MIDTERMS

Skeletal System: Bones and Joints

Functions of the skeletal system

1.    Support:  form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs
2.    Protection:  provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
3.    Movement:  provide levers for muscles
4.    Storage:  reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus
5.    Blood cell production:  hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones
 
Components of Skeletal System
 Structures 
• Bone
• Cartilage: reduce friction and model for bone formation
• Tendons: attach bone to muscle
• Ligaments: attach bone to bone
Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are connective tissues.
Composition
• Proteoglycans:
         >large polysaccharides attached to proteins
         >part of ground substance
         >store water
• Bone’s extracellular matrix is collagen and minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
• Cartilage’s extracellular matrix is collagen and proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
• Tendons and ligaments’ extracellular matrix is collagen (very tough)
 
Classification of Bones
Individual bones are classified according to their shape
•      Based on shape: long, short, flat, irregular
•      Type of bone tissue: compact and spongy (cancellous)
1.        Long bones
•          Longer than they are wide
•          Most bones of the upper and lower limbs
2.        Short bones     
•        About as wide as they are long
•        Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)
3.        Flat bones
•       Relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved
•       Certain bones of the skull, all the ribs, the breastbone (sternum), and the
shoulder blades (scapulae)
4.      Irregular bones
•        Do not fit into the other three categories
•        Vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones

Structure of Bones
Parts of a Long Bone
Diaphysis
•      Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones
.      Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity
•      Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity
•      Not to the same extent, but certain bones also contain red marrow
Epiphyses
•      Expanded ends of long bones
•      Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone
•      Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage

Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

          Epiphyseal plate is the site of bone growth in length
          Epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line when all of
its cartilage is replaced with bone

Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones

•   Flat bones contain an interior framework of cancellous bone
sandwiched between two layers of compact bone
•   Short and Irregular bones have a composition similar to the
ends of long bones

 Bone Membranes
•   Periosteum:  double layer of protective membrane covering
the outer surface of bone
                         Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue, which
contains blood vessels and nerves
•   Inner osteogenic layer contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral
progenitor cells
•   Endosteum:  delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone
                         Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor
cells

Histology of Bone
Bone Cells
1.      Osteoblasts (bone forming cells) produce bone matrix and become
osteocytes. Osteoblasts connect to one another through cell processes and
surround themselves with bone matrix to become osteocytes. Osteoblasts
originate from osteochondral progenitor cells
2.      Osteocytes ( bone cells) are located in lacunae and are connected to one
another through canaliculi
3.      Osteoclasts (bone destroying cells) break down bone. Osteoclasts originate from stem cells in red bone marrow
Two major types of bone tissue found throughout the skeleton:
Bone can be classified according to the
amount of bone matrix relative to the
amount of space present within the
bone:
 
1.            Compact Bone
•          Location:  outer part of diaphysis
(long bones) and thinner surfaces of
other bones
•          Osteon: structural unit of
compact bone
                        o includes lamella,
lacunae, canaliculus, central canal,
osteocytes
                        o   Lamella:  rings of bone matrix
                        o   Lacunae:  spaces between lamella
                        o   Canaliculus: tiny canals
                          transport nutrients and remove waste
                        o   Central canal:  center of osteon contains blood vessels

1.  Spongy Bone Tissue/ Cancellous bone

     Location:  epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones
     Trabeculae:  interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow
     No osteons

Bone Formation
 
•          Ossification:  process of bone formation  (occurs in utero)
•          Osteoblast’s role:
•   build bone
•   after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone matrix it becomes an osteocyte
•          Ossification center: where bone formation begins
•          Primary ossification center: 
•          where bone 1st begins to appear
•          forms diaphyses
•          Secondary ossification center:  forms epiphyses

Types of Bone Ossification

1.  Intramembranous ossification:  bone develops from a fibrous membrane/ connective tissue membranes
•          Some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the diaphyses of the clavicles
•          Ossification centers: process begins here

2.  Endochondral ossification:  bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

•       Bones of the base of the skull, part of the mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the remaining
skeletal system
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1.    Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chrondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2.    Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3.    Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary ossification center forms diaphysis.
4.    Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5.    Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and remaining cartilage is articular cartilage

Bone Growth
•          Bones increase in size only by appositional growth (increase in width and diameter)
•          Adding of new bone on the surface of older bone or cartilage
•          Trabeculae grow by appositional growth
Growth in Bone Length
•          long bones lengthen at epiphyseal plate
•          long bones widen by adding more lamella
•          Bone growth stops when the epiphyseal plate is changed to epiphyseal line
 
Bone Repair and Bone remodeling
•          Occurs after a fracture
Bone Repair
•          Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot forms.
•          Callus forms which is a fibrous network between 2 fragments.
•          Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous bone this continues for 4-6
weeks after injury.
•          Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and cancellous bone.

1.     Hematoma formation

•          Torn blood vessels hemorrhage
•          A mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at the fracture site
•          Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
2.     Callus formation
•          Granulation tissue (soft callus) forms a few days after the fracture
•          Capillaries grow into the tissue and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris
•          The external callus forms when:
1.  Osteoblasts and fibroblasts migrate to the fracture and begin reconstructing the bone
2.  Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that connect broken bone ends
3.  Osteoblasts begin forming woven bone
4.  Osteoblasts furthest from capillaries secrete an externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that later calcifies
Bone Remodeling
•          Excess material on the bone shaft exterior and in the medullary canal is removed
•          Compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls
•          The remodeling process may take more than a year to complete
 
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
•          Bone is a major storage site for calcium
•          Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of calcium
•          Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
•          Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone
•          Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone  (PTH) and calcitonin

Bone Anatomy 
•          Foramen: 
            -  hole
          -  Ex. Foramen magnum        
•          Fossa: 
            -  depression
                -  Ex.  Glenoid fossa
•          Process:
             - projection
                -  Ex.  Mastoid process
•          Condyle: 
            -  smooth, rounded end
               -  Ex. Occipital condyle
•          Meatus:
            -  canal-like passageway
                -  Ex. External auditory meatus
•          Tubercle:
            -  lump of bone
               -  Ex. Greater tubercle

Organization of the Skeleton

The skeleton can be divided into two major portions: (1) axial skeleton, which consists of the bones and cartilages in the
head, neck, and trunk, and (2) the appendicular skeleton, which consists of the bones of the limbs and those that anchor
the limbs to the axial skeleton.
 
Axial Skeleton Appendicular skeleton
Skull Pectoral girdle
Cranium                    8 Scapula                          2
Face                         14 Clavicle                          2
Middle ear bone      6 Upper limbs    
Hyoid bone              1 Humerus                        2
Vertebral column Radius                            2
Vertebra                  24 Ulna                                2
Sacrum                     1 Carpal                           16
Coccyx                      1 Metacarpal                   10
Thoracic Cage Phalanx                        28
Rib                           24 Pelvic girdle
Sternum                   1 Coxa                              2
Lower limbs
Femur                           2
Tibia                              2
Fibula                            2
Patella                           2
Tarsal                           14
Metatarsal                   10
Phalanx                       28
Total:                        80 bones Total:                                    126 bones
Total Number of Bones in a Normal Adult: 206
 
Axial Skeleton
•          Mastoid process: attached to neck muscles
•          External auditory meatus: ear canal
•          Nasolacrimal canal:
            -  canal between nasal cavity and eye 
          -  conducts tears
•          Styloid process: attachment site for tongue
•          Mandibular fossa: depression where lower jaw and skull meet
•          Glenoid fossa: where humerus meets scapula
•          Hard palate: roof of mouth
•          Foramen magnum:  hole where spinal cord joins brainstem
•          Zygomatic: cheek bone
•          Mandible: lower jaw
•          Maxilla: upper jaw