19-203-0705

Satellite Communication
Module 1
 Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n70zjMvm8L0
 Basic concepts
• A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star.
For example, Earth is a satellite because it orbits the sun. Moon is the
satellite of Earth.
• Artificial satellites- specifically made for the purpose of
telecommunication.
• They are used for mobile applications such as communication to
ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals, TV and Radio
broadcasting.
• The heart of a satellite communications system : satellite-based
antenna in a stable orbit above the earth.
• The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as earth
stations.
• A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as
uplink, whereas transmissions from the satellite to the earth station
are downlink.
• The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and
converts it to a downlink signal is called a transponder.
• Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver
(Responder) in a satellite.
• Transponder performs mainly two functions.
• Those are amplifying the received input signal and translates the
frequency of it.
• Different frequency values are chosen for both uplink and down link
in order to avoid the interference between the transmitted and
received signals.
 General Structure of Satellite Communication

• Earth segment
• Satellite segment
 Frequency bands for Satellite Communication

• C band (4-8 GHz)

• Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
• Ka-band (26–40 GHz)
• Communication information neither originates nor terminates at the
satellite itself. The satellite is an active transmission relay.
• Applications of Satellites:
• Weather Forecasting
• Radio and TV Broadcast
• Military Satellites
• Navigation Satellites
• Connecting Remote Area
• Global Mobile Communication
 Satellite Orbits
• Path in which satellite goes around the Earth.
• Distance from center of earth to satellite – orbit radius.
• Height of satellite from surface of earth- altitude.
• Angle of rotation of satellite- inclination.
• In terms of altitude, satellites are categorized as:
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites
• Geo-stationary Orbit (GEO) satellites
 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary motion
• Satellites orbiting the earth follow the same laws that govern the
motion of the planets around the sun.
• Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which
interact through gravitation.
• The massive of the two bodies is referred to as the primary and the
other, the secondary or satellite.
• Kepler’s first law: Law of Ellipses
• Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the primary
will be an ellipse.
OR
• “The orbital path of a planet takes the shape of an ellipse, with the Sun located
at one of its focal points.”
• Eccentricity of ellipse, e<1
• An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2 as shown in Figure. The center of
mass of the two-body system, termed the bary center, is always center of the
foci.
• Kepler’s second law: Law of Equal Areas
• For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep equal areas in its
• orbital plane.
(OR)
• The line from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
time intervals.
• Kepler’s third law: Law of Harmonics
• Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of
orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the
two bodies.

(OR)
• The ratio of the square of the planet’s orbital period and the cube
of the mean distance from the Sun is constant
• Following are the three laws of Kepler:
• Kepler’s first law states that every planet revolves around the sun in
an elliptical orbit and sun is one of the foci’s.
• Kepler’s second law states that for an equal interval of time, the area
covered by the satellite is equal with respect to the center of the
earth.
• Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of the
orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the
two bodies.
Newton’s Laws
 Orbital parameters
• Apogee: The point farthest from the Earth.
• Perigee: The point of closest approach to Earth.
• Line of apsides: line joining apogee & perigee through the centre of
Earth.
• Mean anomaly: avg. value of angular position of satellite w.r.t perigee.
• Prograde orbit: an orbit in which the satellite moves in the same
direction as the earth’s rotation (WtoE). Also called direct orbit.
• Retrograde orbit: an orbit in which the satellite moves in a direction
opposite as that of earth’s rotation (EtoW).
 Satellite footprint
• Coverage region of a satellite.
• The geographic area of the Earth's surface over which a
satellite can transmit to, or receive from, is called the
satellite's "footprint."
• Highly directional antennas are used.
• Thus, the signal from a satellite is not isotropically
broadcast but is aimed at a specific point on the earth.
• The center point of that area will receive the highest
radiated power, and the power drops off as you move away
from the center point in any direction.
 SATELLITE ORBITS
• Orbiting in different planes around
earth:
: is directly above the earth's
equator.
• : passes over both poles.
• Other orbits are referred to as inclined orbits.
• Altitude of satellites:
GEO, LEO, MEO
 GEO SATELLITES
• Geostationary satellites.
• 35,863 km above the earth's surface and rotates in the
equatorial plane of the earth.
• Why called as geo-stationary?
• It will rotate at exactly the same angular speed as the
earth and will remain stationary to an observer on Earth
(hence called ).
• 3 GEO satellites are required to cover the entire area of
earth.
• Used as communication and weather satellite.
 LEO SATELLITES

• In polar orbit at 500 to 1500 km altitude.

• 40-80 LEO satellites are required to cover entire

earth’s surface.

• Atmospheric drag significant for LEO.

• Used for military and aeronautical purposes, remote

sensing.
 MEO SATELLITES

• Inclined to the equator, at 5000 to 18,000 km

altitude.

• 8-20 satellites are required to cover entire area of

earth.

• Used for navigation (GPS), communication and space

environment science.
 Geostationary & Non-Geostationary orbits
• A geostationary orbit is one in which a satellite orbits the earth at
exactly the same speed as the earth turns.
• A satellite orbiting in a geostationary orbit appears to be hovering in
the same spot in the sky at all times.
• Orbit is around 36000 kms above Earth’s surface.
• The period for a geostationary satellite is 23 h, 56 min, 4 s, or 86,164 s.
• Non-geostationary (NGSO) satellites are LEO & MEO.

• They occupy a range of orbital positions (LEO satellites are located

between 700km-1,500km from the Earth, MEO satellites are located
at 10,000km from the Earth).
• They do not maintain a stationary position, but instead move in
relation to the Earth's surface.
Orbital Comparison
 Orbital Perturbations
• The activity of determining why a satellite's orbit differs from the
mathematical ideal orbit.
• The Keplerian orbit assumes that the earth is a uniform spherical
mass, and the only force acting is the centrifugal force, resulting from
satellite motion balancing the gravitational pull of the earth.
• In practice, other significant forces are the gravitational forces of the sun
and the moon, atmospheric drag and earth’s oblate.
• Oblate: Earth is not a perfect sphere. Its shape is an oblate spheroid. This just
means that it flattens at the poles and widens out at the equator.
• Equatorial Ellipticity: The earth is not perfectly circular; This is
referred to as the equatorial ellipticity.
• A GEO satellite ideally should remain fixed relative to the earth.
The gravity gradient resulting from the equatorial ellipticity causes
the satellites in geostationary orbit to drift.
• Gravitational pull of sun and moon: negligible effect on LEO
satellites, but they do affect GEO satellites.
• Atmospheric drag: it is the atmospheric force (friction) acting
opposite to the relative motion of an object.
• Negligible effect on GEO satellites, but does affect LEO satellites
below 1000 k.m.
 Station Keeping
• The orbital control process required to maintain a stationary orbit is
called station-keeping.
• Necessary to offset the effects of perturbations.
• It is important that a geo- stationary satellite be kept in its correct
orbital slot.
• The equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes geostationary satellites
to drift slowly along the orbit, to one of two stable points, at 75°E and
105°W.
• To counter this drift, an oppositely directed velocity component is
imparted to the satellite by means of jets.

• Station keeping is done using a spacecraft's propulsion system to

perform adjustments in order to maintain a constant position in orbit.

• These maneuvers are termed east-west station-keeping maneuvers.

 Look angle determination

• The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are
called as look angles.
• Azimuth Angle
• Elevation Angle
• They are required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite
So, the maximum gain of the earth station antenna can be directed at
satellite.
• Azimuth and Elevation are measures used to identify the position of a
satellite flying overhead.
• Azimuth tells you what direction to face and Elevation tells you how high up
in the sky to look.
• Azimuth Angle (α)
• Azimuth varies from 0° to 360°.
• It starts with North at 0°.
• As you turn to your right (in a clockwise direction) you'll face East
(which is 90°), then South (which is 180°), then West (which is 270°),
and then return to North (which is 360° and also 0°).
• So if the Azimuth for your satellite is, say, 45°, that means your
satellite is northeast of you.
• Elevation Angle (β/ξ)

• The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to satellite is

known as Elevation angle. Vertical plane is nothing but the plane,
which is perpendicular to horizontal plane.
 Transfer Orbit
• Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to
another.
• When satellites are launched from Earth and carried to space with
launch vehicles, the satellites are not always placed directly on their
final orbit.
• Satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by
using relatively little energy from built-in motors, the satellite or
spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
• This allows a satellite to reach, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without
actually needing the launch vehicle to go all the way to this altitude,
which would require more effort.
• Reaching GEO in this way is an example of one of the most common
transfer orbits, called the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
• In transfer orbits, the payload uses engines to go from an orbit of one
eccentricity to another, which puts it on track to higher or lower
orbits.
• The scientific or technological instrument carried on board a satellite
for the specific purpose is termed as a payload.
• Payload is the communications antennas, receivers, and transmitters.
 Limits of Visibility
• The term visible means that there are no obstructions in the LOS
between a particular satellite and the receiver and that the receiver is
able to acquire the satellite’s radio signal.
• This is referred to as the Limits of Visibility for that earth station.
• These limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth station
and antenna elevation.
• For a geo stationary satellite to be visible from an earth station its
elevation angle must be above 0°.
 Sub-satellite point
• The satellite sub-point is that point on the Earth's surface directly
below the satellite.
• Point at which a line between the satellite and the center of the Earth
intersects the Earth’s surface.
 Satellite Eclipse
• A phase in which the satellite doesn't receive the sunlight to recharge itself
through the solar cells that in turn reduces the power of the satellite to
transmit/receive signals from the earth station.

The solar cells of the

satellite become non-
functional during the
eclipse period and the
satellite is made to
operate with the help
of power supplied from
the batteries.
 Sun Transit Outage
• Sun transit outage is an interruption or distortion of geostationary satellite
signals caused by interference from solar radiation.
• Sun appears to be an extremely noisy source which completely blanks out the
signal from satellite.
• They occur for a maximum period of 10 minutes.
• The Sun radiates strongly across the entire spectrum, including the microwave
frequencies used to communicate with satellites.
• The effects of a Sun outage range from partial degradation (increase in the
error rate) to the total destruction of the signal.
• Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and October, that
is, around the time of the equinoxes.
Satellite Launching
• There are three major rocket launch sites in India:

• Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (Thumba), Kerala,

• Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota), Andhra Pradesh,
• Dr Abdul Kalam Island, Bhadrak, Odisha
 Satellite Launching
• The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching
process.
• Operation of satellite controlled from earth station.
• Four stages in launching a satellite.
• First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the
satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
• Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These
are ignited after completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to
send the satellite into space.
• Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the
satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the satellite and it
protects the satellite.
• Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when
it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a
“transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.
• In short,
• Satellites are launched into space by putting them on rockets with
enough fuel — called propellant — to boost them above most of
Earth’s atmosphere.
• Once a rocket reaches the right distance from Earth, it releases the
satellite.
• Because of the pull of Earth’s gravity, largest, heaviest spacecraft need
the biggest rockets and the most propellant.
 Satellite Launch Vehicles
• They launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the
requirement.
• Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets.
• 2 types of launch vehicles:
• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)
• Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV): get destroyed after leaving the
satellites in space.
• The ELV contains three stages.
• First and second stages of ELV raise the satellite to an about 50 miles
and 100 miles.
• Third stage of ELV places the satellite in transfer orbit.
• The task of ELV will be completed and its spare parts will be fallen to
earth, when the satellite reaches the transfer orbit.
 Launch vehicles contd…
• Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV): can be used multiple times for
launching satellites.
• Generally, this type of launch vehicles will return back to earth after
leaving the satellite in space.
• It is also known as space shuttle.
• The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and
second stages of ELV.
• Satellite along with the third stage of space shuttle are mounted in
the cargo bay.
• It is ejected from the cargo bay when the space shuttle reaches to an
elevation of 150 to 200 miles.
• Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the
satellite into a transfer orbit.
• After this, the space shuttle will return back to earth for reuse.
 Propulsion
• Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and
artificial satellites.
• Satellite propulsion systems must deliver very precise ``impulse bits'' in order
to accurately control the position or attitude of the objects.
• When launching a spacecraft from Earth, a propulsion method must overcome a
higher gravitational pull to provide a positive net acceleration.
• Monopropellant (single fluid) & bipropellant (two liquid) liquid thrusters are
used.
 Propulsion contd…
• Hydrazine, liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen, nitrous oxide, dinitrogen
tetroxide, hydrogen peroxide are examples.
• Bipropellant propulsion systems used on medium to heavy satellites
and spacecraft such as space agency mission and for the larger
platforms of commercial satellites.
• Monopropellant hydrazine propulsion systems used for small to
medium spacecraft for LEO and MEO missions.
 Propulsion contd…
• In-space propulsion begins where the upper stage of the launch
vehicle leaves off; performing the functions of
• primary propulsion,
• reaction control,
• station keeping,
• precision pointing, and
• orbital maneuvering.
• When in space, the purpose of a propulsion system is to change the
velocity, or v, of a spacecraft.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMeXcBk1x-c
MODULE 2
 Spacecraft Technology
• A satellite communications system broadly divided into two
segments— a ground segment and a space segment.
• The space segment includes the satellites, it also includes the
ground facilities needed to keep the satellites operational, these
being referred to as the tracking, telemetry, and command
(TT&C) facilities.
• In a communication satellite, the equipment which provides the
connecting link between the satellite’s transmit and receive
antennas is referred to as the transponder.
 Structure of Spacecraft
• The spacecraft is 216 cm
in diameter and 660 cm
long when fully
deployed in orbit.
• Launched on 12 April
1985.
• Last launch: Sep 2003
• Primary power supply HS-376 spacecraft
manufactured by
• Primary power for Hughes Space and
electronic equipment is
Communications
solar cells.
Company
• Arrays of cells are
required.
• In geostationary orbit the telescoped panel is fully extended so
that both are exposed to sunlight.
• At the beginning of life, the panels produce 940 W dc power,
which may drop to 760 W at the end of 10 years.
• During eclipse, power is provided by nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) long-
life batteries, which will deliver 830 W.
 Attitude & Orbit control

• The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space.

• Attitude control necessary to ensure that directional antennas point in
the proper directions.
• A number of forces, referred to as disturbance torques, can alter the
attitude.
• The satellites' attitude and orbit control are controlled by a system
consisting of sensors, actuators and software.
• Attitude control requires sensors to measure satellite
orientation, actuators to apply the torques needed to orient the satellite
to a desired attitude, and algorithms to command the actuators based
on (1) sensor measurements of the current attitude and (2)
specification of a desired attitude.
• Usually, the attitude-control process takes place aboard the
satellite, but it is also possible for control signals to be transmitted
from earth, based on attitude data obtained from the satellite.

• Where a shift in attitude is desired, an attitude maneuver is

executed.
• The control signals needed to achieve this maneuver may be
transmitted from an earth station.
 Types of Attitude Control

• Passive attitude control refers to the use of mechanisms which

stabilize the satellite continuously.
• Overall torque applied to resist the disturbance torques.
• Example of passive attitude control :
• Spin stabilization
• It is used to orient the satellites.
 Spin Stabilization
• Spin stabilization applied to cylindrical satellites.
• The satellite is constructed so that it is mechanically balanced about
one particular axis and is then set spinning around this axis.
• For geostationary satellites, the spin axis is adjusted to be parallel to the
N-S axis of the earth.
• Spin rate : 50 to 100 rev/min.
• Spin is initiated during the launch
phase by means of small gas jets.

• In the absence of disturbance torques, the spinning satellite would

maintain its correct attitude relative to the earth.
• Overall effect of disturbance torque is that the spin rate will
decrease, and the direction of the angular spin axis will change.
• Impulse-type thrusters, or jets, can be used to increase the spin
rate again and to shift the axis back to its correct N-S orientation.
• Nutation: wobbling as a result of the disturbance torques and/or
from misalignment or unbalance of the control jets.
• This nutation must be damped out by means of energy absorbers
known as nutation dampers.
• Spin stabilized HS-376 satellite

• Advantage: simple way to keep the

spacecraft/satellite pointed in a certain
direction.
• Disadvantage: The instruments or antennas
also must perform “despin” maneuvers so
that antennas point at their desired targets.
• An electric motor drive is used for de-
spinning the antenna subsystem.
• Control signals and power must be
transferred to the despun section.
• The complete assembly for this is known as
the Bearing And Power Transfer
Assembly (BAPTA).
• Active attitude control: there is no overall stabilizing torque
present to resist the disturbance torques.
• Instead, corrective torques are applied as required in response to
disturbance torques.
• Methods used to generate active control torques include
momentum wheels, electromagnetic coils, and mass expulsion
devices, such as gas jets and ion thrusters.
 Momentum Wheel / 3 axis Stabilization
• Stability achieved by utilizing the gyroscopic
effect of a spinning flywheel.
• Gyroscopic effect is ability of the rotating body to
maintain a steady direction of its axis of rotation.
• This approach used in satellites with cube-like
bodies.
• These are known as body-stabilized satellites.
• The complete unit, termed a momentum
wheel, consists of a flywheel, the bearing
assembly, the casing, and an electric drive
motor with associated electronic control
circuitry.
• Satellites have small spinning wheels,
called reaction wheels or momentum
wheels, that rotate so as to keep the
satellite in the desired orientation in
relation to the Earth and the Sun.
• If satellite sensors detect that the
satellite is moving away from the
proper orientation, the spinning wheels
speed up or slow down to return the
satellite to its correct position.
• Some spacecraft may also use small
propulsion-system thrusters to
continually nudge the spacecraft back
and forth to keep it within a range of
(a) Roll, pitch, and yaw axes. The yaw axis is directed
allowed positions. toward the earth’s center, the pitch axis is normal
• Adv: antennas can point at desired to the orbital plane, and the roll axis is
targets without having to perform perpendicular to the other two.
“despin” maneuvers. (b) RPY axes for the geostationary orbit.
 Thermal Control and Propulsion
• Satellites are subject to large thermal gradients, receiving the sun’s
radiation on one side while the other side faces into space.
• Thermal radiation from the earth and the earth’s albedo, which is
the fraction of the radiation falling on earth which is reflected, can
be significant for LEO satellites.
• Equipment in the satellite also generates heat which has to be
removed.
• Satellite’s equipment should operate in a stable temperature
environment.
• Thermal blankets and
shields used to provide
insulation.
• Metallized polyethylene
terephthalate (MPET) that is
usually gold or silver in color
used as thermal blanket
which reflects up to 97% of
radiated heat (developed by
NASA).
• Other materials include silica
fabrics, high-temperature
fiberglass, and calcium
silicate fiber, silicone and
aluminized fabrics.
 • Radiation mirrors used to remove heat from the communications
payload.
• These mirrored drums provide good radiation paths for the
generated heat to escape into the surrounding space.

Mirrored
thermal
radiator for the
Hughes HS 376
satellite
Communication Payload & Supporting Subsystems

• Communication payload is made up of transponders.

• A transponder is capable of :

• Receiving uplink radio signals from earth stations (antennas).

• Amplifying received radio signals.
• Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through
input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for
retransmission to receiving earth stations (antennas).
 TT&C Subsystem
• Telemetry Tracking & Command
• TT&C subsystem present in both satellite and earth station.
• Telemetry function interpreted as measurement at a distance.
• Telemetry data include:
• Attitude information such as that obtained from sun and earth sensors;
• Environmental information such as the magnetic field intensity and direction,
the frequency of meteorite impact,
• Spacecraft information such as temperatures, power supply voltages, and
stored-fuel pressure.
• It refers to the overall operation of generating an electrical signal
proportional to the quantity being measured and encoding and transmitting
this to one of the earth stations.
• Tracking subsystem

• Tracking of the satellite is accomplished by having the satellite transmit

beacon signals which are received at the TT&C earth stations.

• Tracking is important during the transfer and drift orbital phases of the
satellite launch.

• Once it is on station, the position of a geostationary satellite will tend to

be shifted as a result of the various disturbing forces.

• Therefore, it is necessary to be able to track the satellite’s movement and

send correction signals as required.
• Command subsystem

• The telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to the

earth station, while the command subsystem receives command signals
from the earth station in response to telemetry information.

• The command subsystem demodulates and decodes the command signals

and routes these to the appropriate equipment needed to execute the
necessary action.

• It is important to prevent unauthorized commands from being received

and decoded, and therefore, the command signals are often encrypted.
 Intermodulation Noise
• Intermodulation occurs where multiple carriers pass through any device with
nonlinear characteristics.
• In satellite systems, this most commonly occurs in the Traveling-Wave Tube
(TWT) HPA aboard the satellite.
• Where a large number of modulated carriers are present, the intermodulation
products are not distinguishable separately but instead appear as a type of
noise which is termed intermodulation noise.
• In order to reduce intermodulation noise, the TWT must be operated in a BO
condition: shift operating point of TWT closer to linear portion of curve
by reducing input power.
 Propagation Characteristics and Frequency
considerations
• A number of factors resulting from changes in the atmosphere
have to be taken into account when designing a satellite
communications system in order to avoid impairment of the
wanted signal.

• Generally, a margin in the required carrier-to-noise ratio is

incorporated to accommodate such effects.
• Radio Noise

• Radio noise: unwanted random radio frequency signals.

• Noise is a limiting factor for the receiving system.
• From about 30 MHz to about 1 GHz cosmic noise predominates over
atmospheric noise.
• Precipitation will also increase the noise temperature at frequencies
above 5 GHz.
• It is inappropriate to use receiving systems with noise temperatures
which are much less than those specified by the minimum external noise.
• The design of radio links is one of the most important considerations in
implementing a satellite communication system.
• A large number of parameters must be considered and optimized. An
important consideration in a link design is the selection of the
operational frequency.
• The choice of frequency is governed by propagation considerations, the
need for various services to coexist without causing undue interference to
one another, radio regulations and the prevalent state of technology.
• Radio signals must suffer minimum degradation while propagating
through the intervening medium.
• Degradations include attenuation, noise contamination, etc.
• Other important considerations include the need to comply with the radio
regulations to ensure coexistence of the various systems and to maximize
utilization of the limited RF spectrum resource;
• 9 KHz to 3000 GHz in India.

• Availability of the desired bandwidth in the preferred frequency band.

• When expanding the bandwidth capacity of an operational system, is the

need to ensure that the frequencies are chosen close to the operational
frequency, in order to minimize the need to upgrade existing equipment.
• An attempt is made to minimize the transmitted power because
the transmitter cost is significant and directly related to the power
requirements, especially for a spacecraft;

• The potential of interference to other radio systems is reduced

with low transmitted power.
 System reliability and design lifetime
• System reliability

• Satellites are designed to operate dependably throughout their

operational life, usually a number of years.
• This is achieved through stringent quality control and testing of
parts and subsystems before they are used in the construction of the
satellite.
• Redundancy of key components is built in so that if a particular part
or subassembly fails, another can perform its functions.
• Hardware and software on the satellite are designed so that ground
controllers can reconfigure the satellite to work around a part that has
failed.
• Design lifetime

• The life of a satellite depends on many factors — electrical, mechanical,

physical and gravitational.
• Communication satellites are designed for almost continuous operation for
their lifetime, which is normally about seven years.
• The five-satellite Milstar constellation has surpassed 63 years of combined
successful operations, and provides a protected, global communication
network for the joint forces of the U.S. military.
• There are two main types of failure: catastrophic and gradual.
• Catastrophic: meteorite impact, collision with space debris etc.
• Gradual: radiation damage, e.g. proton radiation on the solar cells
and the action of ultra-violet radiation on some other materials.
• The limited resources of fuel for station-keeping adjustments is
the main reason for failure of a satellite.
• End of life is usually determined, not by some catastrophic failure,
but by loss of station keeping when the propellant for the orbital
maneuvering thrusters is exhausted.
• It is customary to save enough fuel to push the satellite out of the
geostationary orbit so as to vacate the slot.
• Geostationary satellites may otherwise stay in orbit for millions of
years.
Module 3
 Assignment 1

▪ Receive only Home TV system

▪ Include block diagram of indoor & outdoor unit.

▪ Master Antenna TV system

▪ Include block diagram of indoor & outdoor unit.

▪ Community Antenna TV system

– Include block diagram of indoor & outdoor unit.

▪ Transmit-Receive Earth Station- block diagram

Satellite Uplink and Downlink Analysis and Design
▪ Transmission Losses
▪ The difference between the power sent at one end and received at the
receiving station is known as transmission losses.
▪ The losses can be categorized into 2 types.
– Constant losses
– Variable losses

▪ The losses which are constant such as feeder losses are known as constant
losses.
– No matter what precautions we have taken, still these losses are bound to occur.

▪ Variable loss
– The sky and weather condition is an example.
– Means if the sky is not clear, signal will not reach effectively to the satellite or vice versa.

▪ Therefore, our procedure includes the calculation of losses due to clear weather
or clear sky condition. Then in 2nd step, we can calculate the losses due to foul
weather condition.
 Free Space Loss

– The power loss resulting from the spreading of the signal in

space.
– Equivalent/Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
▪ A key parameter in link-budget calculations, denoted by EIRP.
▪ EIRP is expressed as the product of the power of the
transmitting antenna and its gain.
▪ EIRP= Pt* Gt
▪ Power-flux density at the receiving antenna:
▪ The power delivered to a receiver is this power-flux density
multiplied by the effective aperture of the receiving antenna,
given by
▪ The received power in dBW is therefore given as the sum of the transmitted
EIRP in dBW plus the receiver antenna gain in dB minus the free-space loss
in decibels.

▪ frequency f is represented in MHz and the distance r in km

▪ Atmospheric noise

▪ This kind of losses derives from the absorption of energy by

atmospheric gases.
▪ They can assume two different types:
– Atmospheric attenuation;
– Atmospheric absorption.
▪ Attenuation is weather related, while absorption comes in
clear-sky conditions.
– Equipment losses:

▪ Feeder losses: occur in the several components between the receiving

antenna and the receiver device, such as filters, couplers and waveguides.
▪ Denoted by RFL, or [RFL] dB, for receiver feeder losses.

▪ Antenna misalignment losses (AML): Ideal reception implies that the

value for misalignment losses would be 0 dB.
▪ Maximum gain at the ground station attained when both the Tx & Rx
antennas are 100% aligned.
▪ Two ways for misalignment:
– Off-axis loss at the satellite
– Off-axis loss at the GS

▪ The first one is considered during the design of the satellite.

▪ The second type of misalignment is the antenna pointing loss and it
is usually quite small.
▪ The Link-Power Budget Equation
▪ The losses for clear-sky conditions are:
[LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]
[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
 System Noise
▪ Electrical noise always present at the input.
▪ Major source of noise: thermal noise due to random thermal motion of
electrons in various resistive and active devices in the receiver.
▪ Thermal noise is also generated in the lossy components of antennas, and
thermal-like noise is picked up by the antennas as radiation.
▪ The available noise power from a thermal noise source is given by:

▪ Noise power spectral density given by:

▪ TN is known as the equivalent noise temperature, BN is the equivalent noise

bandwidth, and k= 1.38 * 10^-23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant.
▪ Antenna noise:
▪ Antennas operating in the receiving mode introduce noise into the
satellite circuit.
▪ Noise therefore will be introduced by the satellite receive antenna and
the ground station receive antenna.
▪ The antenna noise can be broadly classified into two groups: noise
originating from antenna losses and sky noise.
▪ Sky noise: describe the radiation which is present throughout the
universe.
▪ Rainfall introduces attenuation, and therefore, it degrades
transmissions in two ways: It attenuates the signal, and it
introduces noise.
▪ Effects of rain are much worse at Ku-band frequencies than
at C band.
▪ Antenna losses add to the noise received as radiation, and the
total antenna noise temperature is the sum of the equivalent
noise temperatures of all these sources.
▪ Total antenna loss= sky noise + antenna noise + rainfall
noise
▪ Amplifier Noise Temperature:

Circuit used to find

equivalent noise
temp. of a) an amplifier
b) two
amplifiers in cascade.
▪ The available power gain of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the noise
power output, as Pno.
▪ The noise energy coming from the antenna is:

▪ The total noise referred to the input is :

where Te is the equivalent input noise temp.

▪ The output noise to be written as:

▪ Te can be obtained by measurement, a typical value being in the range

35 to 100 K.
▪ Amplifiers in cascade:
▪ The overall gain is G=G1G2
▪ The noise energy of amplifier 2 referred to its own input is simply kTe2.
▪ The noise input to amplifier 2 from the preceding stages is
G1k(Tant +Te1), and thus the total noise energy referred to amplifier 2
input is

▪ This noise energy may be referred to amplifier 1 input by dividing by the

available power gain of amplifier 1:
▪ A system noise temperature may now be defined as TS by:

▪ Therefore, in order to keep the overall system noise as low as

possible, the first stage (usually an LNA) should have high power
gain as well as low noise temperature.
▪ Generalized equation:
▪ Noise factor (F):
▪ An alternative way of representing amplifier noise.
▪ The source is taken to be at room temperature, denoted by T0, usually taken as 290
K.
▪ The input noise from such a source is kT0, and the output noise from the amplifier
is:
G is the available power gain of the amplifier,
and F is its noise factor.

▪ Relationship between noise temperature and noise factor:

▪ Let Te be the noise temperature of the amplifier and Tant=T0.

OR
▪ Noise temperature of absorptive networks:

▪ An absorptive network is one which contains resistive elements.

▪ These introduce losses by absorbing energy from the signal and
converting it to heat.
▪ Eg: Resistive attenuators, transmission lines, and waveguides and even
rainfall, which absorbs energy from radio signals passing through it.
▪ Because an absorptive network contains resistance, it generates thermal
noise.
▪ An absorptive network has a power loss L.
▪ Overall system noise temperature:

▪ Carrier-to-Noise ratio (C/N or CNR):

▪ Therefore, the link equation becomes:

The G/T ratio is a key parameter in specifying the

receiving system performance.

Since BN is a very small value, it can

be omitted.
 Uplink

▪ Link equation for uplink becomes:

▪ The resulting carrier-to-noise density ratio given by above

Eq.is that which appears at the satellite receiver.
 Saturation flux density & Input Back-off

▪ Traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are used in transponders

to provide the final output power required to the transmit
antenna.
▪ At low-input powers, the output-input power relationship is
linear; At higher power inputs, the output power saturates, the
point of maximum power output being known as the saturation
point.
▪ The power flux density required at the receiving antenna of
satellite to produce saturation of the TWTA is termed the
saturation flux density.
▪ Saturation flux density (SFD) is a measure of how much power a
signal must have to saturate an amplifier.
▪ The minimum value of [EIRP] which the earth station must
provide to produce a given flux density at the satellite is given by,

A0 is the effective area

▪ We know,
[LOSSES] = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]

▪ Saturation values denoted by the subscript S.

▪ Input back-off:

▪ The operating point must be backed off to a linear portion of the transfer
characteristic to reduce the effects of intermodulation distortion.
▪ Back-off from the saturation flux density known as Input Back-off.
▪ The earth-station EIRP will have to be reduced by the specified BO, resulting
in an uplink value of:

▪ The resultant new carrier-to-noise ratio of uplink becomes:

 Downlink

▪ The downlink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the satellite

is transmitting the signal and the earth station is receiving it.
▪ Link equation for downlink becomes:

▪ The resulting carrier-to-noise density ratio given by Eq. is that

which appears at the detector of the earth station receiver.
▪ Output back-off:

▪ Where input BO is employed, a corresponding output BO must be

allowed for the satellite EIRP.
▪ If the satellite EIRP for saturation conditions is specified as [EIRP S]D,
then

▪ The resultant new carrier-to-noise ratio of downlink becomes:

▪ Earth station HPA

▪ The earth station HPA has to supply the radiated power plus the transmit
feeder losses, denoted here by TFL, or [TFL] dB.
▪ These include waveguide, filter, and coupler losses between the HPA
output and the transmit antenna.
▪ The power output of the HPA is given by

▪ The earth station output also will require back off, denoted by [BO] HPA.
▪ The earth station HPA must be rated for a saturation power output given
by
 Satellite TWTA output

▪ The satellite power amplifier, which usually is a TWTA, has to supply the
radiated power plus the transmit feeder losses.
▪ These losses include the waveguide, filter, and coupler losses between the
TWTA output and the satellite’s transmit antenna.
▪ The power output of the TWTA is given by:

▪ Once [PTWTA] is found, the saturated power output rating of the TWTA is
given by:
 Effects of Rain

▪ Up to this point, calculations have been made for clear-sky

conditions, ie, the absence of weather-related phenomena
which might affect the signal strength.
▪ In the C band and, more especially, the Ku band, rainfall is
the most significant cause of signal fading.
▪ Rainfall results in attenuation of radio waves by scattering
and by absorption of energy from the wave.
▪ Rain attenuation increases with increasing frequency and is
worse in the Ku band compared with the C band.
▪ Uplink rain-fade margin

▪ Rainfall results in attenuation of the signal and an increase in noise

temperature, degrading the [C/N0] at the satellite.
▪ Uplink power control is necessary to compensate for rain fades.
▪ The power output from the satellite may be monitored by a central
control station or by each earth station, and the power output from
any given earth station may be increased if required to compensate
for fading.
▪ Thus the earth-station HPA must have sufficient reserve power to
meet the fade margin requirement.
▪ Downlink rain-fade margin

▪ Rainfall introduces attenuation by absorption and scattering of signal

energy, and the absorptive attenuation introduces noise.
▪ Let [A] dB represent the rain attenuation caused by absorption. The
corresponding power loss ratio is A= 10 [A]/10, gives the effective noise
temperature of the rain as:

▪ Ta is known as the apparent absorber temperature which ranges from

270K-290K.
▪ Combined Uplink and Downlink C/N Ratio
▪ The complete satellite circuit includes an uplink and a downlink.
▪ Noise will be introduced on the uplink at the satellite receiver input, P NU.
▪ The received power for the downlink is PR. This is equal to γ times
the carrier power input at the satellite, where γ is the system power
gain from satellite input to earth-station input.
▪ The earth station introduces its own noise, denoted by PND.
▪ Thus the end-of-link noise power is γPNU +PND.
▪ Therefore, the combined C/N0 ratio at the ground receiver is
▪ (C/N0)= PR/(γPNU +PND).
MODULE 4
 MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING: VOICE, DATA,
VIDEO
• Communications satellites carry telephone, video, and data signals, and can use both analog and
digital modulation techniques.
• Modulation: Modification of a carrier’s parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase, or a combination of
them) in dependence on the symbol to be sent.
• Multiplexing: Task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each
communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum of medium utilization.
• 1. Voice, Data, Video :
• The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at that time were analog.
• The change to digital voice signals made it easier for long-distance.
 MULTIPLEXING SCHEMES
• Communication satellites can multiplex signals based on:
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• FDM:
• A multiplexing technique that uses different frequencies to combine multiple streams of data for
transmission.
• Used with analog signals.
• Assigns a discrete carrier frequency to each data stream.
• TDM:
• This combines data streams by assigning each stream a different time slot in a set. It transmits a
fixed sequence of time slots over a single transmission channel repeatedly.
• TDM is not right for some types of satellite communications because when the information
stream is intermittent, a time slot goes vacant.
• But TDM works well with continuous television transmissions.

• WDM:
• It modulates each of several data streams onto a different part of the light spectrum.
• It is also the optical equivalent of FDM.
MODULATION-DEMODULATION BLOCK DIAGRAM
 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES IN SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION
• Multiple Access Techniques are used for interconnecting large number of earth station terminals
through satellite.
• Using multiple accessing techniques, one earth station can communicate with all other
stations using the same satellite.
• Multiple Accessing techniques provide wide geography coverage capability.
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access),
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
 MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES

• A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by a single

transmission from an earth station.
• This is referred to as a single access mode of operation.

• A transponder can be loaded by a number of carriers. These may originate from

a number of earth stations geographically separate, and each earth station may
transmit one or more of the carriers.
• This mode of operation is termed multiple access.
• FDMA:
• Transponder bandwidth divided into several sub-bands.
• Each earth station is given a different frequency band in order to work .
• Once a carrier frequency is allocated, it cannot be reassigned by the user/subscriber.
• Disadvantage:
• The large bandwidth requirement for transponders.
• Guard bands may waste capacity.
• FDMA can be divided into two ways:
• Fixed Assignment Multiple Access (FAMA)
• Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA)
 FAMA-FDMA
• In FAMA-FDMA, different earth stations are pre-assigned the number of channels they
can access.
• Fig shows how 7 earth stations share the 36MHz uplink capacity using FAMA-FDMA.
• Station A is assigned 5MHz bandwidth in which it can transmit 60VF channels using FDM-
FM.
• Ie, FDM is used to carry the 60 channels & FM is used to modulate the channels onto the
carrier frequency of 6240MHz.
• A has traffic for other stations as: 24 channels to B, 24 channels to D & 12 channels to E.
• The remaining spectrum is allocated among other earth stations according to their traffic
needs.
 DAMA-FDMA

• Bandwidth divided into individual VF channels.

• A single 36-MHz channel is subdivided into 800, 45-kHz analog
channels, using FM.
• DAMA – set of sub-channels in a channel is treated as a pool of
available links.
• For full-duplex between two earth stations, a pair of sub-channels is
dynamically assigned on demand.
• Demand assignment performed in a distributed fashion by earth station.
• Demand assignment may be carried out in 3 ways.
1. Polling method: A master earth station continuously polls all the earth stations in sequence,
and if a call request is encountered, frequency slots are assigned from the pool of available
frequencies.
• The polling delay increases as the number of participating earth stations increases.
2. Controlled random access: Earth stations request calls through the master earth station as
the need arises.
• The requests go through a satellite transponder reserved for this purpose.
• Frequencies are assigned, if available, by the master station, and when the call is completed,
the frequencies are returned to the pool.
• If no frequencies are available, the blocked call requests may be placed in a queue, or a second
call attempt may be initiated by the requesting station.
3. Distributed control random access: control may be exercised at each earth station.
• TDMA:
• Digital data divided in time and sent in bursts
when needed.
• Slots could be made available on a given
transmission.
• Each user would then be allotted a different
time slot in which data could be transmitted or
received.
• If a channel is transmitting heavier loads, then
it can be assigned a bigger time slot than the
channel which is transmitting lighter loads.
• This is the biggest advantage of TDMA over
FDMA.
• CDMA:
• A distinct code is assigned to every channel to separate them from each other.
• The same spectrum is occupied by every user but they are assigned distinct codes which
differentiates them from each other.
• The advantage of this multiple access method is that it enables subscribers to co-occur and
share the whole spectrum at the same time.
 ASSIGNMENT 2

• Satellite applications- INTELSAT series, LEO, MEO & Satellite

Navigational Systems.
• Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS)
• Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
 SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION
• Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal generated with a
particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting
in a signal with a wider bandwidth.
• Establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural
interference, noise and jamming & to prevent detection.
• Types of spread spectrum techniques:
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 FHSS

• The signal is broadcast over random series of radio frequencies, hopping from
frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.
• A Rx, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with the Tx, picks up the
message.
• Eg: In bluetooth, 79 channels are assigned for freq hopping.
• It usually performs 1600 hops per second.
• Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible interruption.
FHSS TRANSMITTER & RECEIVER
FHSS TRANSMITTER BLOCK DIAGRAM
FHSS RECEIVER BLOCK DIAGRAM
 DSSS

• For DSSS, each bit in the original signal is represented by multiple

bits in the transmitted signal, using a spreading code.
• The spreading code spreads the signal across a wider frequency
band in direct proportion to the number of bits used.
• A 10-bit spreading code represents each bit as 10 bits, so it spreads
the signal across a frequency band that is 10 times greater than a 1-
bit spreading code.
 DSSS CONTD…

• One technique for DSSS is to combine the

digital information stream with the spreading
code bit stream using an exclusive-OR (XOR).
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

• CDMA is a multiplexing technique used with spread

spectrum.
• Each bit of data signal is sent according to a fixed
pattern that is specific to each user, called the user's
code.
• Tx and Rx know the codes used by each user.
 CDMA CONTD…
• CDMA TxMN
• If a user wants to send bit ‘1’, then it sends its code.
• If the user wants to send bit ‘0’, then it sends the complement of code.
• CDMA RECEPTION
• For decoding the code at Rx:
• If the receiver R receives a pattern d = <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6>, and the receiver is seeking to
communicate with a user u so that it has u's code, <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>, the receiver performs the
following decoding function:
• Su(d) = (d1 X c1) + (d2 X c2) + (d3 X c3) + (d4 X c4)+ (d5 X c5) + (d6 X c6)
• The Rx has an idea about the no. of bits used by the code of each user.
• Any other bit received will indicate that the Rx is either using a wrong code of a user or an unwanted user
is sending the data.
• Eg: if the code of a user consists of 6 bits, then after decoding the Rx should get only +6 or -6 for 1 and 0
bit respectively. Any other value would indicate an error
 COMPRESSION

• At the broadcast center, the high-quality digital stream of video goes through an MPEG encoder,
which converts the programming to MPEG-4 video of the correct size and format for the
satellite receiver in your house.
• Encoding works in conjunction with compression to analyze each video frame and eliminate
redundant or irrelevant data and extrapolate information from other frames. This process
reduces the overall size of the file. Each frame can be encoded in one of three ways:
• I-frame
• P-frame
• B-frame
• I-frames are the least compressible but don't require other video frames to decode.
• P-frames can use data from previous frames to decompress and are more compressible than
I-frames.
• B-frames can use both previous and forward frames for data reference to get the highest
amount of data compression.
• An I-frame (Intra-coded picture) is a complete image, like a JPG or BMP image file.
• A P-frame (Predicted picture) holds only the changes in the image from the previous frame.
• A B-frame (Bidirectional predicted picture) saves even more space by using differences between
the current frame and both the preceding and following frames to specify its content.
• Compression can be categorized in two broad ways:
• Lossless Compression :
• Where data is compressed and can be reconstituted (uncompressed) without loss of detail or
information. These are referred to as bit-preserving or reversible compression systems also.

• Lossy Compression :
• Where the aim is to obtain the best possible fidelity for a given bit-rate or minimizing the bit-
rate to achieve a given fidelity measure. Video and audio compression techniques are most
suited to this form of compression.
• Commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video, and images), especially in
applications such as streaming media.
 ENCRYPTION
• After the video is compressed, the provider encrypts
it to keep people from accessing it for free.
• Encryption scrambles the digital data in such a way
that it can only be decrypted (converted back into
usable data) if the receiver has the correct
decryption algorithm and security keys.
• Once the signal is compressed and encrypted, the
broadcast center beams it directly to one of its
satellites.
• The satellite picks up the signal with an onboard dish,
amplifies the signal and uses another dish to beam
the signal back to Earth, where viewers can pick it up.
 DIRECT TO HOME BROADCAST (DTH)

• DTH is defined as the reception of satellite programmes with a personal dish in an individual
home.
• DTH Broadcasting to home TV receivers take place in the Ku band(12 GHz). This service is known
as Direct To Home service.
• Local cable operators are not required in DTH & puts the broadcaster directly in touch with the
consumer.
• Direct to Home Technology provides better picture and sound quality.
• HDTV (High Definition TV) and 3D TV are the enhanced features of this Technology.
 DTH COMPONENTS
• Dish Antenna
• It is a Parabolic Reflector. It receives the signal and redirects
it to the LNBF which works as receiver for signal transmitted
by satellite Parabolic Reflector.
• LNBF (Low Noise Block Down Converter Feedhorn)
• Small metal horn antenna on the Dish is called as Feedhorn.
It collects the signal from dish and amplifies the signal
bouncing off the dish and filters out the noise (signals not
carrying programming).
• DTH Set Top Box
• DTH Set Top Box decodes the encrypted transmission data
and converts these signals into audio & video signal.
 ARCHITECTURE OF DIRECT TO HOME TECHNOLOGY

• The architecture of Direct to Home System includes:

• Satellite
• Broadcasting Centre
• Multiplexer
• Modulator
• Encoder
• DTH Receiver
• Satellite
• A Geo-Stationary Satellite transmits the signals to the DTH Antenna.
• Broadcasting Centre
• The Broadcast Centre is the central hub of the system. The television provider receives signals
here from various programming sources and then beams a broadcast signal to satellites. The
satellites receive the signals from the broadcasting station and rebroadcast them to the ground.
• Multiplexer
• Multiplexer is a device which transmits the information of many channels in one channel. It is a
part of the broadcasting centre. In the Broadcasting Centre, the Multiplexer compresses all the
frequency signals into one single channel & transmits it to the satellite. It sends the single
channel to the Modulator.
• Modulator
• The Modulator modulates the signals and sends to the Encoder.
• Encoder
• The Encoder encodes the signals to transmit the signals. The satellite sends the signals to the
DTH Antenna which further transmits them to the Set Top Box.
• DTH Receiver
• Receiver is the end component in the entire DTH System.
• It decodes or descrambles the encrypted signal.
• For unlocking signal, it needs the proper decoder chip for that programming package.
• The service provider can communicate with that chip with the help of satellite signal to make
required operations to its decoding program.