SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
Medical Technology│November 7, 2022
Functions of the Skeletal System
- Support
- Protection
- Movement
- Storage
- Blood Cell Production
The skeletal system consists of bones and other structures that
make up the joints of the skeleton. The types of tissue present
are bone tissue, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissue, which
forms the ligaments that connect bone to bone.
Functions of the Skeleton
1. Provides a framework that supports the body; the muscles that
are attached to bones move the skeleton.
2. Protects some internal organs from mechanical injury; the rib
cage protects the heart and lungs, for example.
3. Contains and protects the red bone marrow, the primary
hemopoietic (blood-forming) tissue.
4. Provides a storage site for excess calcium. Calcium may be
removed from bone to maintain a normal blood calcium level,
which is essential for blood clotting and proper functioning of
muscles and nerves.
General features of bone
1. Long Bones - longer than they are wide (upper and lower
limbs).
2. Short Bones - broad as they long (wrist and ankle).
3. Flat Bones - thin, flattened shape (skull bones, ribs, scapular
and the sternum)
4. Irregular Bones - with shapes that do not fit (vertebrae and
facial bones)
Two Major Types Of Bone:
1. Compact Bone - mostly solid matrix and cells.
2. Cancellous Bone - a lacy network of bone with many small
marrow filled spaces.
Connective tissue
• The matrix contains collagen, proteoglycan (ground
substance), and other organic molecules.
• Collagen - a tough, ropelike protein
• Proteoglycans - large molecules consisting of polysaccharides
to core proteins.
• The extracellular matrix of bone contains collagen and
minerals.
• Hydroxyapatite - most of the general bone is in the form or
calcium phosphate crystals
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
1. Long bones — the bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet (but
not the wrists and ankles). The shaft of a long bone is the
diaphysis, and the ends are called epiphyses (see Fig. 6-1). The
diaphysis is made of compact bone and is hollow, forming a
canal within the shaft. This marrow canal (or medullary cavity)
contains yellow bone marrow, which is mostly adipose tissue.
The epiphyses are made of spongy bone covered with a thin
layer of compact bone. Although red bone marrow is present in
the epiphyses of children's bones, it is largely replaced by yellow
bone marrow in adult bones.
2. Short bones — the bones of the wrists and ankles.
3. Flat bones — the ribs, shoulder blades, hip bones, and cranial
bones.
4. Irregular bones — the vertebrae and facial bones.
Short, flat, and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Red bone marrow is
found within the spongy bone.
Compact Bone
• Forms most of the diaphysis of long bones and thinner
surfaces of all other bones.
• Most of the lamellae of compact bone are organized into sets
of concentric rings, with each set surrounding a central or
haversian canal.
• Each central canal with the lamellae and osteocytes
surrounding it is called an osteon or haversian system.
Cancellous Bone
• Spongy bone
• Located mainly in the epiphyses of long bones and it forms the
interior of all other bones.
• It consists of delicate interconnecting rods or plates of bone
called trabeculae.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
Medical Technology│November 7, 2022
• The trabeculae add strength to a bone without the added
weight that would be present if the bone were a solid
mineralized matrix.
• Usually, no blood vessels penetrate the trabeculae.
Bone Ossification
• The formation of bone by osteoblasts.
• It involves the synthesis of an organic matrix containing
collagen and proteoglycans and the addition of hydroxyapatite
crystals to the matrix.
• After an osteoblast becomes completely surrounded by a bone
matrix, it becomes a mature bone cell, or osteocyte.
• Bone formation that occurs within connective tissue
membranes is called intramembranous ossification and bone
formation that occurs inside cartilage is called endochondral
ossification.
Intramembranous Ossification
• It occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone in
connective tissue membranes.
• This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
• Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers
and begin depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae. The
process begins in areas called ossification centers, and
trabeculae radiate out from the centers.
• The trabeculae are constantly remodeled after initial
formation, and they may enlarge or be replaced by compact
bone.
Endochondral Ossification
• The bones at the base of the skull and most of the remaining
skeletal system develop through the process of endochondral
ossification from cartilage models.
• The cartilage models have the general shape of the mature
bone.
• During endochondral ossification, cartilage cells, called
chondrocytes, increase in number, hypertrophy (enlarge) and
die. Then the cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
• As this process is occurring in the center of the cartilage
model, blood vessels accumulate in the perichondrium.
• The presence of blood vessels in the outer surface of future
bone causes some of the unspecified connective tissue cells on
the surface to become osteoblasts.
• These osteoblasts then produce a collar of bone around part of
the outer surface of the diaphysis, and the perichondrium
becomes the periosteum in that area.
Stages of Endochondral Ossification
• Blood vessels also grow into the center of the diaphysis,
bringing in osteoblasts and stimulating ossification to occur.
• The central part of the diaphysis, where bone first begins to
appear, is called the primary ossification center.
• Some of the calcified cartilage matrix is removed by cells called
osteoclasts, and the osteoblasts line up on the remaining
calcified matrix and begin to form bone trabeculae.
• As the bone develops it is constantly remodeled.
• A medullary cavity forms in the center of the diaphysis as
osteoclasts remove bone and calcified cartilage, which are
replaced by bone marrow.
• Later, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses.
Bone Growth
• Occurs by the depression of new bone lamellae onto existing
bone or other connective tissue.
• This process is called appositional growth.
• As osteoblasts deposit a new bone matrix on the surface of
bones between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the
bone increases in width or diameter.
Bone Remodeling
• Involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts.
• Occurs in all bone
• It is responsible for changes in bone shape, the adjustment of
bone to stress, bone repair and calcium ion regulation in the
body fluids.
Bone Repair
• When a bone is broken, blood vessels in the bone are also
damaged. The vessels bleed, and a clot forms in the damaged
area.
• 2-3 days after the injury, blood vessels and cells from
surrounding tissues begin to invade the clot.
• Some of these cells produce a fibrous network of connective
tissue between the broken bones, which holds the bone
fragments together and fills the gap between the fragments.
• The zone of tissue repair between the two fragments is called a
callus.
• Osteoblasts enter the callus and begin forming a cancellous
bone.
• Cancellous bone formation in the callus is usually 4-6 weeks
after the injury.
• Total healing of the fracture may require several months.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)
Medical Technology│November 7, 2022

• Gigantism - a condition of abnormally increased size that

usually involves excessive endochondral growth at the
epiphyseal plates of long bones.
• Dwarfism - the condition in which a person is abnormally
small, may result from improper growth in the epiphyseal plates.
Bone and calcium homeostasis • Osteogenesis imperfecta - a group of genetic disorders
• Bone - major storage site for calcium in the body producing very little bones that are easily fractured, occurs
• Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone and because insufficient collagen or abnormal collagen is formed.
out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone. • Rickets - a condition involving growth retardation resulting
• When osteoblast and osteoclast activity is balanced, the from nutritional deficiencies either in minerals. The conditions
movement of calcium into and out of a bone is equal. result in bones that are soft, weak, and easily broken. Most often
occurs in children who receive inadequate amounts of sunlight
and whose diets are deficient in vitamin D.
Calcium level are Osteoclast activity Blood calcium
• Osteomyelitis - bone inflammation that often results from
TOO LOW INCREASES levels INCREASE
bacterial infection, and it can lead to complete destruction of
Calcium level are Osteoclast activity Blood calcium the bone.
TOO HIGH DECREASES levels DECREASE • Osteomalacia - or the softening of the bones, results from
calcium depletion from bones. Sometimes called adult rickets
and can result from vitamin D deficiency.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) • Osteoporosis - is characterized by excessive loss of calcium
• From the parathyroid gland from bones without sufficient replacement.
• Stimulates increased bone breakdown • Scoliosis - an abnormal lateral curvature, which may be
• Increased blood calcium levels by indirectly stimulating congenital, the result of having one leg longer than the other, or
osteoclast activity. the result of chronic poor posture during childhood while the
• Increases calcium reabsorption from the urine in the kidneys. vertebrae are still growing. Usually the thoracic vertebrae are
• Also stimulates the kidneys to form active vitamin D, which affected, which displaces the rib cage to one side. In severe
increases absorption from the small intestine. cases, the abdominal organs may be compressed, and the
• Decreasing blood calcium levels stimulate PTH secretion. expansion of the rib cage during inhalation may be impaired.
• Kyphosis - an exaggerated thoracic curve; sometimes referred
Calcitonin to as hunchback.
• Secreted from the thyroid gland • Lordosis - an exaggerated lumbar curve; sometimes referred to
• Decreases osteoclast activity as swayback.
• Decreases blood calcium levels
• Increasing blood calcium levels stimulate calcitonin secretion.