Development of skeletal system

Nov. 2023
1
Outlines
1. Introduction to skeleton
2. Ossification of bones
2.1 Intramembranous ossifications
2.2 Endochondral ossifications
3. Development of axial skeleton
4. Development of appendicular skeleton
5. Anomalies of skeletal system
 Objectives
At the end of this lesson student will be able to:
1. Define ossification ( intramembranous and
endochondral)
2. Describe the development of vertebral column
3. Define development of cranium
4. Compare membranous neurocranium with
cartilaginous neurocranium
5. Evaluate congenital malformations of skeletal
system
Introduction
The Skeletal System
• Is a dynamic system which
capable of:
• grow,
• overcome stress.
• repair it self upon
injury
• Composed of:
• Bones
• Cartilage
• joints
• Ligament
• Tendon
The skeletal system divided into two functional parts:
1. The axial skeleton:
• consists of the bones of the head (cranium or skull), neck
(hyoid bone & cervical vertebrae), & trunk (ribs, sternum,
vertebrae, & sacrum).
2. The appendicular skeleton:
• consists of the bones of the limbs, including those forming
the pectoral (shoulder) & pelvic girdles.
Classification of Bones on the basis shape
Development of skeletal system
• The intraembryonic mesoderm thickens to form two
longitudinal columns of paraxial mesoderm
• Toward the end of the 3rd week, these dorsolateral
columns located in the trunk become segmented into
blocks of mesoderm-the somites
• Each somite differentiates into
two parts:
• The ventromedial part is the
sclerotome - its cells form the
vertebrae and ribs.
• The dorsolateral part is the
dermomyotome - cells from its
myotome region form
myoblasts (primordial muscle
cells), and those from its
dermatome region form the
dermis (fibroblasts)
The skeletal system develops from three sources
1. Paraxial mesoderm
2. Lateral plate (somatic layer)
mesoderm
3. Neural crest cells
1. Paraxial mesoderm
• forms a segmented series of tissue blocks on each side of the neural tube,
known as somitomeres in the head region
• Somites from the occipital region caudally
Somites differentiate into two:
1. a ventromedial part, the sclerotome
2. a dorsolateral part, dermomyotome
• At the end of the 4th week,
• sclerotome cells become
polymorphous and form a loosely
woven tissue, the mesenchyme, or a
meshwork of loosely organized
embryonic CT
• is characteristic for mesenchymal cells
to migrate and to differentiate in
many ways.
• become fibroblasts, chondroblasts, or
osteoblasts
2. Lateral plate (somatic layer) mesoderm
• The bone-forming capacity of mesenchyme is not restricted to
cells of the sclerotome
• but occurs also in the somatic mesoderm layer of the body
wall, contributes for formation of:
the pelvic girdles
shoulder girdles
the long bones of the limbs.
3. Neural crest cells
• in the head region also differentiate into mesenchyme
• participate in formation of bones of the face and skull
4. Occipital somites and somitomeres:
• also contribute to the formation of the cranial vault and base of
the skull
DEVELOPMENT OF BONE AND CARTILAGE
• Mesodermal cells give rise to mesenchyme
• Bones as condensations of mesenchymal first appear and form
bone models
• Condensation marks the beginning of selective gene activity,
which precedes cell differentiation
• Most flat bones develop in mesenchyme within preexisting
membranous sheaths
• This type of osteogenesis is called intramembranous bone
formation
• The mesenchymal models of most long bones (limb bones) are
transformed into cartilage bone models,
this types of osteogenesis is commonly called endochondral
bone formation
Histogenesis of Cartilage
• Cartilage develops:
• Begin with condensations mesenchyme
• appears first in embryos during the 5th week
• the mesenchyme condenses to form chondrification centers
• the mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts
• chondroblasts secrete collagenous fibrils and the ground substance
(extracellular matrix)
• Subsequently, collagenous and/or elastic fibers are deposited in the
intercellular substance or matrix.
• Three types of cartilage are distinguished according to
the type of matrix that is formed:
1. Hyaline cartilage - the most widely distributed
type (e.g., in joints)
2. Fibrocartilage (e.g., in
intervertebral discs)
3. Elastic cartilage (e.g., in auricle of ear)
Histogenesis of bone:
• Bone primarily develops in two types of connective tissue:
• mesenchyme
• cartilage, but can also develop in other connective tissues
• Like cartilage, bone consists of cells and an organic intercellular
substance-the bone matrix-that comprises collagen fibrils
embedded in an amorphous component.
Ossifications of skeleton
• Before the end of an
embryonic period , the
skeleton of a human embryo
consists of fibrous membranes
and hyaline cartilage model
1. Intramembranous
ossification
• bone develops from a
fibrous connective tissue
membrane.
Example:
• The flat bones of the skull
(frontal, parietal, temporal,
occipital)
and the clavicles
2. •Endochondral are formed
ossification – bone forms by
this way
replacing pre existing hyaline cartilage model
Bone Formation in 16-Week-Old Fetus
1. Intramembranous ossification
occurs in mesenchyme that has formed a
membranous sheath
the mesenchyme condenses and becomes
highly vascular
some cells differentiate into osteoblasts
(bone-forming cells)
 osteoblasts begin to deposit unmineralized
matrix-osteoid
Calcium phosphate is then deposited in the
osteoid tissue as it is organized into bone
Osteoblasts are trapped in the matrix and
become osteocytes and occupy ________
Spicules of bone soon become organized and
coalesce into lamellae (layers)
Concentric lamellae develop around blood
vessels, forming osteons (haversian systems)
 Some osteoblasts remain at the
periphery of the developing bone and
continue to lay down lamellae, forming
plates of compact bone on the
surfaces
 Between the surface plates, the
intervening bone remains spiculated
or spongy.
This spongy environment is somewhat
accentuated by the action of cells-
osteoclasts-that reabsorb bone.
Osteoclasts are multinucleated cells with a hematopoietic origin
In the interstices of spongy bone, the mesenchyme differentiates
into bone marrow.
 During fetal and postnatal life, there is continuous remodeling of
bone by the coordinated action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts.
 Steps in Intramembranous Ossification

• An ossification center
appears in the fibrous CT
membrane

• Osteoblasts secrete bone

matrix within the fibrous
membrane

• Osteoblasts mature into

osteocytes
• The bone matrix develops
into trabeculae.

• The trabeculae formed

from various ossification
centers fuse with one
another to create spongy
bone.

• Eventually the spaces

between trabeculae fill
with red bone marrow.
2. Endochondral ossification
• occurs in preexisting cartilaginous models
• In a long bone, for example, the primary center of ossification
appears in the appears in the diaphysis
• At this center of ossification,
• chondrocytes (cartilage cells) increase in size (hypertrophy),
• the matrix becomes calcified, and the cells die.
• A thin layer of bone is deposited under the perichondrium
surrounding the diaphysis
• thus, the perichondrium becomes the periosteum.
• Invasion by vascular connective tissue from blood vessels
surrounding the periosteum also breaks up the cartilage.
 Endochondral bone formation.
 A. Mesenchyme cells begin to
condense and differentiate into
chondrocytes.
 B. Chondrocytes form a
cartilaginous model of the
prospective bone.
 C,D. Blood vessels invade the
center of the cartilaginous model,
bringing osteoblasts (black cells)
and restricting proliferating
chondrocytic cells to the ends
(epiphyses) of the bones.
 Chondrocytes toward the shaft
side (diaphysis) undergo
 Osteoblasts bind to the mineralized matrix hypertrophy and apoptosis as
and deposit bone matrices. Later, as blood they mineralize the surrounding
vessels invade the epiphyses, secondary matrix.
ossification centers form.
 Growth of the bones is maintained by
proliferation of chondrocytes in the growth
plates.
• Some invading cells differentiate into hemopoietic cells, blood
cells, of the bone marrow
• This process continues toward the epiphyses (ends of the bone)
• The spicules of bone are remodeled by the action of osteoclasts
and osteoblast
• Lengthening of long bones occurs at the diaphysial-epiphysial
junction
• The lengthening of bone depends on the epiphysial cartilage
plates (growth plates), whose chondrocytes proliferate and
participate in endochondral bone formation
• Cartilage cells in the diaphysial-epiphysial region proliferate by
mitosis
 Perichondrium
Perichondrium

Proximal
Proximal Hyaline
Hyaline Uncalcified
epiphysis
epiphysis cartilage
cartilage matrix
Periosteum
Uncalcified
Uncalcified Calcified
matrix
matrix matrix
Diaphysis
Diaphysis Primary Periosteum
Calcified
Calcified Nutrient ossification (covering
matrix
matrix artery center compact bone)
Medullary
Spongy cavity
Distal
Distal bone
epiphysis
epiphysis
Nutrient
artery and vein

1 Development
Development ofof 2 Growth
Growthof of 3 Development of 4 Development of
cartilage
cartilage model
model cartilage
cartilagemodel
model primary ossification the medullary
center cavity

Articular cartilage

Epiphyseal
Secondary artery and
ossification vein Spongy bone
center Uncalcified Epiphyseal plate
matrix

Nutrient
artery and vein

5 Development of secondary 6 Formation of articular cartilage

ossification center and epiphyseal plate
• Toward the diaphysis, the cartilage cells hypertrophy
and the matrix becomes calcified.
• Spicules are isolated from each other by vascular
invasion from the medullary (marrow) cavity.
• Bone is deposited on these spicules by osteoblasts;
resorption of this bone keeps the spongy bone masses
relatively constant in length and enlarges the
medullary cavity.
Secondary ossification centers:
• appear in the epiphyses in most bones during the first few years
after birth.
• The epiphysial cartilage cells hypertrophy, and there is invasion by
vascular connective tissue
• Ossification spreads radially, and only the articular cartilage and a
transverse plate of cartilage, the epiphysial cartilage plate, remain
cartilaginous
Longitudinal Bone Growth
• Longitudinal Growth (interstitial) – cartilage continually grows and is
replaced by bone
• Bones lengthen entirely by growth of the epiphyseal plates
• Cartilage is replaced with bone CT as quickly as it grows
• Epiphyseal plate maintains constant thickness
 Epiphyseal Plate
• Cartilage is organized for
quick, efficient growth
• Cartilage cells form tall stacks
• Chondroblasts at the top
of stacks divide quickly
• Pushes the epiphysis away
from the diaphysis
• Lengthens entire long bone
• Older chondrocytes signal
surrounding matrix to calcify,
then die and disintegrate
• Leaves long trabeculae
(spicules) of calcified
cartilage on diaphysis side
• Trabeculae are partly
eroded by osteoclasts
• Osteoblasts then cover
trabeculae with bone
tissue
• Trabeculae finally eaten
away from their tips by
In most bones, the epiphyses have
fused with the diaphysis by the
age of 20 years. Growth in the
diameter of a bone results from
deposition of bone at the
periosteum and from resorption
on the internal medullary surface.
The rate of deposition and
resorption is balanced to regulate
the thickness of the compact bone
and the size of the medullary
cavity. The internal reorganization
of bone continues throughout life.

A to E, Schematic longitudinal sections

illustrating endochondral
(intracartilaginous) ossification in a
developing long bone.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton:
• is composed of three parts
• Skull
• vertebral columns
• the ribs and sternum

 During the 4th week, cells in the

sclerotomes now surround the
neural tube (primordium of spinal
cord) and the notochord, the
structure about which the primordia
of the vertebrae develop

 This positional change of the sclerotomal cells is effected by differential

growth of the surrounding structures and not by active migration of
Development of the somite.
A. Paraxial mesoderm cells are arranged around a small cavity.
B. As a result of further differentiation, cells in the ventromedial wall lose their
epithelial arrangement and become mesenchymal. Collectively, they are called the
sclerotome. Cells in the dorsolateral wall of the somite form limb and body wall
musculature, while cells at the dorsomedial portion migrate beneath the
remaining dorsal epithelium (the dermatome) to form the myotome.
1. Development of the
vertebral column
• During the precartilaginous
or mesenchymal stage,
mesenchymal cells from
the sclerotomes are found
in three main areas:
• around the notochord
• surrounding the neural
tube
• in the body wall

• In a frontal section of a 4-week embryo, the sclerotomes appear as

paired condensations of mesenchymal cells around the notochord
• Each sclerotome consists of loosely arranged cells cranially and
densely packed cells caudally.
1. Sclerotome around neural tube: forms
vertebral (neural) arch
2. Sclerotome around notochord: forms body
of vertebra
3. Sclerotome in body wall near to neural
tube and notochord: forms costal process
( gives ribs in thoracic region only )
At 4th week, each sclerotome becomes
subdivided into two parts
1. an cranial part, consisting of loosely arranged
cells
2. a caudal part, of more condensed tissues
Each somite induces a ventral root to grow out
from the spinal cord. When the sclerotomes
recombine, the cranial half of the first cervical
sclerotome fuses with the occipital sclerotome
above contributing to the occipital bone of the
skull. The cervical nerves beginning with C1 exit
above the corresponding vertebra. Nerve C8
exits below the seventh cervical vertebra (C7),
• Some densely packed cells move cranially, opposite the center
of the myotome and form the intervertebral (IV) disc
• The remaining densely packed cells fuse with the loosely
arranged cells of the immediately caudal sclerotome to form
the mesenchymal centrum, the primordium of the body of a
vertebra.
• Thus, each centrum develops from two adjacent sclerotomes
and becomes an intersegmental structure.
• The nerves now lie in close relationship to the intervertebral
discs, and the intersegmental arteries lie on each side of the
vertebral bodies.
• In the thorax, the dorsal intersegmental arteries become the
intercostal arteries.
 A, Transverse section
through a 4-week embryo.
The arrows indicate the
dorsal growth of the
neural tube and the
simultaneous dorsolateral
movement of the somite
remnant, leaving behind a
trail of sclerotomal cells.
B, Diagrammatic frontal
section of this embryo
showing that the
condensation of
sclerotomal cells around
the notochord consists of
a cranial area of loosely
packed cells and a caudal
area of densely packed
cells.

C, Transverse section through a 5-week embryo showing the condensation of sclerotomal cells around the
notochord and neural tube, which forms a mesenchymal vertebra. D, Diagrammatic frontal section illustrating that
the vertebral body forms from the cranial and caudal halves of two successive sclerotomal masses. The
intersegmental arteries now cross the bodies of the vertebrae, and the spinal nerves lie between the vertebrae. The
notochord is degenerating except in the region of the intervertebral disc, where it forms the nucleus pulposus.
• The notochord:
• degenerates and disappears
where it is surrounded by the
developing vertebral bodies
• expands to form the gelatinous
center of the intervertebral disc-
the nucleus pulposus between
the vertebrae
• this nucleus is later surrounded
by circularly arranged fibers that The mesenchymal cells,
form the anulus fibrosus surrounding the neural tube,
• The nucleus pulposus and anulus form the neural arch
fibrosus together constitute the The mesenchymal cells in the
intervertebral disc body wall form the costal
processes that form ribs in the
thoracic region.
Cartilaginous stage of vertebral development
• appear of chondrification centers in each mesenchymal
vertebra (6th wk)
• The two centers in each centrum fuse at the end of the
embryonic period to form a cartilaginous centrum.
• The centers in the neural arches fuse with each other and
the centrum.
• The spinous and transverse processes develop from
extensions of chondrification centers in the neural arch
• Chondrification spreads until a cartilaginous vertebral
column is formed
 Bony stage of vertebral development
Ossification of typical vertebrae:
• begins during the embryonic period
• usually ends by the 25th year
• are two primary ossification centers,
ventral and dorsal, for the centrum
• these primary ossification centers soon
fuse to form one center.
• three primary centers are present by the
end of the embryonic period:
• one in the centrum
• one in each half of the neural arch.
• Ossification becomes evident in the
neural arches during the 8th wk.
• At birth, each vertebra consists of three
bony parts connected by cartilage
• The bony halves of the vertebral arch
usually fuse during the first 3 to 5 yrs
• The arches first unite in the lumbar
region, and union progresses cranially.
• The vertebral arch articulates with the
centrum at cartilaginous neurocentral
joints, which permit the vertebral arches
to grow as the spinal cord enlarges.
• These joints disappear when the vertebral
arch fuses with the centrum during the 3rd
to 6th years.
• Five secondary ossification centers appear in the vertebrae after
puberty:
• one for the tip of the spinous process
• one for the tip of each transverse process
• two anular epiphyses, one on the superior and one on the
inferior rim of the vertebral body
The vertebral body:
• is a composite of the anular epiphyses and the mass of bone
between them.
• Includes:
• the centrum
• parts of the vertebral arch
• and the facets for the heads of the ribs
• all 20 centers unite with the rest of the vertebra at ≈ 25 yrs of age.
• Exceptions to the typical ossification of vertebrae occur in the
atlas or C1 vertebra, axis or C2 vertebra, C7 vertebra, lumbar
vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx, How?
• Minor developmental anomalies of the vertebrae are common,
but in most cases are of little clinical importance
Variation in the number of vertebrae
• Most people have:
• 7 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral vertebrae.
• A few have one or two additional vertebrae or one
fewer.
• To determine the number of vertebrae, it is necessary to
examine the entire vertebral column because an
apparent extra (or absent) vertebra in one segment of
the column may be compensated for by an absent (or
extra) vertebra in an adjacent segment; for example, 11
thoracic-type vertebrae with 6 lumbar-type vertebrae.
Development of the ribs
• The ribs develop from the mesenchymal costal processes of the
thoracic vertebrae in the thoracic region
• They become cartilaginous during the embryonic period and ossify
during the fetal period.
• The original site of union of the costal processes with the vertebra
is replaced by costovertebral synovial joints
• 7 pairs of ribs (1-7)-true ribs
• 3 pairs of ribs (8-10)-false ribs
• last 2 pairs of ribs (11 and 12)
Development of the sternum
• A pair of vertical mesenchymal
bands, sternal bars, develop
ventrolaterally in the body wall
• Chondrification occurs in these
bars as they move medially.
• They fuse craniocaudally in the
median plane to form
cartilaginous models of the
manubrium, sternebrae
(segments of the sternal body),
and xiphoid process.
• Centers of ossification appear craniocaudally in the sternum
before birth, except that for the xiphoid process, which appears
during childhood
Sequential development of the sternum
 Vertebral and rib abnormalities

A, Cervical and forked ribs. Observe that the left cervical rib has a fibrous band that
passes posterior to the subclavian vessels and attaches to the manubrium of the
sternum. B, Anterior view of the vertebral column showing a hemivertebra. The right
half of the third thoracic vertebra is absent. Note the associated lateral curvature
(scoliosis) of the vertebral column. C, Radiograph of a child with the kyphoscoliotic
deformity of the lumbar region of the vertebral column showing multiple anomalies
of the vertebrae and ribs.
2. Development of the Cranium
• The cranium (skull) develops:
• from mesenchyme around the developing brain.
• The cranium consists of:
• The neurocranium, a protective case for the brain
• The viscerocranium, the skeleton of the face
Cartilaginous Neurocranium (chondrocranium)
• consists of the cartilaginous base of the developing cranium,
• forms by fusion of several cartilages
• Later, endochondral ossification of the chondrocranium forms the
bones in the base of the cranium
• The ossification pattern of these bones has a definite sequence,
beginning with the occipital bone, body of sphenoid, and ethmoid
bone
• The parachordal cartilage, or basal plate, forms:
• around the cranial end of the notochord
• fuses with the cartilages derived from the sclerotome regions of the
occipital somites.
• This cartilaginous mass contributes to:
• the base of the occipital bone
• later, extensions grow around the cranial end of the spinal cord
and form the boundaries of the foramen magnum
• The hypophysial cartilage forms:
• around the developing pituitary gland
• fuses to form the body of the sphenoid bone
• The trabeculae cranii
• fuse to form the body of the ethmoid bone
• The ala orbitalis
• forms the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone.
• Otic capsules
• develop around the otic vesicles, the primordia of the internal
ears and form the petrous and mastoid parts of the temporal
bone.
• Nasal capsules
• develop around the nasal sacs and contribute to the formation of
the ethmoid bone
• Cartilaginous Neurocranium or Chondrocranium
• The cartilaginous neurocranium or chondrocranium of the skull
initially consists of a number of separate cartilages. Those that
lie in front of the rostral limit of the notochord, which ends at the
level of the pituitary gland in the center of the sella turcica, are
derived from neural crest cells.
• They form the prechordal chondrocranium. Those that lie
posterior to this limit arise from occipital sclerotomes formed by
paraxial mesoderm and form the chordal chondrocranium.
• The base of the skull is formed when these cartilages fuse and
ossify by endochondral ossification.
Stages in the
development of the
cranium:
A to C, Views of the
base of the developing
cranium (viewed
superiorly).
D, A lateral view.
A, At 6 weeks showing
the various cartilages
that will fuse to form
the chondrocranium.
B, At 7 weeks, after
fusion of some of the
paired cartilages.
C, At 12 weeks showing
the cartilaginous base of
the cranium or
chondrocranium formed
by the fusion of various
cartilages.
D, At 20 weeks
indicating the derivation
of the bones of the fetal
cranium.
Membranous Neurocranium:
• Intramembranous ossification occurs in the mesenchyme at
the sides and top of the brain, forming the calvaria (cranial
vault).
• During fetal life, the flat bones of the calvaria are separated by
dense connective tissue membranes that form fibrous joints,
the sutures
• Six large fibrous areas-fontanelles-are present where several
sutures meet.
• The softness of the bones and their loose connections at the
sutures enable the calvaria to undergo changes of shape
during birth, called molding.
• Several sutures and fontanelles
remain membranous for a
considerable time after birth.
• The bones of the vault continue
to grow after birth, mainly
because the brain grows.
• Although a 5- to 7-year-old child
has nearly all of his or her cranial
capacity, some sutures remain
open until adulthood.
• In the first few years after birth,  Skeletal structures of the head
palpation of the anterior and face
fontanelle may give valuable  Mesenchyme for these
information as to whether structures is derived from
ossification of the skull is neural crest (blue), paraxial
proceeding normally and mesoderm (somites and
whether intracranial pressure is somitomeres) (red), and lateral
plate mesoderm (yellow).
normal.
Skull of a newborn, seen from above (A) and the right side (B).
Note the anterior and posterior fontanelles and sutures. The posterior fontanelle closes
about 3 months after birth; the anterior fontanelle closes about the middle of the
second year. Many of the sutures disappear during adult life.
Lateral view of the head and neck region of an older fetus, showing derivatives of the arch
cartilages participating in formation of bones of the face.
• During molding of the fetal cranium (adaptation of fetal head to the
pelvic cavity during birth):
• the frontal bones become flat
• the occipital bone is drawn out
• and one parietal bone slightly overrides the other one.
• Within a few days after birth, the shape of the calvaria returns to
normal.
Cartilaginous Viscerocranium:
• Most mesenchyme in the head region is derived from the neural

crest.

• Neural crest cells migrate into the pharyngeal arches and form
the bones and connective tissue of craniofacial structures under
the influence of Homeobox (Hox) genes - regulate the migration
and subsequent differentiation of the neural crest cells, which are
crucial for the complex patterning of the head and face
• Pharyngeal arch bones
• These parts of the fetal cranium are derived from the
cartilaginous skeleton of the 1st two pairs of pharyngeal arches.
• The dorsal end of the first pharyngeal arch cartilage forms
two middle ear bones, the malleus and incus.
• The dorsal end of the 2nd pharyngeal arch cartilage forms the
stapes of the middle ear and the styloid process of the
temporal bone. Its ventral end ossifies to form the lesser horn
(Latin, cornu) and superior part of the body of the hyoid
bone.
• The third arch cartilages give rise to the greater horns and the
inferior part of the body of the hyoid bone.
• The fourth pharyngeal arch cartilages fuse to form the
laryngeal cartilages, except for the epiglottis.
Membranous Viscerocranium
• Intramembranous ossification occurs in the maxillary
prominence of the first pharyngeal arch and subsequently forms
the squamous temporal, maxillary, and zygomatic bones.

• The squamous temporal bones become part of the

neurocranium.

• The mesenchyme in the mandibular prominence of the first

pharyngeal arch condenses around its cartilage and undergoes
intramembranous ossification to form the mandible

• Some endochondral ossification occurs in the median plane of

Newborn Cranium (Skull)
• it is large in proportion to the
rest of the skeleton
• the face is relatively small
compared with the calvaria.
• The small facial region of the
cranium results from:
• the small size of the jaws
• virtual absence of paranasal
(air) sinuses
• and underdevelopment of
the facial bones.
DEVELOPMENT OF JOINTS

• Joints begin to develop with the appearance of the interzonal

mesenchyme during the 6th week

• by the end of the 8th week, they resemble adult joints

• Joints are classified as:

• fibrous joints
• cartilaginous joints
• synovial joints.
• Joints with little or no movement are classified according to the
type of material holding the bones together
• for example, the bones involved in fibrous joints are joined by
fibrous tissue
Fibrous Joints:

• the interzonal mesenchyme between the developing bones

differentiates into dense fibrous tissue, for example, the sutures of
the cranium are fibrous joints.

Cartilaginous Joints:

• the interzonal mesenchyme between the developing bones

differentiates into hyaline cartilage (e.g., the costochondral joints)
or fibrocartilage (e.g., the pubic symphysis)
Synovial Joints:
• the interzonal mesenchyme between the developing bones differentiates
as follows:
• Peripherally it forms the capsular and other ligaments.
• Centrally it disappears, and the resulting space becomes the joint
cavity or synovial cavity.
• Where it lines the joint capsule and articular surfaces, it forms the
synovial membrane (which secretes synovial fluid), a part of the
joint capsule (fibrous capsule lined with synovial membrane)
DEVELOPMENT OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

• The appendicular skeleton consists of:

• the pectoral girdle
• pelvic girdles
• and the limb bones

• Mesenchymal bones form during the 5th week as condensations

of mesenchyme appear in the limb buds

• During the 6th week, the mesenchymal bone models in the

limbs undergo chondrification to form hyaline cartilage bone
models
• The clavicle initially develops by intramembranous ossification,
and it later forms growth cartilages at both ends.

• The models of the pectoral girdle and upper limb bones appear
slightly before those of the pelvic girdle and lower limb bones

• the bone models appear in a proximodistal sequence.

• Patterning in the developing limbs is regulated by homeobox-

containing (Hox) genes
A, An embryo at approximately 28
days showing the early appearance
of the limb buds. B, Longitudinal
section through an upper limb bud
showing the apical ectodermal
ridge, This ridge promotes growth
of the mesenchyme and appears
to give it the ability to form
specific cartilaginous elements.

C, Similar sketch of an upper limb bud at approximately 33 days showing the

mesenchymal primordia of the forearm bones. The digital rays are mesenchymal
condensations that undergo chondrification and ossification to form the bones of
the hand.
D, Upper limb at 6 weeks showing the cartilage models of the bones. E, Later in the
sixth week showing the completed cartilaginous models of the bones of the upper
limb
Lower extremity of an early 6-week
embryo, illustrating the first hyaline
cartilage models. B,C. Complete set of
cartilage models at the end of the sixth
week and the beginning of the eighth
• Ossification begins in the long bones by
the 8th week and initially occurs in the
diaphyses of the bones from primary
ossification centers
• By 12 weeks, primary ossification centers
have appeared in nearly all bones of the
limbs
• The clavicles begin to ossify before any
other bones in the body.
• The femora are the next bones to show
traces of ossification.
• The first indication of the primary center
of ossification in the cartilaginous model
of a long bone is visible near the center
of the future shaft (diaphysis).
• Primary centers appear at different times
in different bones, but most of them
appear between the 7th and 12th weeks.
• N.B. Virtually all primary centers of
ossification are present at birth.
• The secondary ossification centers of the bones at the knee are the
first to appear in utero.

• The secondary centers for the distal end of the femur and the
proximal end of the tibia usually appear during the last month of
intrauterine life.

• Consequently, these secondary centers are usually present at birth;

however, most secondary centers of ossification appear after birth.

• The part of a bone ossified from a secondary center is the epiphysis.

• The bone formed from the primary center in the diaphysis does not
fuse with that formed from the secondary centers in the epiphyses
until the bone grows to its adult length.
• This delay enables lengthening of the bone to continue until the
final size is reached.

• During bone growth, a plate of cartilage known as the epiphysial

cartilage plate intervenes between the diaphysis and the
epiphysis

• The epiphysial plate is eventually replaced by bone development

on each of its two sides, diaphysial and epiphysial. When this
occurs, growth of the bone ceases.
Determinations of bone age
• Bone age is a good index of general maturation.
• Determination of the number, size, and fusion of epiphysial centers
from radiographs is a commonly used method.
• A radiologist determines the bone age of a person by assessing the
ossification centers using two criteria:
• The time of appearance of calcified material in the diaphysis and/or the
epiphysis is specific for each diaphysis and epiphysis and for each bone and
sex.
• The disappearance of the dark line representing the epiphysial cartilage plate
indicates that the epiphysis has fused with the diaphysis.
• Fusion of the diaphesial-epiphysial centers, which occurs at specific
times for each epiphysis, happens 1 to 2 years earlier in females
than in males.
• In the fetus, ultrasonography is used for the evaluation and
measurement of bones as well as for determination of fertilization
age.
Craniosynostosis. A and B,
An infant with
scaphocephaly. This
condition results from
premature closure
(synostosis) of the sagittal
suture. Note the
elongated, wedge-shaped
cranium seen from above
(A) and the side (B). C, An
infant with bilateral
premature closure of the
coronal suture
(brachycephaly). Note the
high, markedly elevated
forehead. D, An infant with
premature closure of the
frontal suture
(trigonocephaly). Note the
hypertelorism and
prominent midline ridging
of the forehead
Anomalies of skeletal system
Assigment:
1. Klippel-Feil Syndrome
2. Spina Bifida
3. Hemivertebra
4. Rachischisis
5. Cranial Anomalies
6. Acrania
7. Craniosynostosis
8. Microcephaly
9. Anomalies at the Craniovertebral Junction
REFERENCES

1. T. W. Sadler. LANGMAN’S Medical Embryology. 12th edi. 2012

Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
2. KEITHL. MOORE T.V.N. PERSAUD. The Developing
• Human. Clinically Oriented Embryology. 8th edi and above.
3. …………
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