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 丁A1NYA MARIA GOLASH-BOZA

A C RIT IC AL APP RO AC H SECOND EDITION

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 CONTENTS VII

v。ices Fred T~Y.?saburo Korematsu 74

Tuskegee .Syphilis Experiment 75
The Civil Rights Movement and the Commitment to Change 76
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott 77
Sit-Ins 78
Freedom Rides 78
Old Versus New Racism: The Evolution of an Ideology 80
Biological Racism 81
Cultural Racism 82
Color-Blind Universalism 83
。 GLOBAL VIEW Cultural Racism in Peru 84
Color-Blind Racism 85
Four Types of Color-Blind Racism 85
Rhetorical Strategies of Color-Blind Racism 86
The New Politics of Race 86
Conclusion and Discussion 89
Check Your Understanding 90
Talking about Race 93

s。ci。｜。gical The。ries 。f Race and Racism 95

Individual Racism and Institutional Racism 98
Individual Racism 98
voices 0icroa.~.~~essions 101
Institutional Racism 102
。GLOBAL VIEW Microaggressions in Peru 103
Systemic Racism and Structural Racism 105
Systemic Racism 105
Structu 「al Racism 106
research focus Systemic Racism and Hur「icane Katrina 107

Racial Formation 109

Critique 1: Not Holding Whites Accountable for Racial Inequality 111
Critique 2: Not Going Far Enough to Expose the Depths
of Racism 112
Critique 3: Overlooking Parallels Between Jim Crow Racism and
Racism Today 113
research focus E×amining Legitimized Racism against Indigenous
Peoples 114
viii CONTENTS

White Supremacy and Settler Colonialism 116

research focus Applying Settle 「 Colonialism Theory 118

lslamophobia and Anti-Arab Racism 119

lntersectional 丁heories of Race and Racism 120
Conclusion and Discussion 121
Check Your Understanding 722
Talking about Race 725

Racism in the Media: The Spread of Ide。l。gy 127

Portrayals and Representations in Entertainment 129
Portraya Is of Blacks 130
voices 问~Y.. ~lac止－is扣 Is th~ ~“o听 '!!_~ 问e~d R!fJ_ht 问 o听. 13~
Portrayals of Latino;/~s 136
Portrayals of Arabs and Arab Americans 138
voices Why We Hacked Homeland 739
………………………………………………………….
Portrayals of Asians and Asian Americans 140
Portrayals of Native Americans 142
。 GLOBAL VIEW Racial Stereotypes in Peruvian Television 143
New Media Representations 144
Video Games 144
Social Media 144
research focus Kimberl 台 C「enshaw on Black Women's Lives
Matte「 145

Media Images and Racial Inequality 148

Raced, Classed, and Gendered Media Images 150
Conclusion and Discussion 153
Check Your Understanding 754
Talking about Race 155

c。l。rism and Skin-C。｜。r Stratificati。n 157

The History of Colorism 160
research focus Latino lmmigra 时S and the U.S. Racial Order 161
The Origins of Colorism in the Americas 161
The Origins of Colorism in Asia and Africa 164
The Global Color Hierarchy 165
Asia and Asian Americans 166
 CONTENTS IX

v。ices: The Fair-Skin Ba忖le 167

··...............................................

Latin America and Latinos/as 168

Africa and the African Diaspora 170
research focus Skin Tone a门d School Suspension 173

v。ices Colorism and Creole Identity 175

Skin Color, Gender，。nd Beauty 176
v。ices After ＃问otfairandlo~el_Y.: Chan_
~! n.~.Tho口.~~t Patterns Instead of Skintone 180
Conclusion and Discussion 181
Check Your Understanding 782
Talking about Race 783

PART II p。 LICY AND INSTITUTI 。 NS

White Privilege and the Changing U.S. Racial

Hierarchy 185
White Privilege 188
research focus White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible
Knapsack 190

Whiteness, Class, Gender, and Sexuality 192

voices ExP.!ainin.~..问hit~ ~ri~ile.~~ to a 巳rok~ Y.Y.hite Person 193
Whiteness and Racial Categories in Twenty-First-Century
America 196
Latinos/as and the Multiracial Hierarchy 197
Arab Americans, North Africans, Middle Easterners, and Their
Place in the U.S. Racial Hierarchy 199
voices Arab American-AKA Y.Y.hite Y.Y.ithout the Privil~~ e 201 -

Muitiracial Identification and the U.S. Raciai

Hierarchy 202
Will the United States Continue to Be a White-Majority
Society♀ 204

Changes in Racial and Ethnic Classifications 207

。 GLOBAL VIEW Social, Cultural, and Intergenerational Whitening in Latin
America 209
Revisiting the Definitions of Race and Ethnicity 211
Conclusion and Discussion 213
Check Your Understanding 214
Talking about Race 275
x CONTENTS

Educati。nal Inequality 217

The History of Educational Inequality 220
Indian Schools 221
Segregation and Landmark Court Cases 223
The Persistence of Racial Segregation in the Educational
System 225
Affirmative Action in Higher Education 226
Educational Inequality Today 228
research focus Native American/Alaska Na •ive College
Student Retention 231

The Achievement Gap: Sociological Explanations for Persistent

Inequality 232
。 GLOBAL VIEW Affirmative Action in Brazil 233
Parental Socioeconomic Status 233
Cultural Explanations:”'Acting White” and Other Theories 235
Tracking 236
Social and Cultural Capital and Schooling 237
v。ices Moesha 240
……··....................

Hidden Curricula and the School-to-Prison Pipeline 241

research focus The Asian Ame 「ican Achievement Parado× 242

Conclusion and Discussion 243

Check Your Understanding 244
Talking about Race 245

Inc。me and Lab。r Market Inequality 247

Income Inequality by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 250
Dimensions of Racial Disparities in the Labor Market 254
Disparities among Women 254
Disparities among Asian Americans 256
Underemployment, Unemployment, and Joblessness 258
v。ices J。「~~9. ？.：？.。
s。ciological Explanations for Income and Labor Market
Inequality 262
Individual-Level Explanations 263
v。ices Latina Professionals as Racialized Tokens: Lisa ’s Story 264
....................................................................................................................
 CONTENTS XI

Structural Explanations 266

research focus Discrimination i 门 G Low Wage
“ Labo 「 Market 267

Affirmative Action in Employment 271

Entrepreneurship and Self-Employment 273
。 GLOBAL VIEW Racial Discrimination in Australia 275
Conclusion and Discussion 275
Check Your Understanding 276
Talking about Race 279

Inequality in H。using and Wealth 281

Land Ownership after Slavery 285
Residential Segregation 286
The Creation of Residential Segregation 286
Discriminatory and Predatory Lending Practices 289
research focus The Role of Real Es•ate in Creating Seg 「ega ↑ed
Cities 290
Neighborhood Segregation Today 292
v。ices Sab「！Y.~ lhs9.n 问ill!ams o口 问 e！~.“』or~o。9. St~「~o~Y.P.!n~. 2 ?.~.
Wealth Inequalities 297
research focus The Colo 「 of Wealth in the Natio门’s Capital 299
Inequality in Homeownership and Home Values 301
Wealth Inequality Beyond Homeownership 301
Explaining the Wealth Gap in the Twenty-First Century 302
Conclusion and Discussion 305
Check Your Understanding 305
Talking about Race 307

Racism and the Criminal Justice System 309

Mass Incarceration in the United States 312
The Rise of Mass Incarceration 313
Mass Incarceration in a Global Context 314
。GLOBAL VIEW Prisons in Germany and the Netherlands 316
Race and Mass Incarceration 316
.
voices Ea .「I Y.Y~~hi 口~－t。 口 ~1 !.
The Inefficacy of Mass Incarceration 319
xii CONTENTS

Mass Incarceration and the War on Drugs 320

Race, Class, Gender，。nd Mass lncarcerati。n 322
Institutional Racism in the Criminal Justice System 323
Racial Pr。filing 323
v。ices S。口司.Y..Bl。”司 ~主δ
Sentencing Disparities 327
The Ultimate Sentence: Racial Disparities in the Death
Penalty 328
voices 专雪.Y..~9.~！~ .....~？.雪
The Economics of Mass Incarceration 329
Private Pris。ns 332
The Pris。n-lndustrial c。mplex 333
Beyond Incarceration: Collateral Consequences 335
The Impact of Mass Incarceration on Families and
Children 335
The Lifelong Stigma of a Fel。ny：”The New Jim Crow” 337
research focus Can Felons Get Jobs♀ 337

Conclusion and Discussion 339

Check y。ur Understanding 339
Talking about Race 347

Health Inequalities, Environmental Racism, and

Environmental Justice 343

The History of Health Disparities in the United States 345

Involuntary Experimentati。n 。n African Americans 346
Explaining Health Disparities by Race and Ethnicity
丁oday 348
s。ci。ec。n。mic Status and Health Disparities by Race/
Ethnicity 350
Segregation and Health 351
research focus 忖eal↑h and Social Inequity in Alameda Cou门↑y,
California 353
The Effects 。f Individual Racism 。n Health 354
Life-C。urse Perspectives 356
Culture αnd Health 357
 CONTENTS XIII

。 GLOBAL VIEW Health and Structural Violence in

Guatemala 358
Genetics, Race，。nd Hea Ith 359
Environmental Racism 361
Environmental Justice 363
v。ices The Holt Familr._of Dickson!. Tennessee 363
voices The Flint Water Crisis 367
··...................................................

Conclusion and Discussion 368

Check Your Understanding 369
Talking about Race 377

Racism, Nativism，。nd lmmigrati。n p。licy 373

v。ices Robert Bautista-Denied Due Process 376
………………·.................................................................

The Racialized History of U.S. Immigration Policy 378

Race and the Making of U.S. Immigration Policies: 1790 to
1924 379
( GLOBAL VIEW Whitening and Immigration Policy in
Brazil 381
Nativism Between 1924 and 1964: Mass Deportation
of Mexicans and the McCarran Internal
Security Act 382
The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act and the Changing
Face of Immigration 384
Latin American and Caribbean Immigration 390
Illegal Immigration and Policy Response 394
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA)
and Nativism 394
Proposition 187 and the Lead-Up to IIRIRA 396
The 1996 Laws and the Deter廿ion and Deportation of Black
。nd Latino Immigrants 398
voices Hecto~! . a Guatemalan Dee.ortee 400
Immigration Policy and Nativism in the Twenty-First
Century 404
v。ices The Zarour Family 407
………………·............................

Conclusion and Discussion 408

Check Your Understanding 409
Talking about Race 47 7
xiv CONTENTS

PART Ill c。 NTESTING AND C。MPARING RACIAL INJUSTICES

Racial Justice in the United States today 413
Perspectives on Racial Justice 415
Rec。gniti。n, Resp。nsibility, Rec。nstruction，。nd Reparati。ns 416
Civil Rights 419
Human Rights 421
Struggles for Racial Justice 424
Racial Justice and the F。reclosure Crisis 425
v。ices F~~－“t!n.~ － ~~！αin~t F。r。~I。s~re:: A 民aci9.I ]ustice S~?.':Y.. 4?6
DREAMers and the Fight for Justice 428
Racial Justice and Empathy 430
v。ices Three Leadership Less。ns from Opal T。meti 431
................................................................................................

Moving Beyond Race 434

lntersecti。nal Analyses: Race, Class, Gender 434
Racism and Capitalism 435
Conclusion and Discussion 437
Check y。υr Understanding 438
Talking ab。υt Race 439

Thinking GI。bally 441

How Do Other Countries Differ from the United States in Racial
Dynamics♀ 443
Race and Racism in France 446
French c。1。nies in Africa 446
The French Antilles 448
African lmmigrati。n to France 448
Discriminati。n and Racialαnd Ethnic Inequality in Frαnce
丁。day 449
v。ices Justice f。r The。 451
.........................................

Race and Racism in South Africa 454

c。｜。nialism in S。uth Africa: The British and the Dutch 454
The Apartheid Era (1948-1994) 454
 CONTENTS xv

四抽回 S。υth African c。loυred Identity 4~?

The Persistence 。f Inequality in the Post-Apartheid Ero 459
research focus The Politics of White hυth Identity in
s。υth Af1icc 460

Race an d Racism in B『azil 462

p。『fυguese c。l。nizoti。n and the Slave Trade in Brazil 462
Whitening Through lmmigrati。n and lnterma『riage 462
The Racial Dem。cracy Myth in Brazil and Affirmative Action 464
咽i四s Brazil ’s c。1。r Bind 46凸
Racial Categ。ries in Brazil T，。day 468
research focus Radiccl ldeo'ogy and Black-W nile Interracial Marriages in
Ri。 de Janeir，。 469

Conclusion and Discussion 470

Check Your Understanding 471
Talking αbout Race 473

GI。目arγ475
References 483
C redits 508
Index 513
 is• 0 × cer s

CHAPTER 1
A People云 His切ry ofthe United St，αtes: 1492-Present, Howard Zinn, p. 4

CHAPTER 2
How the Irish Beeαme White, Noel Ignatiev, p. 36

CHAPTER 3
The Persistence ofthe Color Line: Rαcial Politics αnd the Obαmα
Presidency, Randall Kennedy, p. 64

CHAPTER 4
Muslim Girl: A Coming ojAge, Amani Al-Khatahtbeh, p. 96

CHAPTER 5
We Gon' Be Alright: Notes on Rαce αnd Resegreg1αtion, Jeff Chang, p. 128

CHAPTER 6
Bone Black: Memories ofGirlhood, bell hooks, p. 158

CHAPTER 7
How Did 而u Get to Be Mexican? A White/Brown Ma价 Search for
Identity, Kevin Johnson, p. 186

CHAPTER 8
Sαuαgelnequαlities: Children in Americα云 Schools, Jonathan Kozol, p. 218

CHAPTER 9
Divided: The Perils ofOur Growing Inequαli切， David Cay Johnston, p. 248

CHAPTER 10
The Color ofU切lth: The Story Behind the U.S. RαcialU切lthDivide,
Meizhu Lui, Barbara Robles, Betsy Leondar-Wright, Rose Brewer, and
Rebecca Adamson, p. 282
CHAPTER 11
The New Jim Crow: Mαsslncαrcer，αtion 仇 the Age ofColorblindness,
Michelle Alexander, p. 310

XVII
 ...
XVIII LIST OF EXCERPTS

CHAPTER 12
Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, a：乱d Big Business Re-Create Race
in the Twenty-First Century, Dorothy Roberts, p. 344

CHAPTER 13
“ Til
Law Do Us Part: Immigration Policy and Mixed-Status Family
Separation,” Ruth Gomberg-Mufi.oz, p. 374
CHAPTER 14
Facebook post, Michelle Alexander, p. 414
CHAPTER 15
Coal to Cream: A Black Man's Jour’n ey Beyond Color to anA.ffirmation of
Rαce, Eugene Robinson, p. 442
 OU e u or

Tanya Maria Golash-Boza holds a B.A. in Philosophy from the University

of Maryland, a Certificate of Anthropology from L'Ecole d ’'.Anthropologie in
Paris, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University ofN orth Carolina at Chapel
Hill. She is a Professor of Sociology at the University of California-Merced. In
addition to this textbook, she is the a
Proαss Denied (2012), Immigration Nation (201功y and Yo Soy Negro: Blackness
inP
published dozens of articles in peer-reviewed journals on deportations, race
and racism, and U.S. Latinas/os and Latin America, in addition to essays and
chapters in edited volumes and online venues such as Al Jazeera, The Nation,
Salon, and The Chronicle ofHigher Education.
Tanya's innovative scholarship was awarded the 2010 Distinguished Early
Career Award from the Racial and Ethnic Minorities Studies Section of the
American Sociological Association. In 2013, she was awarded the UC Merced
Academic Senate Award for Distinguished Scholarly Public Service. In 2016,
her book Deported was awarded the Distinguished Contribution to Research
Book Award from the Latina/o Studies Section of the American Sociological
Association. She is also the creator of the blog Get a Life, Ph.D., which focuses
on academic success and well-being and has millions of pageviews. She is
the 2017-2018 Chair of the University Committee on Affirmative Action,
Diversity, and Equity Committee for the University of California Senate and
served on the Executive Council of the American Sociological Association
from 2014 to 2017.
Tanya has been teaching undergraduate and graduate courses on race
and ethnicity since 2003. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of
California, she was an Assistant Professor at the University of Kansas. She
lives in 岛1erced, California, with her husband and three school-age children.
She has lived in Latin America, Europe, and the Caribbean and speaks fluent
English, Spanish, Portuguese, and French.

XIX
 rerace

’Thissecond edition of Race and Racisms engages students in significant ques-

tions related to racial dynamics in the United States and around the world. In
accessible, straightforward language, the text discusses and critically analyzes
cu仗ing-edge scholarship in the field.

FEATURES
Race and Racisms includes several unique features designed to aid both teach-
ing and learning. Each of the following features appears throughout the book:

voices boxes highlight individual stories related to race and racism,

bringing personal experiences to life.
research focus boxes describe recent scholarship in the field, show-
ing students that this is an active and vibrant area of interest for
researchers.
。GLOBAL VIEW boxes introduce race刊lated phenomena as they are
experienced in other parts of the world, to he导 students look beyond race
and racism in the United States.
• As You Read questions point students to the key ideas in each chapter.
• Chapter-opening excerpts provide relevant readings as an entry point
into the material.
• Marginal Glossary definitions reinforce key concepts.
• [NEW] Check Your Understanding chapter summaries are now struc-
tured around the As You Read questions, incorporating both Review
and Critical Thinking questions.
• [NEW] At a Glance infographics show striki鸣 statistics in a vis叫ly
powerful wa予
• [NEW] Talking about Race guidelines in the front matter and at the
end of each chapter suggest ways to approach discussions about race and
racism.

xx
 PREFACE XXI

NEW IN THIS EDITI 。 N

咀1e goal for the second edition of Race and Racisms was not merely to keep up
with our changing world but to invite students to consider their own role in it.
Each chapter has been carefully updated to reflect current issues and events
as well as the latest data and research. Beyond these updates, new stories and
examples throughout engage readers in thinking about how racism could be
addressed or alleviated. Highlights of this edition include:
• Expanded coverage of Arab and Middle Eastern Americans, in addition
to new topics such as Islamophobia.
• The chapter on theory is now introduced earlier in the text (Chapter 4) to
provide a framework for material that follows.
• New Voices or Research Focus sidebars in every chapter.
• New features: At a Glance infographics, Check Your Understanding
summaries, and Talking about Race guidelines and prompts.

Following this preface, we include an overview for the new Talking about
Race feature. We hope this overview, Talking About Race Outside the
Classroom, will serve as a practical guide on how to have thoughtful, informed,
rational discussions about race and racism. ’These are sensitive and emotional
topics that many people have difficulty approaching. 咀1is overview encour-
ages students to engage in constructive conversations about race and provides
tips for countering racist ideology. At the end of each chapter, a brief Talking
about Race section provides some more specific suggestions for approaching
these conversations.

NEW MATERIAL BY CHAPTER

1 The Origin of the Idea of Race
• New Research Focus box: Slave Flights and Runaway Communities
in Colonial Angola (p. 1份
• New infographic on servitude, slavery, and genocide in the
Americas (p. 17)

2 Race, Immigration, and Citizenship from the 1840s to the 1920s

• New Research Focus box: Chinese Exclusion and Gatekeeping
Ideology (p. 44)
xxii PREFACE

3 Racial Ideologies from the 1920s to the Present

• New discussion of Black Lives Matter and high-profile killings by
police (p. 69)
• Newdiscu创onof 肌ein 肌ent politics (p. 86)

4 Sociological Theories of Racism

• New opening excerpt 仕om Muslim Girl: A Coming ofAge by Amani
Al-Khatahtbeh (p. 96)
• New Research Focus box: Examining Legitimized Racism against
Indigenous Peoples (p. 114)
• New discussion: Islamophobia and Anti-Arab Racism (p. 119)

5 Racism in the Media: The Spread of Ideology

• New opening excerpt from 讥Te Gon' Be Al1恕＇ht: Notes on Race and
Resegregation by Jeff Chang (p. 128)
• New Voices boxes on Black-ish (p. 135) and Homeland (p. 139)
• New infographic on the underrepresentation of people of color
in the media (p. 131)
• New Research Focus box: Black Wome的 Lives Matter (p. 145)

6 Colorism and Skin-Color Stratification

• New Voices box: After #NotFairandLovely: Changing Thought Patterns
Instead of Skintone (p. 180)
• New Research Focus box: Skin Tone and School Suspension (p. 173)

7 White Privilege and the Changing U.S. Racial Hierarchy

• New opening excerpt from How Did You Get to Be Mexican? by Kevin
] ohnson (p. 186)
• Newdiscu创on of the Brock Turner case (p. 190)
• New Voices boxes: Explaining White Privilege to a Broke White
Person (p. 193) and Arab American一AKA White Withou he
Privilege (p. 201)
• Expanded discussion: Arab Americans, North Africans, Middle
Eastern
 ...
PREFACE XXIII

8 Educational Inequality
• Newinfog即hie on educational disparities and life-course effects (p. 229)
New Research Focus box: The Asian American Achievement Paradox
(p. 242)

9 Income and Labor Market Inequality

• New opening excerpt from Divided: The Perils of Our Growing Inequali抄
by David Cay] ohnston (p. 248)
• New Voices box: Latina Professionals as Racialized Tokens: Lisa’s
Story (p. 264)
• Newinfog即hic on income and labor market inequality (p. 253)

10 Inequality in Housing and Wealth

• New Voices box: Neighborhood Stereotyping (p. 293)
• Newinfographic on wealth disparities by race/ethnicity (p. 298)

11 Racism and the CriminalJustice System

• New Voices boxes :“Earl Washington”(p. 317) and Sandy Bland (p. 326)
• New infographic on criminal justice disparities by race/ethnicity (p. 318)

12 Health Inequalities, Environmental Racism, and EnvironmentalJustice

• New infographic on health disparities and inequalities by race/
ethnicity (p. 349)
• New Voices box:’The Flint Water Crisis (p. 367)

13 Racism, Nativism, and Immigration Policy

• New opening excerpt from “ Til Law Do Us Part: Immigration Policy and
Mixed-Status Family Separation by Ruth Gomberg皿Mu虱oz (p. 374)
• Updated and expanded discussion: Immigration Policy and Nativism in
the Twenty-First Cent旧y (p. 404)
• New Voices box on a Syrian refugee family living in the United
States (p. 407)

14 RacialJustice in the United States Today

• New Voices box: Three Leadership Lessons from Opal Tometi (p. 431)
xxiv PREFACE

15 ’Thinking Globally: Race and Racisms in France, South Africa,

and Brazil
• New Voices boxes o叼olice brutality in France (p. 451), South African
coloureds (p. 457), and the skin-color hierarchy in Brazil (p. 466)

。 RGANIZATI 。 N

Race and Racisms is divided into three sections, each using an intersectional
framework and global considerations to guide our understanding of racial
dynamics in the United States:

• Pa刑， Racial Id叫ogies, draws from history, anthropology, and sociol-

ogy to explain how racial ideologies were created and how they have
evolved over time. This section provides a provocative historical and the-
oretical analysis that is rarely encountered in sociology texts, considering
the effects of colonialism, scientific racism, nativism, and inequality.二 In
addition, it invites in-depth discussion by examining prevailing racial
attitudes in the context of recent U.S. history, the media, colorism, and
white privilege.
• Pa付 II, P1。licy and lnstituti。ns, focuses on racial inequality, educational
and labor market inequality, housing and wealth, the criminal justice
system, health and the environment, and immigration policy. 咀1is sec-
tion highlights the empirical evidence for racial inequalit予
• Pa付 Ill, C。ntesting and c。mparing Racial lniustices, considers racial
justice, human rights, and racial dynamics around the world, helping us
to look forward by looking outward.

ANCILLARIES
Oxford University Press is proud to offer a complete supplements package to
accompany Race and Racisms: A Critical Approach.
The Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup” arc.com is a co盯e­
nient, instructor-focused single destination for resources to accompany this
book. Accessed online through individual user accounts, the ARC provides
instructors with up-to-date ancillaries while guaranteeing the security of
grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep instructors
informed when new content becomes available.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 41.—Spawn of a
species of Natica
(from a specimen in
the British Museum) ×
½.

Fig. 42.—Ianthina fragilis Lam. FL, float; O, ova; Pr,

proboscis; Br, branchiae; F, foot. (Quoy and Gaimard.)

Chiton marginatus, when kept in captivity, has been noticed[243] to

elevate the posterior part of the girdle, and to pour out a continuous
stream of flaky white matter like a fleecy cloud, which proved to be of
a glutinous nature. It then discharged ova, at the rate of one or two
every second, for at least fifteen minutes, making a total of 1300 to
1500, each being about 1/100 inch diameter. The ova were shot into
the glutinous cloud, which seemed to serve as a sort of nidus to
entangle the ova and prevent them being carried away. The
subsequent development was rapid, and in seven days the young
Chiton was hatched, being then about 1/20 inch long. Lovén has
described the same species as laying its eggs, loosely united in
clusters of seven to sixteen, upon small stones. There is probably
some mistake about the identification, but the observation illustrates
the varying methods of oviposition among allied forms.

Fig. 43.—Egg-capsules of A, Sepia elegans

Orb., and B, Octopus vulgaris Lam.
Not very much is known with regard to the ovipositing of the
Cephalopoda, especially those which inhabit deep water. Masses of
ova arranged in very various forms have occasionally been met with
floating in the ocean, but it is next to impossible to determine to what
species, or even genus, they belong.[244]
In Loligo punctata the ova are contained in small cylindrical cases
measuring 3 to 4 in. by ½ in., to the number of about 250 ova in each
case. Hundreds of these cases are attached together like a bundle of
sausages or young carrots, and the movements of the embryos
within can be distinctly noted. Sepia officinalis lays large black pear-
shaped capsules, each of which is tied to some place of attachment
by a kind of ribbon at the upper end of the capsule, the whole
forming a large group like a bunch of grapes. Octopus vulgaris
deposits thousands of small berry-shaped ova, attached to a string
which runs along the centre of the mass (Fig. 43).
The so-called shell of the female Argonauta is nothing more than
a form of protection for the ova, and is in no sense homologous to
the ordinary molluscan shell. The ova consist of a large granulated
mass, attached to a many branched stem; they are contained in the
spire of the shell, in contact with the posterior part of the body of the
mother, but sometimes project externally beyond the coil of the spire.
Certain species possess the curious property of laying their eggs
on the outside of their own shells. Buccinopsis Dalei is not
unfrequently found decorated with its own egg-capsules. Possibly
this species, which lives on oozy ground, finds this the only secure
place of attachment for its progeny. Neritina fluviatilis has a similar
habit, and so have many other species of Neritina and Navicella. It is
not quite clear, in the latter cases, whether the eggs are laid by the
specimens on whose shell they are found, or whether they are
deposited by others. In either case, perhaps the shell is the safest
place for them in the rapid streams which both genera frequent.
Specimens of Hydrobia ulvae taken on the wet sands at the mouth of
the Dee, are found to have several little rounded excrescences
scattered over the surface of the shell. These, on examination, are
found to be little masses of small sand-grains, in the centre of which
is a clear jelly containing segmenting ova or young embryos. Here
again, in all probability, the shell is the only comparatively stable
object, in the expanse of shifting sands, on which the eggs can be
laid.[245]
The pulmonate genus Libera, which occurs on a few of the island
groups in the Central Pacific, is remarkable for the habit of laying its
eggs within its own cavernous umbilicus, which is narrowed at the
lower part. The eggs number from four to six, or the same number of
very young shells may be seen closely packed in the cavity, each
being in shape exactly like a young Planorbis. This constriction of the
umbilicus does not occur till the formation of the last two whorls, i.e.
till the animal is sexually mature. Some species, but not all, provide
for the safety of their eggs more completely by forming a very thin
shelly plate, which nearly closes the umbilical region, and breaks
away or is absorbed to facilitate the escape of the young shells.[246]
Union of Limax.—With regard to the act of union itself, the
method in certain species of Limax deserves special notice. L.
maximus has been observed at midnight to ascend a wall or some
perpendicular surface. A pair then crawl round and round one
another emitting a quantity of mucus which at length forms a patch, 2
to 2½ inches in diameter. When this acquires consistency the pair
begin to twist round each other in corkscrew form, and detach
themselves from the wall, hanging by a cord of the thickened mucus,
about 8–15 inches long, and still twisting round each other. The
external generative organs are then protruded and copulation takes
place, after which the bodies untwist, separate, and crawl up the
cord again to the wall.[247]
Periodicity in Breeding.—In the marine Mollusca, the winter
months appear to be the usual time for the deposition of eggs.
Careful observations have been made on the Mollusca occurring at
Naples,[248] and the general result seems to be that for all Orders
alike the six winter months from November to April, roughly
speaking, are the breeding time. Scarcely any forms appear to breed
habitually in August, September, or October. On our own coasts,
Nudibranchiata come in shore to deposit their ova from January to
April. Purpura lapillus may be observed depositing ova all the year
round, but is most active from January to April. Buccinum undatum
breeds from October to May; Littorina all the year round.
The land Mollusca exhibit rather more periodicity than the marine.
In temperate climates they breed exclusively in the summer months.
In the tropics their periods are determined by the dry and rainy
seasons, where such occur, otherwise they cohabit all the year
round. According to Karl Semper, the snails of the warm
Mediterranean region arrive at sexual maturity when they are six
months old, i.e. before they are fully grown. After a rest of about
three months during the heat of summer, a second period of
ovipositing occurs.[249] Helix hortensis and H. nemoralis ascend
trees, sometimes to a height of forty feet, when pairing.[250]
Hybridism as the result of union between different species of
Mollusca is exceedingly rare. Lecoq once noticed[251] on a wall at
Anduze (Gard) as many as twenty specimens of Pupa cinerea united
with Clausilia papillaris. No offspring seem to have resulted from
what the professor calls ‘this innocent error,’ for the wall was
carefully scrutinised for a long time, and no hybrid forms were ever
detected.
The same observer noticed, in the Luxembourg garden at Paris,
and M. Gassies has noticed[252] at various occasions, union
between Helix aspersa and nemoralis, H. aspersa and vermiculata,
between Stenogyra decollata and a Helix (sp. not mentioned), H.
variabilis and pisana, H. nemoralis and hortensis. In the two latter
cases a hybrid progeny was the result. It has been noticed that these
unions generally took place when the air was in a very electric
condition, and rain had fallen, or was about to fall, abundantly.
Of marine species Littorina rudis has been noticed[253] in union
both with L. obtusata and with L. littorea, but no definite facts are
known as to the result of such unions.
Self-impregnation (see p. 44).
Development of the Fertilised Ovum.—The first stages in the
development of the Mollusca are identical with those which occur in
other classes of animals. The fertilised ovum consists of a vitellus or
yolk, which is surrounded with albumen, and is either contained in a
separate capsule, or else several, sometimes many, ova are found in
the same capsule, only a small proportion of which ultimately
develop. The germinal vesicle, which is situated at one side of the
vitellus, undergoes unequal segmentation, the result of which is
usually the formation of a layer of small ectoderm cells overlying a
few much larger cells which contain nearly the whole of the yolk. The
large cells are then invaginated, or are simply covered by the growth
of the ectoderm cells. The result in either case is the formation of an
area, the blastopore, where the inner cells are not covered by the
ectoderm. The blastopore gradually narrows to a circular opening,
which, in the great majority of cases, eventually becomes the mouth.
The usual differentiation of germinal layers takes place, the epiblast
eventually giving rise to the epidermis, nervous system, and special
sense organs, the hypoblast to the liver and to the middle region of
the alimentary tract, the mesoblast to the muscles, the body cavity,
the vascular, the excretory and reproductive systems. The next, or
trochosphere (trochophora) stage, involves the formation of a circlet
of praeoral cilia, dividing the still nearly spherical embryo into two
unequal portions, the smaller of which consists simply of the
prostomium, or part in front of the mouth, the larger bearing the
mouth and anus.
So far the series of changes undergone by the embryo are not
peculiar to the Mollusca; we now come to those which are definitely
characteristic of that group. The stage next succeeding the
development of the trochosphere is the definitive formation of the
velum, a process especially characteristic of the Gasteropoda and
Pelecypoda, but apparently not occurring in the great majority of land
Pulmonata.

Fig. 44.—Veligers of Dentalium entalis L.: A, longitudinal section of a larva 14

hours old, × 285; B, larva of 37 hours, × 165; C, longitudinal section of
larva of 34 hours, × 165; m, mouth; v, v, velum. (After Kowalewsky.)
The circlet of cilia becomes pushed more and more towards the
anterior portion of the embryo, the cilia themselves become longer,
while the portion of the body from which they spring becomes
elevated into a ridge or ring, which, as a rule, develops on each side
a more or less pronounced lobe. The name velum is applied to this
entire process of ciliated ring and lobes, and to the area which they
enclose.
Fig.45.—Veliger of Patella vulgata
L., 130 hours old: f,
rudimentary foot; op,
operculum; sh, shell; v, v,
velum. (After Patten, highly
magnified.)
 Fig. 46.—Developed larva of Cyclas
cornea L.: br, rudimentary
branchiae; by, byssus; f, foot;
m.e, mantle edge; sh, shell.
(After Ziegler, highly magnified.)

Fig. 47.—A, Advanced veliger of Dreissensia: f, foot; m,

mouth; sh, shell; v, v, velum. (After Korschelt and
Heider, much enlarged.) B, Veliger of a Pteropod
(Tiedemannia): op, operculum; sh, shell; v, velum.
(After Krohn, much enlarged.)
In this so-called veliger stage, the velum serves, in the first place,
to cause rotation of the larva within the egg-capsules, and, after
hatching, as an organ of locomotion. As a rule, the velum disappears
entirely in the adult mollusc after the free-swimming stage is over,
but in the common Limnaea stagnalis it persists, losing its cilia, as
the very prominent circum-oral lobes. Simultaneously with the
development of the velum, and in some cases earlier, appear the
rudiments of the shell-gland and of the foot, the latter being situated
on the ventral side, between the mouth and anus, the former on the
dorsal side, behind the velum, and above the surface of the eventual
visceral sac. Thus the prime characteristics of the veliger stage,
subsequent to the appearance of the velum itself, are the
development of the visceral sac and shell-gland on the upper, and of
the foot on the under side. According to Lankester the primitive shell-
gland does not, as a rule, directly give rise to the shell of the adult
mollusc, but becomes filled up by a horny substance, and eventually
disappears; the permanent shell then forms over the surface of the
visceral hump from the original centre of the shell-gland. It is only in
Chiton, and possibly in Limax, that the primitive shell-sac is retained
and developed into the final shell-forming area, which is much wider,
and extends to the edges of the mantle. Within the velar area first
appear the rudiments of the tentacles and eyes; when these become
developed the velum atrophies and disappears.
Several of these veligers when captured in the open sea have
been mistaken for perfect forms, and have been described as such.
Thus the larva of Dolium has been described as Macgillivrayia, that
of a Purpura as Chelotropis and Sinusigera, that of Aporrhais pes
pelecani as Chiropteron, that of Marsenia conspicua as Brownia,
Echinospira, and Calcarella.
Cephalopoda.—The embryonic development of the Cephalopoda
is entirely distinct from that of all other Mollusca. The segmentation
of the vitellus is partial, and the embryo is furnished with a vitelline
sac, which is very large in the majority of cases (Fig. 48). There is no
free-swimming stage, but the embryo emerges from the egg fully
developed.
Differences of Sex.—In the Mollusca there are two main types of
sexual difference: (i) sexes separate (dioecious type), (ii) sexes
united in the same individual (hermaphrodite type).
 Fig. 48.—Two stages in the development of
Loligo vulgaris Lam.: a1, a1, first, and a2,
a2, second pairs of arms; br, branchiae,
seen through m, mantle; e, e, eyes; fi,
fins; fu, funnel; v.s, vitelline sac. (After
Kowalewsky.)
In some cases—e.g. certain Pelecypoda—what is practically a
third type occurs. The animal is hermaphrodite, but the male and
female elements are not developed simultaneously, i.e. the same
individual is at one time female, at another male.
1. The sexes are separate in
All Cephalopoda.
Gasteropoda Amphineura (except Neomeniidae).
Gasteropoda Prosobranchiata (except Valvata and some species of
Marsenia).
Scaphopoda.
Many Pelecypoda.

2. The sexes are united in

Gasteropoda Opisthobranchiata.
Gasteropoda Pulmonata.
Certain Pelecypoda.[254]
 In the dioecious Mollusca, sexual union is the rule, but is by no
means universal. In some instances,—e.g. Vermetus, Magilus,
Patella, Haliotis, Crepidula, Chiton, the Scaphopoda—the form and
habits of the animal do not admit of it; in others (many Trochus) a
male copulative organ is wanting. When this is the case, the male
scatters the spermatozoa freely; the majority must perish, but some
will be carried by currents in the direction of the female.
When the sexes are separate, the female is frequently larger than
the male. This is markedly the case in Littorina, Buccinum, and all
the Cephalopoda; in Argonauta the difference is extreme, the male
not being more than ¼ the size of the female.
Those hermaphrodite Mollusca which are capable of sexual union
(Gasteropoda, Pulmonata, and Opisthobranchiata) are conveniently
divided into two sections, according as (1) there are separate orifices
for the male and female organs, or (2) one orifice serves for both. To
the former section (Digonopora[2]) belong the Limnaeidae,
Vaginulidae, and Onchidiidae, and many Opisthobranchiata,
including all the Pteropoda; to the latter (Monogonopora[255]) nearly
all the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchiata, and all the rest of the
Pulmonata. In the latter case during union, mutual impregnation
takes place, and each of the two individuals concerned has been
observed (compare p. 42) to deposit eggs. In the former, however,
no such reciprocal act can take place, but the same individual can
play the part of male to one and female to another, and we
sometimes find a string of Limnaea thus united, each being at once
male and female to its two adjacent neighbours.
The Reproductive System.—Broadly speaking, the complicated
arrangements which are found in Mollusca resolve themselves into
modifications of three important factors:—
(a) The gonads or germ-glands, in which are developed the ova
and the spermatozoa. These glands are generally known as the
ovary in the female, the sperm-gland or testis in the male.
(b) The channels which provide for the passage of the seminal
products; namely, the oviduct in the female, the vas deferens or
sperm-duct in the male.
(c) The external generative organs.
Fig. 49.—Generative and other organs
of Littorina obtusata L., female.
A, anus.
Br, branchia.
Buc, buccal mass.
H, heart.
Hep, hepatic duct.
I, continuation of oesophagus.
Ki, kidney.
Li, liver.
M, muscle of attachment.
O´, female orifice.
Od, oviduct.
Oes, oesophagus.
Ov, ovary.
Ra, radula.
St, stomach.
U, uterus.

(After Souleyet.)
 Fig. 50.—Generative and other organs
of Littorina obtusata L., male.
A, anus.
Br, branchia.
H, heart.
I, intestine.
Li, liver.
M, muscle of attachment.
Pe, penis.
Te, testis.
VD, vas deferens.

(After Souleyet.)
Dioecious Mollusca.—The common Littorina obtusata will serve
as a typical instance of a dioecious prosobranchiate, exhibiting the
simplest form of organs. In the female the ovary, a lobe-shaped
body, is embedded in the liver. An oviduct with many convolutions
conveys the ova into the uterus, an oblong chamber which consists
simply of a dilatation of the oviduct. The ova descend into the uterus,
which is sometimes furnished with a seminal pouch. In this seminal
pouch, or above it, in the oviduct, the ova come into contact with the
spermatozoa. The lower part of the uterus secretes a gelatinous
medium (or capsule, as the case may be) in which the fertilised ova
become enclosed previous to exclusion. In position the oviduct abuts
on the kidney, while the uterus is in close proximity to the rectum,
and the female external orifice is found close to the anus, within the
branchial cavity.
The male organs of Littorina are more simple. The testis is
lodged, like the ovary, in the liver; the vas deferens is, like the
oviduct, convoluted, and eventually traverses the right side of the
neck, emerging near the right tentacle, and terminating in the penis
or external copulative organ (Fig. 50).
This system prevails, with but slight modifications in detail,
throughout the prosobranchiate Gasteropoda. The most important
modification is the passage of the seminal products in certain cases
(many of the Diotocardia) through the right kidney, with which the
oviduct and vas deferens always stand in close relation. The same
arrangement occurs in the Scaphoda and some Pelecypoda.
The penis varies greatly in form and size. In the Strombidae (see
Fig. 99) and Buccinidae (Fig. 62) it is very large and prominent; in
Littorina it is somewhat spinulose at one side; in Paludina a portion
of it is lodged in the right tentacle, which becomes atrophied and
much more obtuse than the tentacle on the left side.
Spermatozoa.—The shape of the spermatozoa and of the ova in
Mollusca is of the usual type. In Paludina Ampullaria, and certain
species of Murex two types of spermatozoa occur, one hair-like, the
other worm-like, three times as long as the former, and not tapering
at one end. The former type alone take part in fertilisation, and
penetrate the ovum. It has been suggested that these worm-like
spermatozoa are a kind of incipient ova, and indicate a possible
stage in commencing hermaphroditism. And, since the nearest allies
of the Prosobranchiata (in which these types occur) are
hermaphrodite (i.e. the Opisthobranchiata and Pulmonata), it is not
unreasonable to suppose that the Prosobranchiata should show
some tendency towards hermaphroditism in their genital glands.[256]
Cephalopoda.—The special characteristic of the reproductive
organs in female Cephalopoda is the development of various glands,
some of considerable size, in connexion with the ovary and oviduct.
Sepia, Loligo, and Sepiola are furnished with two large nidamental
glands, which open into the mantle cavity independently of the
oviduct. Their purpose is to produce a viscid mucus, which envelops
the ova at the moment of their emission and eventually hardens into
the egg-capsules. A pair of accessory nidamental glands occur in
Sepia, as well as a pair of smaller glands situated on the oviduct
itself.
In many of the male Cephalopoda the vas deferens is long and
dilated at its outer end into a glandular reservoir, within which are
formed the spermatophores, or narrow cylindrical packets which
contain a very large number of spermatozoa. When charged, the
spermatophores pass into what is known as Needham’s sac, where
they remain until required for use. These spermatophores are a very
characteristic part of the reproductive arrangements in the
Cephalopoda. The male of Sepia has been noticed to deposit them,
during union, upon the buccal membrane of the female. During the
emission of the ova by the female, the spermatophores, apparently
through the agency of a kind of spring contained at one end, burst,
and scatter the spermatozoa over the ova.
The Hectocotylus Arm.—Perhaps the most remarkable feature
in the sexual relations of all the Mollusca is the so-called
hectocotylus of the Cephalopoda. In the great majority of the male
Cephalopoda, one of the ‘arms,’ which is modified for the purpose in
various ways and to a greater or less extent, becomes charged with
spermatophores, and sometimes, during union, becomes detached
and remains within the mantle of the female, preserving for some
considerable time its power of movement.
The hectocotylus is confined to the dibranchiate Cephalopoda,
and its typical form, i.e. when part of the arm becomes disengaged
and left with the female, occurs only in three genera of the
Octopodidae, viz.[Argonauta, Ocythoe (Philonexis), and
Tremoctopus. In all of these, the male is many sizes smaller than the
female. In Argonauta the third arm on the left side becomes
hectocotylised. At first it is entirely enveloped in a kind of cyst, in
such a way that only a small portion of the tip projects; subsequently
the cyst parts asunder, and allows the arm to become expanded to
its full length, which considerably exceeds that of the other arms. At
a certain point the acetabula or suckers terminate, and the
remainder of the arm consists of a very long, tapering, sometimes
thread-like filament, which is pointed at the extreme tip. It is not yet
known how the spermatophores find their way into the hectocotylus,
or how the hectocotylus impregnates the ova of the female. The arm
thus affected is not always the same. In Tremoctopus it is the third of
the right side, in the Decapoda the modification usually affects the
fourth of the left.
 Fig. 51.—Male of Ocythoe
tuberculata Raf. (= Philonexis
catenulatus Fér.),
Mediterranean, showing three
stages, A, B, and C, in the
development of the hectocotylus
arm: h.cy, hectocotylus still in
the cyst; c´y´, spoon-shaped cyst
at the end of the arm when
freed; th, thread-like organ freed
by the rupture of c´y´. Natural
size. From specimens in the
British Museum.
This singular property of the male Cephalopoda has only recently
been satisfactorily explained. It is true that Aristotle, more than
twenty-two centuries ago, distinctly stated that certain of the arms
were modified for sexual purposes. Speaking of what he calls the
polypus (which appears to represent the Octopus vulgaris of the
Mediterranean), he says: ‘It differs from the female in having what
the fishermen call the white sexual organ on its arm;’ again, ‘Some
say that the male has something of a sexual nature (αὶδοιῶδές τι) on
one of its arms, that on which the largest suckers occur; that this is a
kind of muscular appendage attached to the middle of the arm, and
that it is entirely introduced within the funnel of the female’.
Unfortunately the word translated by introduced is corrupt, and can
only be restored conjecturally. He again remarks, ‘The last of the
arms, which tapers to a fine point and is the only whitish arm, it uses
in sexual union.’[257]
The typical hectocotylus seems to have entirely escaped notice
until early in the present century, when both Delle Chiaje and Cuvier
described it, as detected within the female, as a parasite, the latter
under the name of Hectocotylus octopodis. Kölliker, in 1845–49,
regarded the Hectocotylus of Tremoctopus as the entire male
animal, and went so far as to discern in it an intestine, heart, and
reproductive system. It was not until 1851 that the investigations of
Vérany and Filippi confirmed a suggestion of Dujardin,[258] while H.
Müller, in 1853, completed the discovery by describing the entire
male of Argonauta.
In all genera of dibranchiate Cephalopoda except Argonauta,
Ocythoe, and Tremoctopus, one of the arms is sexually modified in
various ways, but never becomes so much prolonged, and is never
detached and left with the female. In Loligo Forbesii Stp. the fourth
arm on the left has 23 pairs of regularly developed acetabula, which
then lessen in size and disappear, being replaced by long
pedunculated papillae, of which there are about 40 pairs. In Loligo
vulgaris Lam. and L. Pleii Orb. 18 or 19 pairs of acetabula are
regularly formed, and then occur 40 pairs of papillae, as in Forbesii.
In other species of Loligo (gahi Orb., brevis Bl., brasiliensis Orb.)
only the outer row of suckers becomes modified into papillae after
about the 20th to the 22nd pair. In Sepioteuthis sepioides the
modification is the same as in the Loligo last mentioned, but the
corresponding arm on the right side is so covered with acetabula
towards its extreme end, that it is thought that it in some way co-
operates with the hectocotylised left arm.
In Octopus, the third arm on the right side is subject to
modification. This arm is always shorter than the corresponding arm
on the other side, and carries fewer suckers, but is furnished at the
extreme tip with a peculiar kind of plate, which connects with the
membrane at the base of the arm by a channel of skin, which
probably conveys the spermatophores up to the tip.
In Octopus vulgaris, the species referred to by Aristotle, the
hectocotylised arm is short, thin in its outer half and pointed at the
extremity, while the fold of skin is very white, and gives the arm an
appearance of being divided by a cleft at the side. At the same time,
an unusual development of one or two suckers on the arm is not
uncommon.[259]

Fig. 52.—Octopus lentus Baird, N. Atlantic,

showing the peculiar formation of the
hectocotylus arm, h.a. (After Verrill, × ½.)
It is believed that in the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda (Nautilus) a
union of the four inner ventral arms may correspond functionally to
the hectocotylising of the arm in the Dibranchiates.
Hermaphrodite Mollusca.—(a) Monogonopora.—The
reproductive system in the hermaphrodite Mollusca is far more
complicated than in the dioecious, from the union of the male and
female organs in the same individual. As a type of the