BONE

Dr. Moono Silitongo

• is a specialised connective tissue whose extracellular matrix is calcified,
incarcerating the cells that secreted it
Functions of bone:
• support
• protection of vital organs such as those in the cranial and thoracic cavities
• reservoir for calcium
• form a system of levers that multiplies the forces generated during skeletal
muscle contraction and transforms them into bodily movements
• mineralised tissue confers mechanical and metabolic functions to skeleton
• haemopoiesis (haematopoiesis - bone marrow)
• bone is a specialised connective tissue composed of:
- intercellular calcified material, the bone matrix
- three cell types:
- osteocytes: are found in cavities (lacunae) within the matrix
- osteoblasts: synthesise the organic components of the
matrix
- osteoclasts: are multinucleated giant cells involved in the
resorption and remodelling of bone tissue
• endosteum
• periosteum
Bone matrix
• bone matrix has inorganic and organic constituents
Inorganic component
• constituents of bone are crystals of calcium hydroxyapatite, composed
mostly of calcium and phosphorus
• inorganic portion of bone, which constitutes about 65% of its dry
weight, is composed mainly of calcium and phosphorus with other
components, including bicarbonate, citrate, magnesium, sodium and
potassium
• calcium and phosphorus exist in form of hydroxyapatite crystals
• bone is one of the hardest and strongest substances in the body and its hardness
and strength are due to the association of hydroxyapatite crystals with collagen

• if bone is decalcified (i.e., all of the mineral is removed from the bone), it still
retains its original shape but becomes so flexible that it can be bent like a piece
of tough rubber

• if the organic component is extracted from bone, the mineralized skeleton still
retains its original shape, but it becomes extremely brittle and can be fractured
with ease
Organic component
• predominant organic component of bone is type I collagen
• constitutes approximately 35% of the dry weight of bone, includes fibres that are
almost exclusively type I collagen
• collagen makes up about 80% to 90% of the organic component of bone
• Type I collagen in bone is highly cross-linked, which prevents it from being easily
extracted
• presence of sulfated GAGs, namely chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulphate
• proteoglycans are bound to hyaluronic acid forming very large aggrecan
composites
• abundance of collagen causes the matrix to be acidophilic
Bone cells
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
• are stem cells of mesenchymal origin
• resemble fibroblasts
• convert themselves into osteoblasts when there is need of bone
formation
2. Osteoblasts
• located on the surface of the bone matrix
• synthesise organic components i.e. collagen type I, proteoglycans,
glycoproteins
• Oc - osteocyte
• Ob - osteoblast
• Ocl - osteoclast
3. Osteocytes
• cells of mature bone, lying in the lacunae of the bone
• have delicate cytoplasmic processes
• less RER and Golgi complex
4. Osteoclasts
• 20 -100 μm in diameter
• multinucleated, motile
• are derived from monocytes
• ruffled membrane
• Howship lacunae shallow depressions occupied by osteoclasts
Periosteum & Endosteum

• external and internal surfaces of bone are covered by layers of bone-forming cells
and connective tissue called periosteum and endosteum

• periosteum consists of an outer layer of collagen fibres and fibroblasts

• bundles of periosteal collagen fibres, called Sharpey's fibres, penetrate the bone
matrix, binding the periosteum to bone

• the inner, more cellular layer of the periosteum is composed of fibroblastlike cells
called osteoprogenitor cells, with the potential to divide by mitosis and
differentiate into osteoblasts
• osteoprogenitor cells play a prominent role in bone growth and repair

• endosteum lines all internal cavities within the bone and is composed of
a single layer of flattened osteoprogenitor cells and a very small amount
of connective tissue

• endosteum is therefore considerably thinner than the periosteum

• principal functions of periosteum and endosteum are nutrition of osseous

tissue and provision of a continuous supply of new osteoblasts for repair
or growth of bone
Types of bone
• gross observation of bone in cross section shows dense areas without
cavities corresponding to compact bone and areas with numerous
interconnecting cavities corresponding to cancellous (spongy) bone

• under the microscope, however, both compact bone and the trabeculae
separating the cavities of cancellous bone have the same basic
histological structure
• microscopic examination of bone shows two varieties: primary,
immature or woven bone and secondary, mature or lamellar bone

• primary bone is the first bone tissue to appear in embryonic

development and in fracture repair and other repair processes

• it is characterised by random deposition of fine collagen fibres, in

contrast to the organised lamellar disposition of collagen in secondary
bone
Lamellar bone
• most bone in adults, both compact and cancellous bone are organised
as lamellar bone
• lamellae are either parallel or concentric around a central canal
(Haversian Canal)
• Osteon or Haversian system
• lacunae each with a single osteocyte interconnected by canaliculi
containing cell’s dendritic processes
• cement line:- outer boundary of each osteon
• Perforating canals / Volkmann’s canal
Woven bone
• first bone to appear in embryonic development

• non-lamellar bone, characterised by random deposition of type I

collagen fibres

• primary bone tissue is usually temporary and except in a very few

places in the body (e.g. near the sutures of the flat bones of the skull,
in tooth sockets and in the insertions of some tendons)
• is replaced by lamellar bone in adults

• has lower mineral content (easily penetrated by x - rays)

• forms more quickly but has less strength

• has higher proportion of osteocytes than in secondary bone tissue

Osteogenesis
Bone can be formed in two ways:

• by direct mineralization of matrix secreted by osteoblasts

(intramembranous ossification) or by deposition of bone matrix on a
pre-existing hyaline cartilage matrix invaded by osteoblasts
(endochondral ossification)
Intramembranous ossification
• so called because it takes place in membranes of the embryonic mesenchyme

• most flat bones form in membranes i.e. frontal and parietals, parts of the
occipital, temporal, mandible and maxilla

• ossification centre appear in the condensed layer of the mesenchyme

• mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells which proliferate

to form osteoblasts around blood vessels

• osteoblast secrete osteoid which is then calcified and form woven bone
• neighboring ossification centres then
fuse and gradually produce compact
bone

• cranial bone formation predominates

bone resorption

• Fontanelles corresponds to parts of

connective tissue not yet ossified

• connective tissue that do not ossify

remain as endosteum and periosteum
Endochondral ossification
• ossification takes place within the hyaline cartilage

• shape of the cartilage resembles a model of the bone to be formed

• is responsible for most of the long bones in the body

• first bone collar appear surrounding the diaphysis produced by activity of

osteoblast

• collar impedes diffusion of oxygen and nutrients to underlying cartilage,

promoting degenerative changes there

• chondrocyte begin producing alkaline phosphatase and swell up

• death of chondrocytes creates porous structure consisting of calcified
cartilage remnants which become covered by osteoblasts

• blood vessels from perichondrium (now periosteum) bring osteoprogenitor

cells to porous central region

• osteoblast adhere to remnants of calcified cartilage to produce woven bone

• this process in the diaphysis produce primary centre of ossification

• secondary centres of ossification appear in the epiphysis of the cartilage

model
Bone structure
• epiphysis

• diaphysis

• metaphysis

• epiphyseal plate

• diploe
Epiphyseal plate:-

• connect epiphysis to diaphysis

• it is responsible for the growth in

length of the bone

• closure of epiphyseal plates marks

stoppage of bone growth in length
around 20th year
Regions of cellular activity
1. Resting Zone:- consist of 4. Calcified cartilage zone:- loss
hyaline cartilage with typical
chondrocytes
2. Proliferative zone:-
chondrocytes begin to divide
rapidly and forms column of
stacked cells parallel to the
long axis of the bone
3. Hypertrophic cartilage zone:-
contains swollen degenerative
chondrocytes
of cartilage by apoptosis
accompanied by calcification of
septa of cartilage matrix by
formation of hydroxyapatite
crystals
5. Ossification zone :- bone tissue
first appears
• cavities merge to form bone
marrow cavity
• growth in length of long bones occur by proliferation of chondrocytes
in the epiphyseal plate

• epiphyseal plates does not change thickness instead the epiphyseal

plate is displaced away from the middle of the diaphysis, resulting in
growth in length of the bone
Bone growth, Remodeling and repair
• involves laying down new bone and resorption of the old bone

• in bone growth, laying new bone exceed bone removal

• sum of activities of osteoclast and osteoblast constitute bone remodeling

• bone turn over is very active in children, about x200 than that in adults

• remodelling ensures bone to remain plastic despite its hardness

• bone forms where traction is applied and is resorbed on the opposite side
• cranial bones form outside and resorbed on the inner surface
responding to brain growth

Repair:- bone repair is excellent due to its vascularity and the

progenitor and osteoblast cells on the periosteum and

endosteum
Metabolic roles of the bone
• skeleton serves as calcium reservoir containing 99% of total calcium
in the body
• PTH:- ↑blood Ca2+ by stimulating osteoclasts
• Calcitonin:- ↓blood Ca2+ by opposing effects of PTH
Neurovascular supply to the bone
• long bone receive three sets of blood supply:-
• nutrient artery;- enters the bone through nutrient foramen near the
diaphysis
• epiphyseal and metaphyseal arteries
• small arteries from the periosteum

• lymphatic vessels are present in periosteum but not in bone substance

• nerve fibres accompany blood vessels into marrow cavity and Haversian
canals, they are most numerous near the joints
 Joints
• regions where adjacent bones are capped and held together by CT

• type of joints determine the degree of movement between bones

• are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints

• the nerve that innervates the joint also innervate the muscles that move
it and the skin covering the insertion of the muscles (Hilton’s Law)
Fibrous Joints (Synarthroses)
Synarthroses:-
• allow very limited movement
• joined by fibrous tissue
• have no joint cavities
Can be divided into:-
Synostoses:- bones unite only by bone tissue and no movement takes place i.e.
in bones of the skull (sutures)
Syndesmoses:- join bones by CT only i.e. interosseous ligaments of the
tibiofibular and tympanostpedial joint
Cartilaginous joints
• are united by cartilage and have no joint cavity
1. Primary Cartilaginous joints (synchondroses)
are united by hyaline cartilage and permit no movement but growth in
length
include epiphyseal plates (union of epiphysis and diaphysis) in a
growing bone
2. Secondary cartilaginous joints (symphysis)
are joined by fibrous cartilage and are slightly movable
include pubic symphysis and intervertebral disks
Synovial joints (Diarthroses)
• permit free movement and are classified according to shape of
articulation or type of movement
• are characterised by four features;
Joint cavity
Articular (hyaline) cartilage
Synovial membrane
Articular capsule
• contains synovial fluid in the joint cavity
Synovial joints (Diarthroses)
1. Plane (gliding) joint
• allow simple gliding /sliding of one bone over another
• occur in proximal tibiofibular, sternoclavicular and carpal joints
2. Hinge (Ginglymus) joint
• resemble door hinges i.e. elbow and ankle joints
• allow only flexion and extension
3. Pivot (Trochlear) joints
• allow only rotation
• found in superior and inferior radioulnar joints and in atlantoaxial joint
Synovial Joints (Diarthroses)
4. Condylar (ellipsoidal) joints
have two convex condyles articulating with two concave condyles
allow flexion, and extension
occur in the wrist, tibiofemoral, atlantooccipital
5. Saddle (sellar) joint
resemble a saddle, allow flexion and extension, abduction and
adduction, and circumduction but no axial rotation
occur in carpometacarpal joint of the thumb and between the femur
and patella
Synovial joints (Diarthroses)
6. Ball and socket (spheroidal or cotyloidal) joints
allow movement in many direction
occur in shoulder and hip joint
Applied Anatomy
• Osteoarthritis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Gout
• Bone fracture and repair
• Osteomalacia
• Osteopetrosis
• Rickets
• Osteoporosis
• Osteosarcomas