Tuesday, September 28, 2021 4:17 PM

4 COMPONENTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

4 Components of the Skeletal System

Cartilage
- -reduces friction and model for bone formation Ligaments
- -attach bone to bone
Bones
- major supporting tissue Tendons
- attach bone to muscle

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

01. Body Support
• Bone
- rigid, strong bone; weight bearing; major
supporting tissue of the body
• Cartilage
- firm, flexible support
- nose, external ear, thoracic cage, trachea
• Ligaments
- strong bands of strong connective tissue
- hold bones together

02. Organ Protection

• Skull
- protects the brain
• Vertebrae
- surround the spinal cord
• Rib cage
- protects the heart, lungs and other organs of the thorax

03. Body Movement

• Tendons
- attach skeletal muscles to bones
- Contraction of skeletal muscles moves bones
• Joints
- where 2 or more bones come together
• Smooth cartilage
- covers end of bones
• Ligaments
- movement between bones

04. Mineral Storage

• ↓ mineral blood levels → minerals from the bone are
released into the blood
• Calcium, Phosphorus
• Adipose tissue – stored within bone cavities

05. Blood Cell Production

• Red bone marrow
- gives rise to RBCs and platelets

3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Hyaline Cartilage Model

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Hyaline Cartilage Model

• “-blast”
- end of undifferentiated cells; means “seed” or “bud”
• “-cyte”
- cell’s final form
• Hyaline cartilage chondroblasts
- secrete matrix
- Chondroblast surrounded w/ matrix Chondrocytes
• Lacuna
- space (occupied by chondrocytes)
• Matrix
- collagen and proteoglycans
● Proteoglycans:
- large polysaccharides attached to proteins
- make cartilage resilient
- store water
● Bone’s extracellular matrix has collagen and minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
● Cartilage’s extracellular matrix has collagen and proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
● Tendons and ligaments’ extracellular matrix has collagen (very tough)

Perichondrium
- double-layered outer layer of dense connective tissue containing fibroblasts
Articular cartilage
- hyaline cartilage; covers ends of bones
- no perichondrium, blood vessels, or nerves

2 Types of Cartilage Growth:

1. Appositional
- chondroblasts in perichondrium add new cartilage to the outside edge of existing cartilage
2. Interstitial
- chondrocytes in the center divide and add more matrix between existing cells

BONE HISTOLOGY

• Organic martial (35% by weight)

- collagen & proteoglycans
• Inorganic material (65% by weight)
- calcium phosphate crystals(HYDROXYAPATITE)Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
• ↓ mineral in long bone → overly flexible
• ↓ collagen in long bone→ overly brittle

MATURE BONE MATRIX

BONE CELLS
1. Osteoblasts:
- build bone
- produce collagen and proteoglycans
- ossification or osteogenesis
- formation of new bone
2. Osteocytes:
- maintain bone matrix
- 90-95% of bone cells
- very long-lived (~25yrs)
- housed within lacunae
- cell extensions are housed in canaliculi
3. Osteoclasts:
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3. Osteoclasts:
- - carve bone/bone destroying cells
- - “bone reabsorption” – breakdown of bones
- - Mobilizing Ca++ and phosphate ions
- - massive multinucleated cells
- - derived from red bone marrow cells that differentiate into monocytes

Bone Reabsorption Process (Mature Osteoclasts)

1. Osteoclasts access the the bone matrix.

2. Osteoclasts form attachment structures via interactions with integrins
- Integrins – cell-surface proteins
3. Podosomes develop and form a sealed compartment under the osteoclast.
4. Osteoclasts in the plasma membrane further differentiates into a highly folded form called the
ruffled border.
- Ruffled border – specialized reabsorption specific area
- acidic vesicles fuse with the membrane of the ruffled border

WOVEN AND LAMELAR BONE

WOVEN
• First type of bone formed during ossification
• Fairly weak – collagen fibers are oriented in many directions
LAMELLAR
• Mature bone
• Thin concentric sheets called LAMELLAE
• Remodeling – converts woven to lamellar bone

SPONGY BONE
• Trabeculae: interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow
• Cancellous bone; No osteon
• Location: epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones

COMPACT BONE
• Solid outer layer surrounding each bone
• Location: outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and thinner surfaces of other bones
• Osteon: structural unit of compact bone
• includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus, central canal, osteocytes
• Lamella: rings of bone matrix

COMPACT BONE
• Lacunae: spaces between lamella
• Canaliculus:
- tiny canals
- transport nutrients, remove waste
• Central canal:
- center of osteon
- contains blood vessels
- the “bull’s-eye of the target”

COMPACT BONE
Concentric lamellae – surrounds the central canal rings of the bone matrix
Circumferential lamellae – thin plates; outer surfaces of compact bone
Interstitial lamellae – between osteons; remnants of concentric and circumferential lamellae

PERFORATING CANALS
- Volkmann canals
- deliver blood to the central canals

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- deliver blood to the central canals
- run perpendicular to the length of the bone
- Contain blood vessels from the periosteum or medullary cavity

BONE ANATOMY

A. LONG BONE STRUCTURE

● Diaphysis:
○ shaft
○ compact bone
tissue (on outside)

● Epiphysis:
○ ends
○ spongy bone tissue
○ Has its own ossification center

● Articular cartilage:
- covers epiphyses
- reduces friction

● Epiphyseal plate/ Growth Plate:

○ site of growth
○ between diaphysis and epiphysis
○ Bone length

● Epiphyseal line
○ Ossified epiphysial plate
○ Bone stops growing

● Medullary cavity:
○ center of diaphysis
○ red or yellow marrow

● Periosteum:
- membrane around bone’s outer surface
- dense irregular collagenous connective tissue
- PERFORATING FIBERS or Sharpey Fibers
- bundle of collagen fibers that strengthen the attachment of tendons and ligaments to the
bone

● Endosteum:
- membrane that lines medullary cavity
- single cell layer of connective tissue
- includes osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteochondral progenitor cells

Hematopoietic Tissue
● What is it?
tissue that makes blood cells

● Red marrow:
location of blood forming cells
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns: most bones (red marrow)

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● Yellow marrow:
mostly fat
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:
- red is replaced with yellow marrow
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur and humerus

B. STRUCTURE OF FLAT, SHORT, & IRREGULAR BONES

● Flat Bone:
○ Interior framework - spongy bones and wished between 2 compact bones

● Short & Irregular Bones:

○ Compact bone surfaces
○ Spongy bone center – filled w/ marrow
○ Not elongated; NO DIAPHYSES
sinuses –air-filled spaces lined with mucous membrane

Intramembranous Ossification
● Bone formation within connective tissue membranes
● Osteoblasts build bone
● Ex. Skull bones
● Fontanels – soft spots; spaces between developing skull bones which have not yet been ossified

Intramembranous Ossification
1. Osteoblast Formation

2. Spongy Bone Formation

3. Compact Bone Formation

Endochondral Ossification

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Bone Formation
● Ossification:
- process of bone formation (occurs in utero)
● Osteoblast’s role:
- - build bone
- - after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone matrix it becomes an osteocyte
● Ossification center:
- where bone formation begins
● Primary ossification center:
- - where bone 1st begins to appear
- - forms diaphysis
● Secondary ossification center:
- forms epiphyses

BONE GROWTH

Bone Growth
● Infancy and youth:
- long bones lengthen at epiphyseal plate
- long bones widen by adding more lamella

● End of bone growth (in length):

- epiphyseal plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line

A. Growth in Bone Length

B. Growth at Articular Cartilage

● Epiphyses increase in size
● Increases the size of bones that don’t have epiphysis
● Similar to the occurrence in epiphysial plate BUT chondrocyte columns are not as obvious
● Does not become ossified

C. Growth in Bone Width

● Appositional growth beneath the periosteum
● Young bones or during puberty

PERIOSTEUM ENDOSTEUM Growth in bone width Bone Growth in Width

Formation of grooves

D. Factors Affecting Bone Growth

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D. Factors Affecting Bone Growth

Bone Growth

D.1 NUTRITION

Vitamin D
● necessary for the normal absorption of calcium
● can be synthesized by the body or ingested
● ↑Rate of synthesis ↑exposure to sunlight
● Rickets – reduced mineralization of the bone matrix; insufficient vitamin D in children
● Osteomalacia - “adult rickets”
- -softening of the bones due to calcium depletion

Vitamin C
● Necessary for osteoblasts to synthesize collagen
● Vit. C deficiency – bones and cartilage with fewer collagen fibers
- children – retarded growth
- children & adult – scurvy marked by
- ulceration & hemorrhage

Growth Hormones
● Anterior pituitary
● Stimulating interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth

Pituitary Gigantism
● Excessive growth hormone secretion

Pituitary Dwarfism
● insufficient growth hormone secretion

Thyroid Hormones
● Required for normal growth of all tissues including cartilage

Reproductive Hormones
● Regulate bone growth
● Estrogen – female
● Testosterone - male

Bone Remodeling
● What is it?
- removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- occurs in all bones
- responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium
ion regulation

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Bone Repair

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

● Bone is a major storage site for calcium
● Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of calcium
● Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
● Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone
● Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF BONE ANATOMY

Bone Anatomy
● 206 BONES IN THE BODY

● Foramen:
- hole
- Ex. Foramen magnum

● Fossa:
- depression
- Ex. Glenoid fossa

● Process:
- sharp projection
- Ex. Mastoid process

● Condyle:
- smooth, rounded end
- Ex. Occipital condyle

● Meatus:
- canal-like passageway
- Ex. External auditory meatus

● Tubercle/Tuberosity:
- lump of bone
- Ex. Greater tubercle

Axial Skeleton
● Mastoid process: attached to neck muscles

● External auditory meatus:

- ear canal

● Nasolacrimal canal:
- canal between nasal cavity and eye
- conducts tears

● Styloid process:
- attachment site for tongue

● Mandibular fossa:

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● Mandibular fossa:
depression where lower jaw and skull meet

● Glenoid fossa:
where humerus meets scapula

● Hard palate:
roof of mouth

● Foramen magnum:
hole where spinal cord joins brainstem

● Zygomatic:
cheek bone

● Mandible:
lower jaw

● Maxilla:
upper jaw

Vertebral Column
● 7 cervical vertebra
● 12 thoracic vertebra
● 5 lumbar vertebra
● 1 sacrum (5 fused)
● 1 coccyx (4 fused)
● Atlas:
- 1st cervical vertebra
- holds head
- “yes”
● Axis:
- 2nd cervical vertebra
- rotates head
- “no”

Sacrum – 5 sacral vertebrae are fused

Functions of Vertebral Column

● Support
● Protect spinal cord
● Movement

Thoracic Cage
● Protects vital organs
● 12 pair of ribs
● Sternum: breastbone
● True ribs (1-7): attach directly to sternum by cartilage
● False ribs (8-12): attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
● Floating ribs (11-12): not attached to sternum

Pectoral Girdle
● Scapula: shoulder blade

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● Scapula: shoulder blade
● Clavicle: collar bone

Upper Limb Bones

● Homarus: upper limb
● Ulna: forearm
● Radius: forearm
● Carpals: wrist
● Metacarpals: hand

Pelvic Girdle
● Where lower limbs attach to body
● Pelvis: includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
● Ischium: inferior and posterior region
● Ilium: most superior region
● Acetabulum: hip socket (joint)

Lower Limb Bones

● Femur: thigh
● Patella: knee cap
● Tibia: large lower leg
● Fibula: small lower leg

● Tarsals: ankle
● Metatarsals: foot
● Phalanges: toes and fingers

Articulations
● What are they?
where 2 bones come together (joint)

● Synarthrosis:
- non movable joint
- Ex. Skull

● Amphiarthrosis:
- slightly movable joint
- Ex. Between vertebrae

● Diarthrosis:
- freely movable joint
- Ex. knee, elbow, wrist

Types of Movement
● Flexion: bending
● Extension: straightening
● Abduction: movement away from midline
● Adduction: movement toward the midline
● Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down
● Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
● Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis

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● Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints

1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

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