HISTOLOGY: BONE and CARTILAGE

(PRELAB DISCUSSION)
 Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, the students are able to:

• Identify the histological components of bone and cartilage.
• Identify main functions of bone and cartilage tissue.
• Identify the major parts of a long bones.
• Describe the cells found in bone and cartilage tissue.
• Describe the components of an osteon.

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 BONE: OVERVIEW

▪ Bone is a connective tissue characterized by a

mineralized extracellular matrix.
▪ Bone matrix contains mainly type I collagen
along with other matrix (noncollagenous)
proteins.
▪ Bone matrix contains lacunae connected by a
network of canaliculi.
In addition to osteocytes, other cell types
are associated with bone: Osteoprogenitor cells,
Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts

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 BONE: FUNCTION

▪ Support
▪ Protection (protect internal organs)
▪ Movement (provide leverage system for
skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints)
▪ Mineral homeostasis (bones act as reserves of
minerals important for the body like calcium or
phosphorus)
▪ Hematopoiesis: blood cell formation
▪ Storage of adipose tissue: yellow marrow

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 BONE: FUNCTION

▪ Bones are the organs of the skeletal

system; bone tissue is the structural
component of bones.

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 BONE CLASSIFICATION

Bones are classified according to shape:

▪ Long bones (e.g., humerus, femur)
▪ Short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals,
patella)
▪ Flat bones (e.g., parietal bone, scapula,
sternum)
▪ Irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae, hip
bones)

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 BONE: GENERAL STRUCTURE

▪ Diaphysis: long shaft of bone

▪ Epiphysis: ends of bone
▪ Metaphysis: between epiphysis and
diaphysis
▪ Epiphyseal plate: growth plate
▪ Articular cartilage: covers epiphysis
▪ Periosteum: bone covering (pain
sensitive)
▪ Sharpey’s fibers: periosteum attaches to
underlying bone
▪ Medullary cavity: Hollow chamber in
bone
▫ red marrow produces blood cells
▫ yellow marrow is adipose
▪ Endosteum: thin layer lining the
medullary cavity 7
 BONE: PERIOSTEUM vs ENDOSTEUM

PERIOSTEUM
▪ Covers external surfaces of bones
▪ Absent on articulating surfaces and
areas where muscles, tendons and
ligaments are attached
▪ Layers
▫ Fibrous layer - outer layer
▫ Osteogenic layer - inner, cellular
layer
▪ Sharpey’s fibers
▫ Bundles of collagen fibers from
periosteum trapped in bone
matrix
▫ Anchors periosteum to bone 8
 BONE: PERIOSTEUM vs ENDOSTEUM

ENDOSTEUM
▪ Lines all internal surfaces and
cavities (i.e., medullary, marrow
and vascular) of bones.
▪ Thinner than periosteum
▪ Often just a single layer of cells

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 BONE TISSUE

▪ Bone tissue is classified as either

compact (dense) or spongy
(cancellous).

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 BONE TISSUE

Compact (cortical; dense)

▪ No spaces visible; appears like a solid
mass
▪ Comprises 75-80% of skeletal mass
▪ No cavities occupied by bone marrow
▪ Lamellae arranged in three ways:
1. Haversian system or osteon
2. Interstitial lamellae
3. Circumferential lamellae

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 BONE TISSUE

Cancellous (spongy)
▪ Spaces present in between bone
trabeculae or spicules
▪ Spaces in between bone spicules
are occupied by bone marrow
▪ Comprises 20-25% of skeletal
mass

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 BONE TISSUE

Cancellous (spongy)
▪ Bone spicules
- Comprise spongy bone
- Each is formed by
1. Several bone lamellae that
are arranged parallel to each
other
2. Associated lacunae

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 BONE: HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

▪ Intercellular substance: layered (lamellar), 3-7mm/ lamellae

▪ Lacunae: cavities in bone lamellae, each contains an osteocyte
▪ Canaliculi
▫ Canals that radiate from lacunae
▫ Anastomose with those from other lacunae
▫ Contain cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes
▫ Cytoplasmic processes of neighboring osteocytes are in contact with
each other in canaliculi

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BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

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 BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

HAVERSIAN SYSTEM OR OSTEON

▪ Haversian canal
▫ Longitudinal channels that
contain blood vessels and
nerves
▫ Bone lamellae arranged
around haversian canal
▫ Lined by endosteum
▪ Cement line
▫ Mineralized matrix and
collagen fibers that demarcate
the boundaries of osteons
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 BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

Volkmann’s canals
(perforating canals)
▪ Transverse vascular channels
▪ Lined by endosteum
▪ Connect haversian canals
with each other and with
blood vessels in medullary
cavity and periosteum.

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 BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

INTERSTITIAL LAMELLAE
▪ Bone lamellae between complete haversian systems not associated with
haversian canal
▪ Believed by some to be remnants of haversian systems that are being
resorbed

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BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

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BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

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 BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE
1. Outer
• In diaphysis of long bones, immediately beneath periosteum
• Several bone lamellae that encircle whole bone
2. Inner
• In inner aspect of compact bone
• Lamellae that encircle medullary cavity

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BONE HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURE

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 BONE COMPOSITION

• Intercellular substance (matrix)

1. Ground substance: inorganic salts,
organic component
2. Intercellular fibers (collagen
fibers): makes up about 90%
intercellular substance, mostly type I
• Cells
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Osteoclasts

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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOPROGENITOR CELL
▪ Differentiate from embryonic mesenchymal
cells
▪ Capable of unlimited mitosis
▪ Stem cells with limited potential
▪ Can differentiate only into:
▫ Osteoblasts
▫ Chondroblasts
▪ In periosteum, endosteum and perichondrium
▪ In H & E, cannot be distinguished from
fibroblasts or mesenchymal cells

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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOBLAST
▪ Seen on surface of bone tissue or
calcified cartilage
▪ Differentiate from osteoprogenitor
cells
▪ Not capable of cell division or
differentiation into other cell types
except osteocytes
▪ Turns to osteocyte after immersing
itself from its own produced
precursor of collagen fibers and
organic material of bone matrix
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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOBLAST
Functions:
▪ 1. Synthesize precursors of collagen fibers and organic components of
ground substance
▪ 2. Regulate mineralization of bone
▪ 3. Secrete growth factors that promote bone growth
▪ 4. Aid osteoclasts in bone resorption
▫ Secrete enzymes that remove unmineralized bone matrix that
prevents osteoclasts from performing bone resorption
▫ In presence of parathyroid hormone, secrete a hormone, osteoclast-
stimulating factor that promotes increased activity of osteoclasts

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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOCYTES
▪ Osteoblasts trapped in lacunae
▪ Do not divide
▪ Become indistinguishable from
osteoblasts when released from lacunae
▪ Flat cells
▪ Cytoplasmic organelles and nucleus
similar to osteoblasts
▪ Secrete limited amount of bone matrix

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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOCLASTS
▪ Large cells (up to 150μm in
diameter)
▪ Multinucleated cells; 2 to more
than 100 nuclei (usually 5-10)
▪ In concavities (resorption cavities)
in bones called howship’s lacunae
▪ Function: bone resorption
▪ Cytoplasm: foamy, slightly
basophilic in young cells,
acidophilic in older ones

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 BONE COMPOSITION

OSTEOCLASTS
Ruffled border
▪ Striated border that is formed by
surface of osteoclast that projects
on bone
▪ Consists of villus-like processes of
plasmalemma
▪ Site of bone resorption
▪ Increases active surface area of
cell
▪ Traps small particles that enzymes
can digest
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BONE COMPOSITION

30 11
 BONE FORMATION

▪ The process of bone formation is called ossification

▪ Bone formation occurs in four situations:
▫ 1) Formation of bone in an embryo
▫ 2) Growth of bones until adulthood
▫ 3) Remodeling of bone
▫ 4) Repair of fractures

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 BONE FORMATION

Formation of Bone in an Embryo

▪ Cartilage formation and ossification
occurs during the sixth week of
embryonic development
Two patterns:
1. Intramembranous ossification
▪ Flat bones of the skull and mandible
are formed in this way
▪ “Soft spots” that help the fetal skull
pass through the birth canal later
become ossified forming the skull

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 BONE FORMATION

▪ An ossification center appears in

the fibrous connective tissue
membrane
▪ Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix
within the fibrous membrane
▪ Osteoblasts mature into osteocytes

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 BONE FORMATION

2. Endochondral ossification
▪ The replacement of cartilage by
bone
▪ Most bones of the body are formed
in this way including long bones

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 BONE FORMATION

Chondrocytes at Newly derived Blood vessels The bone of the Blood vessels invade the
the center of the osteoblasts cover penetrate the shaft thickens, epiphyses and osteo-
growing cartilage the shaft of the cartilage. New and the cartilage blasts form secondary
model enlarge cartilage in a thin osteoblasts form a near each centers of ossification.
and then die as layer of bone. primary ossification epiphysis is
the matrix center. replaced by shafts Articular
calicifies. of bone. cartilage
Enlarging
chondrocytes within
calcifying matrix
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Marrow
Diaphysis Marrow
cavity
cavity

Primary Secondary
ossification ossification
center Blood center
Bone vessel
formation Blood
vessel
Cartilage
model

Replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone 35

Most bones are formed this way (i.e. long bones).
 BONE GROWTH

Mechanism
▪ Appositional growth only, because
▫ 1. Rigid intercellular substance
▫ 2. Osteocytes are not capable of
cell division
Growth in width
▪ Function of periosteum
▪ Osteoblasts in periosteum lay down Epiphyseal plate
bone matrix • Thin, transverse hyaline
Growth in length cartilage disc
▪ Possible until individual is 20 years • Between diaphysis and
old or so epiphysis
▪ Function of epiphyseal plate 36
 REGIONS or ZONES (From Epiphysis to Diaphysis)

1. Zone of Reserve
- no bone growth
- located near the epiphyseal plate
- scattered chondrocytes
- anchors plate to bone

2. Zone of Proliferation
- chondrocytes stacked like coins
- chondrocytes divide

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 REGIONS or ZONES (From Epiphysis to Diaphysis)

3. Zone of Cell Hypertrophy and

Maturation
- large chondrocytes arranged in columns
- lengthwise expansion of epiphyseal
plate

4. Zone of Calcification
- few cell layers thick
- occupied by osteoblasts and osteoclasts
and capillaries from the diaphysis
- cells lay down bone
- dead chondrocytes surrounded by a
calcified matrix. 38
 REGIONS or ZONES (From Epiphysis to Diaphysis)

5. Zone of Ossification
- area where newly formed osteoblasts
elaborate bone matrix on the calcified
cartilage, forming a calcified
cartilage/calcified bone complex, which
becomes resorbed.

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 CARTILAGE: OVERVIEW

▪ Special type of dense regular connective tissue

▪ Like connective tissue proper
▫ acellular
▫ abundant intercellular substance (matrix)
▪ Unlike connective tissue proper
▫ intercellular substance is a firm,
gelatinous material with attributes of
plastic
▫ cells (chondrocytes) in cavities (lacunae)
▫ no blood vessels, lymph vessels or nerve
- cells nourished by diffusion of nutrients
from interstitial tissue or synovial fluid of
joint cavities 40
 CARTILAGE: DISTRIBUTION

▪ In utero, forms bulk of skeleton of

fetus
▪ In adults, limited to:
▫ Areas in and around joints
▫ Parts of respiratory system
▫ Portions of external ear
▫ Internal ends of ribs (costal
cartilages)
▫ Epiphyseal plate, in still actively
growing individuals

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 PERICHONDRIUM

▪ Special type of connective tissue

with chondrogenic potency
▪ Envelops all cartilages except
articular cartilages
▪ Layers:
▫ chondrogenic layer
- layer that adheres to
cartilage
-cells appose to cartilage are
osteoprogenitor cells
▫ fibrous layer
- blends with surrounding
tissue 42
 COMPOSITION

▪ Cells
▫ Chondrocytes
▪ Matrix
▫ Amorphous ground
substance
▫ Fibers
- collagenous
- elastic
- predominant fiber depends
on cartilage type

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 AMORPHOUS GROUND SUBSTANCE

▪ 1. Water
▫ 70-80 % wet weight
▪ 2. Proteoglycans
▫ Basic structure: core protein
and attached glycosaminoglycans:
hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
keratan sulfate
▪ 3. Non-collagenic proteins and
glycoproteins
▫ Chondronectin
- promotes adherence of
matrix collagen to cell surface of
chondrocyte 44
 MATRIX

Interterritorial Matrix
▫ Area in between territorial
matrices.
Territorial Matrix (capsule of the
chondrocytes)
▫ Intercellular substance that
immediately surrounds a
lacuna
▫ Rich in glycosaminoglycans
▫ More basophilic than rest of
matrix
▫ Pericellular capsule
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 CHONDROCYTES

▪ Reside in cavities (lacunae)

▪ Shape and size
▫ young ones elliptical and small
▫ mature ones rounded and larger
▪ Mitotic capability
▫ Only young chondrocytes still capable
▫ Mitosis results in isogenous cells
- several cells in one lacuna
- cells are usually separated by very
thin intercellular substance
▪ Function:
▫ Secrete organic constituent of cartilage matrix
▫ Secrete precursors of extracellular
46 fibers
 CHONDROCYTES

Morphology:
▪ With cytoplasmic processes
▪ Cytoplasm
▫ Finely granular and basophilic
▫ Well-developed rER and Golgi complex
▫ Few mitochondria
▫ Inclusions mostly fat droplets and
glycogen granules
▪ Nucleus
▫ Ovoid
▫ One or more nucleolus
▫ Chromatin concentrates on inner aspect
of nuclear membrane or form clumps
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 TYPES OF CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE

▪ Most abundant type

▪ Homogenous
▪ Grossly: glistening, smooth and pearly white
▪ Locations in body:
▫ Serves as a temporary skeleton for fetus
▫ Makes up epiphyseal plate
▫ In adults, persists in joints as articular
cartilage, in trachea and bronchi, in parts
of larynx, nose and ears, and as costal
cartilage
▪ Fibers: comprise 40% of dry weight and
Collagen- type II and aggrecan
▪ Major Cells: Chondrocytes, Chondroblast
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 TYPES OF CARTILAGE: ELASTIC CARTILAGE

▪ Grossly: yellowish color and pliable

▪ Locations in body
▫ Auricle, external acoustic meatus,
auditory tube, epiglottis and parts of
larynx
▪ Histologically:
▫ Matrix less abundant than hyaline
▫ Aside from collagen, has elastic fibers in
matrix
▪ Fibers: collagen- type II, aggrecan and darker
elastic fibers
▪ Major Cells: Chondrocytes
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 TYPES OF CARTILAGE: FIBROUS/ FIBROCARTILAGE

▪ Withstands stress better than hyaline and

elastic
▪ Locations in body:
▫ Some joints: intervertebral discs,
articular discs, glenoid and acetabular
labra
▫ In surface layers of tendons and
ligaments that are pressed on by bone
▪ Histologically:
▫ Transitional between dense connective
tissue and cartilage
▫ Cells inside lacunae
▫ No distinct perichondrium 50
 TYPES OF CARTILAGE: FIBROUS/ FIBROCARTILAGE

▪ Fibers
▫ Very abundant
▫ Coarser vs hyaline and elastic collagen-
type II and large areas of dense
connective tissue with Type I collagen
(But mostly Type I)
▪ Major Cells: Chondrocytes, Fibroblast

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SUMMARY

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SUMMARY

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