscles
- Attachment point for important
neck muscles that elevate the
larynx during speech or swallowing
❏ Vertebral Column
➔ VERTEBRA- spine, 26 parts
- Weight bearing it’s being loaded
- S-like structure, lateral view
- Spinous process
- Vertebral foramen- intervention, nag pass
through ang spinal cord
- Vertebral arch- lamina and pedicle
- Transverse process- spiny or prominent
projectile
- Articular facet- bone connecting to another
bone
- Articular processes
➔ Cervical- 7 areas
- Atlas- nagbubuhat ng skull; first cervical
part
- Axis- 2nd part
- Spinal tap- paralyzing lower parts, CS,
appendectomy, anaesthetic agent
(paralyzes lower limb)
-
➔ Thoracic area- belongs to ribcage,
carrying the weight of upper portion (skull)
- 12 parts
➔ Lumbar- s-shape
- Anaesthetic region
- Spinal tap- 2nd and 3rd lumbar
- Intervertebral disk- accessible to - Spine- ridge, runs across the
penetration for needles to paralyze the posterior surface of the scapula
lower part; can be determined by iliac - Acromion (akron- tip; omos-
press; lumbar puncture shoulder) process- projection;
- Meningitis- airborne, highly congestive scapular spine to form the point of
- Biggest of all vertebral area the shoulder
➔ Sacral- area of bone behind the hips; - Clavicle (collarbone)- articulates
coccyx- like remnants of bones (tail); basis with the scapula at the acromion
of charles darwin in theory of evolution process; is the first bone to begin
- Endings of spinal cord ossification for fetus
- Anterior foramina- may butas pa sa gilid, - Coracoid process- curves below
pumapasok sa vertebral canal; lalabas the clavicle and provides for the
yung mga nerves attachment of arm and chest
- muscles
❏ Rib Cage
- Protects the vital organs within the
thorax and prevents the collapse of
the thorax during respiration
➔ Ribs and Costal Cartilage
- True ribs: ribs 1-7 attach directly to
the sternum by means of costal
cartilage
- False ribs: ribs 8-12 do not attach
directly to the sternum
- Floating ribs: ribs 11 and 12 do not
attach at all to the sternum
➔ Sternum (breastbone)
- In xiphoid process-
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
- Has 3 parts: manubrium (handle),
body (forming blade), xiphoid
(sword) process
- Jugular notch- depression, located
between the ends of the clavicles
where they articulate with the
sternum
- Sternal angle- junction of the of the
manubrium
- Sternal angle- junction of the
manubrium and the body of the
sternum
➔ Pectoral Girdle (shoulder girdle)
- Two scapulae and two clavicles
- Scapula (shoulder blade)- flat
triangular bone with three large
fossae where muscles extending
to the arm are attached
- Glenoid cavity- head of the
humerus connects to the scapula