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vi Contents
Weld Standards 121 Fuel Gases 167

Weld Passes 121 Flame Rate of Burning 168
Root Weld Pass 121 Acetylene (C2H2) 169
Hot Weld Pass 122 Heat and Temperature of Acetylene 170
Filler Weld Pass 122 Pressure 170
Cover Weld Pass 124 Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MPS) 172
Electrode Care 124 Propane and Natural Gas 173
1G Horizontal Rolled Position 124 Hydrogen 173
AWS SENSE Certification Test 1G 129 Metals Cut by the Oxyfuel Process 174
2G Vertical Fixed Position 129 The Chemistry of a Cut 174
5G Horizontal Fixed Position 131 Eye Protection for Flame Cutting 175
AWS SENSE Certification Test 5G 133 Cutting Torches 175
6G 45° Inclined Position 133 Welding and Cutting Torches: Design
AWS SENSE Certification Test 6G 134 and Service 177
Summary 135 Combination Torches 178
Review 135 Dedicated Cutting Torches 178
Cutting Tips 179
Chapter 6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding Pressure Regulators 181
AWS SENSE Certification 136 Regulator Operation 183
Regulator Gauges 183
Objectives 136
Regulator Safety Pressure Release Device 185
Key Terms 136
Compressed Gas Cylinders 185
Introduction 136
Oxygen Cylinder Construction 185
Root Pass 136
Acetylene Cylinder Construction 186
Arc Control 138
Liquid Cylinder Construction 187
Hot Pass 141
Cryogenic Cylinders 187
Filler Pass 143
Cylinder Labels 188
Cover Pass 144
Cylinder and Regulator Fittings 188
Plate Preparation 144
Regulator Safety Precautions 188
Restarting a Weld Bead 147
Regulator Care and Use 190
Preheating and Postheating 148
Torch Care and Use 191
AWS Workmanship Standard for Preparation of
Backfires 192
Base Metal 149
Flashbacks 192
AWS Visual Inspection Criteria 149
Reverse Flow and Flashback Valves 192
Preparing Specimens for Bend Testing 149
Care of the Reverse Flow Valve and
AWS Specimen Preparation Criteria 149
Flashback Arrestor 193
Preparation 149
Hoses and Fittings 194
Testing 149
Hose Care and Use 194
AWS Acceptance Criteria for Bend Test 151
Leak Detection 195
Poor Fit-up 160
Oxyfuel Cutting, Setup, and Operation 195
Summary 161
Torch Tip Care and Use 195
Review 162
Manifold Systems 196
Manifold Operation 197
Section 3 Cutting and Hand Cutting 204
Gouging 163 Layout 207
Selecting the Correct Tip and Setting
Chapter 7 Flame Cutting 165 the Pressure 208
The Physics of a Cut 210
(AWS SENSE Module 8 Unit 1 Manual Oxyfuel
Mechanized Cutting Equipment 211
Gas Cutting (OFC)
Slag 213
Unit 2 Mechanized Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC)) Plate Cutting 213
Objectives 165 Cutting Table 214
Key Terms 165 Torch Guides 214
Introduction 166 Distortion 215
Oxyfuel Flame 166 Cutting Applications 217
Characteristics of the Fuel-Gas Flame 166 Pipe Cutting 218
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Contents vii
Oxyfuel Gouging 221 Beveling Pipe 252

Gouging Tips 221 Summary 254
Gouging Variables 221 Review 254
Summary 222
Review 222
Chapter 9 Related Cutting Processes 255
(AWS SENSE Module 8 Unit 4 Manual Air Carbon
Chapter 8 Plasma Arc Cutting 224 Arc Cutting (CAC-A))

(AWS SENSE Module 8 Unit 3 Manual Plasma Objectives 255
Key Terms 255
Arc Cutting (PAC))
Introduction 255
Objectives 224 Laser Beam Cutting (LBC) and
Key Terms 224 Laser Beam Drilling (LBD) 255
Introduction 224 Lasers 256
Plasma 225 Laser Types 256
Arc Plasma 225 Solid State Lasers 257
Plasma Torch 226 Gas Laser 257
Torch Body 226 Applications 257
Torch Head 226 Laser Beam Cutting 258
Power Switch 226 Laser Beam Drilling 259
Torch Parts Commonly Serviced 227 Laser Beam Welding 259
Hoses and Power Cables 229 Laser Equipment 259
Gas Hoses 231 Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) 259
Power Cable 231 Manual Torch Design 260
Coolant System 231 Electrodes 260
Coolant 231 Power Sources 262
Coolant Hoses 231 Air Supply 262
Control Wire 232 Application 262
Compressed Air 232 Safety 263
Power Requirements 233 U-Grooves 265
Voltage 233 Oxygen Lance Cutting 268
Amperage 233 Applications 268
Watts 233 Safety 269
Heat Input 233 Water Jet Cutting 269
Distortion 233 Applications 269
Applications 234 Arc Cutting Electrodes 271
Cutting Speed 234 Applications 271
Metals 234 Summary 271
Torch Standoff Distance 235 Review 272
Starting Methods 236
Kerf 237
Gas and Gases 239
Compressed Air 239 Section 4 Gas Shielded
Oxygen 239 Welding 273
Argon Hydrogen Mixed Gas 239
Stack Cutting 240 Chapter 10 Gas Metal Arc Welding
Dross 241 Equipment, Setup, and Operation 275
Machine Cutting 241
(AWS SENSE Module 5 Gas Metal Arc Welding
Water Tables 242
Manual Cutting 243 (GMAW, GMAW-S))
Setup 243 Objectives 275
Safety 243 Key Terms 275
Straight Cuts 244 Introduction 276
Piercing 247 Weld Metal Transfer Methods 278
Plasma Arc Gouging 249 Short-Circuiting Transfer GMAW-S 278
Cutting Round Stock 252 Globular Transfer 279
viii Contents
Axial Spray Metal Transfer 279 Horizontal 2G and 2F Positions 326

Pulsed-Arc Metal Transfer 281 Overhead 4G and 4F Positions 328
Pulsed-Arc Metal Transfer Current Cycle 282 Globular Metal Transfer, 1G Position 330
Modulated Current Metal Transfer 284 Axial Spray 334
The Modulated Current Process 284 Summary 335
Advantages of Modulated Current and Review 335
Pulsed-Arc Metal Transfer 284
Buried-Arc Transfer 285
GMAW Filler Metal Specifications 286 Chapter 12 Flux Cored Arc Welding
Wire Melting and Deposition Rates 286 Equipment, Setup, and Operation 337
Welding Power Supplies 287
(AWS SENSE Module 6 Flux Cored Arc Welding
GMA Welding Machines 287
Speed of the Wire Electrode 287 (FCAW-G/GM, FCAW-S))
Power Supplies for Short-Circuiting Transfer 287 Objectives 337
Shielding Gas 289 Key Terms 337
Argon 289 Introduction 337
Argon Gas Blends 289 Principles of Operation 340
Helium 291 Flux Core 340
Carbon Dioxide 291 Gas Formers 341
Nitrogen 291 Slag 341
Power Settings 291 Equipment 341
Weave Pattern 291 Power Supply 341
Travel Speed 291 Inverter Welding Machines 341
Electrode Extension 292 FCA Welding Guns 341
Gun Angle 292 Electrode Feed 342
Forehand/Perpendicular/Backhand Welding 292 Advantages 342
Metal Core Electrodes for GMA Welding 294 Limitations 343
Equipment 294 FCAW Electrodes 343
Power Source 294 Electrode Cast and Helix 346
Electrode (Wire) Feed Unit 294 FCA Welding Electrode Flux 346
Types of Wire Feed Units 295 Types of FCAW Fluxes 347
Electrode Conduit 298 Flux Cored Steel Electrode Identification 348
Welding Gun 298 Mild Steel 349
GMA Spot Welding 300 Stainless Steel Electrodes 350
Summary 301 Metal Cored Steel Electrode Identification 350
Review 301 Care of Flux Core Electrodes 350
Shielding Gas 350
Welding Techniques 351
Chapter 11 Gas Metal Arc Welding 303
Gun Angle 351
(AWS SENSE Module 5 Gas Metal Arc Welding
Forehand/Perpendicular/Backhand Techniques 352
(GMAW, GMAW-S)) Advantages of the Forehand Technique 353
Objectives 303 Disadvantages of the Forehand Technique 353
Key Terms 303 Advantages of the Perpendicular Technique 353
Introduction 303 Disadvantages of the Perpendicular
Setup 304 Technique 353
Wire-Feed Speed 307 Advantages of the Backhand Technique 353
Gas Density and Flow Rates 310 Disadvantages of the Backhand Technique 354
Arc-Voltage and Amperage Characteristics 311 Travel Speed 354
Electrode Extension 313 Mode of Metal Transfer 354
Welding Gun Angle 314 Spray Transfer—FCAW-G 354
Effect of Shielding Gas on Welding 315 Globular Transfer—FCAW-G 355
Practices 317 Electrode Extension 355
Metal Preparation 318 Porosity 355
Flat Position, 1G and 1F Positions 319 Troubleshooting FCA Welding 357
Vertical Up 3G and 3F Positions 323 Summary 358
Vertical Down 3G and 3F Positions 325 Review 358
Contents ix
Chapter 13 Flux Cored Arc Welding 359 Practice Welds 401

(AWS SENSE Module 6 Flux Cored Arc Welding Metal Preparation 401
Practice Weld Equipment and Consumables 402
(FCAW-G/GM, FCAW-S))
Summary 427
Objectives 359 Review 427
Key Terms 359
Introduction 359 Chapter 16 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Practices 360
Equipment, Setup, Operation, and Filler
Flat-Position Welds 364
Square-Groove Welds 364 Metals 428
V-Groove and Bevel-Groove Welds 366 (AWS SENSE Module 7 Gas Tungsten Arc
Root Pass 367 Welding (GTAW))
Filler Pass 367 Objectives 428
Cover Pass 368 Key Terms 428
Fillet Welds 368 Introduction 429
Vertical Welds 372 Tungsten 429
Horizontal Welds 376 High Temperature 429
Overhead-Position Welds 379 Good Conductor 429
Thin-Gauge Welding 380 Tungsten Erosion 429
Plug Welds 385 Tungsten Electrode End Shape 430
Summary 386 Types of Tungsten Electrodes 431
Review 387 Pure Tungsten, EWP 431
Thoriated Tungsten, EWTh-1 and EWTh-2 432
Chapter 14 Gas Metal Arc and Zirconium Tungsten, EWZr-1 432
Flux Cored Arc Welding of Pipe 388 Cerium Tungsten, EWCe-2 432
Objectives 388 Lanthanum Tungsten, EWLa-1.5 432
Key Terms 388 Rare Earth Tungsten, EWG 433
Introduction 388 Shaping the Tungsten 433
Joint Preparation 388 Precision Machine Tungsten Grinder 433
End Preparation 388 Hand Grinding 434
Joint Fitup 389 Breaking and Remelting 437
Tack Welds 390 Pointing and Remelting 438
Root Pass 390 GTA Welding Equipment 438
Hot Pass 390 Torches 438
Filler Pass 390 Hoses 440
Cover Pass(es) 390 Nozzles 440
Visual Inspection 390 Gas Lens 442
Practice Pipe Welds 391 Flowmeter 442
Pipe Fillet Welds 391 Types of Welding Current 443
Tack Welds 396 DCEN 443
Root Pass 396 DCEP 443
Hot Pass 396 AC 444
Filler Pass(es) 396 High Frequency (HF) 445
Cover Pass 397 Electronic Controls of AC Welding Currents 445
Summary 400 EP and EN Time Control 445
Review 400 Sine Wave Form Control 445
Frequency Control 446
Chapter 15 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Shielding Gases 447
Arc Welding AWS SENSE Certification 401 Argon 448
Helium 448
(AWS SENSE Modules 5 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW,
Hydrogen 448
GMAW-S) and 6 Module 6 Flux Cored Arc Welding
Nitrogen 448
(FCAW-G/GM, FCAW-S)) Hot Start 448
Objectives 401 Preflow 449
Key Terms 401 Postflow 449
Introduction 401 Shielding Gas Flow Rate 450
x Contents
Remote Controls 450 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTA Welding in the Field 455 AWS SENSE Plate and Pipe Certification 510
Summary 457
Review 457 Objectives 510
Key Terms 510
Chapter 17 Gas Tungsten Introduction 510
Arc Welding of Plate 458 GTA Sheet Welds 510
GTA Tubing Welds 510
(AWS SENSE Module 7 Gas Tungsten
AWS SENSE GTA Sheet Practice Welds 510
Arc Welding (GTAW)) Weld Inspection and Testing 512
Objectives 458 Butt Joint Welds 512
Key Terms 458 Fillet Welds, Lap and Tee Joints 512
Introduction 458 Tubing Welds 512
Torch Angle 459 Mechanical, Destructive Testing 513
Filler Rod Manipulation 459 Filler Metal 513
Tungsten Contamination 460 Sheet Metal Practice Welds 513
Current Setting 461 Tubing and Pipe Practice Welds 526
Experiments 461 Stainless Steel Pipe Welds 531
Gas Flow 462 Pipe Fillet Welds 531
Practice Welds 463 Summary 536
Low Carbon and Mild Steels 464 Review 536
Stainless Steel 464
Aluminum 465
Metal Preparation 465 Section 5 Related
Summary 486
Review 486 Technologies 537
Chapter 18 Gas Tungsten Chapter 20 Shop Math and Weld Cost 539
Arc Welding of Pipe 487 Objectives 539
Objectives 487 Key Terms 539
Key Terms 487 Introduction 539
Introduction 487 Shop Math 540
Practices 487 Types of Numbers 540
Joint Preparation 487 Whole Numbers 540
V-Groove 488 Decimal Fractions 540
Joint Cleaning 489 Mixed Units 540
Root 489 Fractions 540
Incomplete Fusion 490 General Math Rules 541
Concave Root Surface 490 Letters, Numbers, and Symbols 542
Excessive Root Reinforcement 491 Superscript and Subscripts 542
Root Contamination 491 Equations and Formulas 542
Backing Gas 491 Equations 542
Purging 491 Formulas 542
Filler Metal 492 Mixed Units 543
Consumable Inserts 493 Adding and Subtracting Mixed Units 543
Cup Walking 494 Fractions 545
Cup Walking Setup 495 Finding the Fraction’s Common Denominator 545
Cup Walking Technique 496 Reducing Fractions 546
Practice Welds 497 Multiplying and Dividing Fractions 546
Hot Pass 501 Converting Numbers 547
Root Surface 501 Converting Fractions to Decimals 547
Lack of Root Fusion 501 Tolerances 547
Filler Pass 504 Converting Decimals to Fractions 547
Cover Pass 505 Conversion Charts 548
Summary 508 Angles 548
Review 508 Adding and Subtracting Angles 549
Contents xi
Triangles 549 Chapter 22 Welding Joint Design and

Right Triangle 549 Welding Symbols 592
Equilateral Triangle 550
(AWS SENSE Module 3 Drawing and Welding
Isosceles Triangle 550
Perimeter 551 Symbol Interpretation)
Area 551 Objectives 592
Volume 551 Key Terms 592
Measuring 552 Introduction 592
Welding Costs 553 Weld Joint Design 592
Cost Estimation 553 Weld Joint Stresses 594
Joint Design 554 Welding Process 595
Groove Welds 555 Edge Preparation 595
Fillet Welds 556 Joint Dimensions 595
Weld Metal Cost 556 Metal Thickness 595
Cost of Electrodes, Wires, Gases, Metal Type 597
and Flux 557 Welding Position 597
Deposition Efficiency 557 Plate Welding Positions 598
Deposition Rate 558 Pipe Welding Positions 598
Deposition Data Tables 558 Code or Standards Requirements 598
Coated Electrodes 559 Welder Skill 599
Efficiency of Flux Cored Wires 560 Acceptable Cost 599
Efficiency of Solid Wire for GMAW 561 Welding Symbols 599
Efficiency of Solid Wires for SAW 561 Indicating Types of Welds 600
Operating Factor 561 Weld Location 601
Labor and Overhead 564 Location Significance of Arrow 601
Cost of Power 565 Fillet Welds 602
Other Useful Formulas 565 Plug Welds 602
Bill of Materials 565 Spot Welds 603
Invoice 565 Seam Welds 603
Summary 568 Groove Welds 603
Review 568 Backing 606
Flanged Welds 607
Nondestructive Testing Symbols 607
Chapter 21 Reading Technical Summary 610
Drawings 570 Review 610
(AWS SENSE Module 3 Drawing and Welding
Symbol Interpretation) Chapter 23 Fabricating Techniques
Objectives 570 and Practices 611
Key Terms 570 Objectives 611
Introduction 570 Key Terms 611
Mechanical Drawings 571 Introduction 611
Lines 571 Fabrication 611
Types of Drawings 573 Safety 612
Pictorial Drawings 573 Parts and Pieces 613
Mechanical Drawings 574 Preformed 613
Special Views 574 Custom Fabrication 613
Dimensioning 574 Layout 614
Drawing Scale 575 Nesting 619
Reading Mechanical Drawings 577 Kerf Space 620
Sketching 578 Material Shapes 623
Erasers and Erasing 582 Bill of Materials Form 624
Graph Paper 582 Overall Tolerance 625
Computers and Drawings 586 Assembly 626
Summary 590 Overall Dimensions and Thick Materials 628
Review 591 Part Identification 628
xii Contents
Assembly Tools 628 Chapter 24 Welding Codes and

Fitting 631 Standards 647
Tack Welds 632
Welding 634 Objectives 647
Arc Strikes 634 Key Terms 647
Finishing 635 Introduction 647
Power Tools 635 Codes, Standards, Procedures, and
Powering Hand Tools 635 Specifications 647
Advantages of Corded Tools 635 Welding Procedure Qualification 648
Disadvantages of Corded Tools 635 Welding Procedure
Advantages of Cordless Tools 636 Specification (WPS) 648
Disadvantages of Cordless Tools 637 Qualifying the Welding Procedure Specification 648
Advantages of Pneumatic Tools 637 Qualifying and Certifying 648
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Tools 637 General Information 649
Pedestal or Bench Grinders 637 Summary 661
Grinding Stones 637 Review 661
Overheating a Part’s Edge 637
Flap Disc Grinding Safety 637 Chapter 25 Testing and Inspection 662
Flap Discs vs Cupped Grinding Stones and Objectives 662
Fiber Discs 637 Key Terms 662
Flap Discs 637 Introduction 662
Cupped Grinding Stones and Quality Control (QC) 662
Fiber Discs 638 Discontinuities and Defects 663
Abrasive Flap Discs 638 Porosity 663
Flap Disc Types 639 Inclusions 665
Flap Disc Selection 639 Inadequate Joint Penetration 665
Size 639 Incomplete Fusion 666
Hub or Arbor 639 Arc Strikes 667
Revolutions Per Minute (RPM) 639 Overlap 668
Disc Type or Style 639 Undercut 668
Abrasive Type 639 Crater Cracks 668
Ceramic Alumina 639 Underfill 669
Zirconia Alumina 639 Plate-Generated Problems 669
Aluminum Oxide 639 Lamination 669
Abrasive Grit Sizes 640 Delamination 670
Backing Material 640 Lamellar Tears 670
Cloth Backing 640 Destructive Testing (DT) 670
Aluminum (Metal) Backing 640 Tensile Testing 670
Plastic Backing (Composite) 640 Fatigue Testing 672
Fiberglass (Phenolic) Backing 640 Shearing Strength Test 672
Horizontal Power Saws 640 Welded Butt Joints 672
Horizontal Band Saws 641 Nick-Break Test 672
Power Hacksaws 641 Guided-Bend Test 672
Circular Saws 641 Combination Guided Bend and Tensile
Sheet Metal Power Hand Tools 641 Test Machine 676
Handheld Power Shear 642 Free-Bend Test 676
Handheld Nibbler 642 Alternate Bend 676
Drills 643 Fillet Weld Break Test 676
Portable Hand Drills 643 Testing by Etching 676
Portable Hand Drill Options 643 Impact Testing 678
Drill Press 643 Nondestructive Testing (NDT) 678
Magnetic Base Portable Drill Press 643 Visual Inspection (VT) 678
Magnetic Bases 644 Penetrant Inspection (PT) 679
Trusses 644 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) 679
Summary 646 Radiographic Inspection 680
Review 646 Ultrasonic Inspection 685
Contents xiii
Leak Checking 686 Carbon Dioxide 716

Eddy Current Inspection (ET) 686 Hydrogen 716
Hardness Testing 686 Metallurgical Defects 716
Summary 689 Cold Cracking 716
Review 689 Hot Cracking 717
Carbide Precipitation 718
Chapter 26 Welding Metallurgy 690 Summary 719
Objectives 690 Review 719
Key Terms 690
Introduction 690 Chapter 27 Weldability of Metals 721
Heat, Temperature, and Energy 690 Objectives 721
Heat 691 Key Terms 721
Temperature 692 Introduction 721
Production of Metals 693 Weldability 721
Steel Making 693 Thermal Cycling 722
Iron Ore 693 Steel Classification and Identification 724
Ingot Casting 693 SAE Classification Systems 724
Continuous Casting 693 AISI Classification Systems 724
Metal Forming 694 Unified Numbering System (UNS) 724
Grain Structure 695 Carbon and Alloy Steels 724
Mechanical Properties 695 Low-Carbon, Also Called Mild Steel 724
Hardness 695 Medium-Carbon Steel 726
Brittleness 695 High-Carbon Steel 726
Ductility 696 Tool Steel 727
Toughness 696 High-Manganese Steel 727
Strength 696 Low-Alloy, High-Tensile Strength Steels 727
Other Mechanical Properties 696 Stainless Steels 727
Structure of Solid Matter 697 Austenitic Stainless Steel 728
Crystalline Structures of Metal 697 Ferritic Stainless Steel 728
Phase Diagrams 698 Martensitic Stainless Steel 728
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram 699 Chromium-Molybdenum Steel 729
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram 700 Cast Iron 729
Strengthening Mechanisms 703 Preweld and Postweld Heating of Cast Iron 730
Solid-Solution Hardening 703 Practice Welding Cast Iron 731
Precipitation Hardening 703 Welding without Preheating or Postheating 732
Mechanical Mixtures of Phases 704 Nonferrous Metals 734
Quench, Temper, and Anneal 704 Copper and Copper Alloys 734
Quenching 704 Aluminum Weldability 734
Martensitic Reactions 706 Titanium 735
Cold Work 707 Magnesium 735
Grain Size Control 708 Repair Welding 735
Heat Treatments Associated with Welding 709 Summary 738
Preheat 709 Review 739
Stress Relief, Process Annealing 709
Annealing 710 Chapter 28 Filler Metal Selection 740
Normalizing 711 Objectives 740
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams 711 Key Terms 740
Martensite 711 Introduction 740
Bainite 711 Manufacturers’ Electrode Information 741
Pearlite 711 Understanding the Electrode Data 741
TTT Diagrams 712 Data Resulting from Mechanical Tests 741
Thermal Effects Caused by Arc Welding 713 Data Resulting from Chemical Analysis 741
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) 713 Carbon Equivalent (CE) 742
Gases in Welding 715 SMAW Operating Information 742
Nitrogen 715 Core Wire 743
Oxygen 716 Functions of the Flux Covering 743
xiv Contents
Filler Metal Selection 744 Electrogas Welding (EGW) 781

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrode Selection 744 Resistance Welding 781
AWS Filler Metal Classifications 747 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) 782
Carbon Steel 747 Spot Welding Machines 783
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel–Covered Electrodes 747 Multiple-Spot Welders 783
Wire-Type Steel Filler Metals 751 Seam Welding (RSEW) 783
Solid Wire 751 Types of Resistance Seam Welds 784
Tubular Wire 751 Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 787
Metal Cored Arc Welding Electrodes 753 Electron Beam Welding Gun 787
Stainless Steel Electrodes 753 Electron Beam Seam Tracking 787
Nonferrous Electrodes 753 Ultrasonic Welding 788
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 756 Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Applications 789
Aluminum-Covered Arc Welding Electrodes 756 Inertia Welding Process (FRW-I) 789
Aluminum Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes 757 Inertia Weld Bond Characteristics 790
Special-Purpose Filler Metals 757 Advantages of the Process 792
Surface and Buildup Electrode Classification 757 Laser Beam Welding (LBW) 792
Magnesium Alloys 757 Laser Welding Advantages and Disadvantages 792
Hydrogen Embrittlement 757 Laser Beam 792
Summary 758 Laser Beam Heat Treating 793
Review 758 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) 793
Stud Welding (SW) 794
Chapter 29 Welding Automation Thermal Spraying (THSP) 794
Thermal Spraying Equipment 794
and Robotics 760 Thermospray (Powder) Process 795
Objectives 760 Thermospray Gun 795
Key Terms 760 Torch Spraying 795
Introduction 760 Applying Sprayed Metal 797
Manual Joining Process 761 Plasma Spraying Process 797
Semiautomatic Joining Processes 762 Cold Welding (CW) 797
Machine Joining Processes 763 Thermite Welding 797
Automatic Joining Processes 763 Hardfacing 799
Automated Joining 763 Selection of Hardfacing Metals 800
Industrial Robots 764 Hardfacing Welding Processes 800
Robot Programming 765 Quality of Surfacing Deposit 801
System Planning 767 Hardfacing Electrodes 801
Present and Future Needs 767 Shielded Metal Arc Method 802
Parts Design 767 Hardfacing with Gas Shielded Arc 802
Equipment Selection 768 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 802
Metal Blanks 771 Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW) 803
Safety 772 Hybrid Laser Process 804
Creating a WPS 773 Laser Beam Welding with Gas Metal Arc Welding 804
Future of Automation 774 Laser Beam with Gas Metal Arc
Summary 774 Welding Surfacing 805
Review 774 Laser Beam Welding with Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 805
Summary 805
Chapter 30 Other Welding Processes 775 Review 806
Objectives 775
Key Terms 775 Section 6 Oxyfuel Processes 807
Introduction 776
Constant Current Welding Processes 776
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 776 Chapter 31 Oxyacetylene Welding 809
Flux 778 Objectives 809
Advantages of SAW 778 Key Terms 809
Disadvantages of SAW 779 Introduction 809
Handheld SAW 779 Mild Steel Welds 810
Electroslag Welding (ESW) 779 Filler Metals 810
Advantages 780 Ferrous Metals 810
Disadvantages 781 Mild Steel 811
Contents xv
Cast Iron 811 Forms of Fluxes 855

Factors Affecting the Weld 813 Fluxing Action 856
Characteristics of the Weld 814 Brazing and Soldering Methods 856
Mixing the Gases 815 Torch Brazing and Soldering 856
Mixing Chamber 815 Furnace Brazing and Soldering 857
Injector Mixing 815 Induction Brazing and Soldering 858
Torch Care and Use 816 Dip Brazing and Soldering 859
Welding and Heating Torch Tips 817 Resistance Brazing and Soldering 859
Torch Tip Care and Use 817 Special Methods 860
Flat Position Welding 829 Filler Metals 860
Outside Corner Joint 829 Types of Filler Metals 860
Butt Joint 829 Soldering Alloys 861
Lap Joint 833 Tin-Lead 861
Tee Joint 835 Tin-Antimony 861
Out-of-Position Welding 836 Cadmium-Silver 861
Vertical Welds 836 Cadmium-Zinc 861
Butt Joint 838 Brazing Alloys 862
Lap Joint 839 Copper-Zinc 862
Tee Joint 839 Copper-Zinc and Copper-Phosphorus A5.8 863
Horizontal Welds 840 Copper-Phosphorus and
Horizontal Stringer Bead 840 Copper-Silver-Phosphorus 863
Butt Joint 841 Silver-Copper 864
Lap Joint 841 Nickel 864
Tee Joint 841 Nickel and Nickel Alloys A5.14 864
Overhead Welds 841 Aluminum-Silicon (BAlSi) 865
Stringer Bead 842 Copper and Copper Alloys A5.7 865
Butt Joint 842 Silver and Gold 865
Lap Joint 842 Silver-Free Brazing Alloys 865
Tee Joint 842 Joint Design 865
Mild Steel Pipe and Tubing 842 Joint Spacing 865
Horizontal Rolled Position 1G 843 Brazing Practices 867
Horizontal Fixed Position 5G 845 Surface Contamination 867
Vertical Fixed Position 2G 846 Surface Buildup and Hole Fill Practices 874
458 Fixed Position 6G 847 Silver Brazing Practices 876
Thin-Wall Tubing 848 Silver Brazing Dissimilar Metals 878
Summary 848 Soldering Practices 879
Review 849 Summary 883
Review 883
Chapter 32 Brazing, Braze Welding,

Appendix
and Soldering 850
i. Student Welding Report 885
Objectives 850 ii. Time Sheet, Bill of Materials, and
Key Terms 850 Hot Work Permit Instructions 886
Introduction 850 iii. AWS SENSE Forms 890
Brazing, Braze Welding, and Soldering 851 iv. Conversion of Decimal-Inches to Millimeters
Brazing 851 and Fractional Inches to Decimal-Inches
Braze Welding 851 and Millimeters 897
Soldering 851 v. Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary
Advantages of Brazing and Soldering 851 (Standard) Units and Metric Units (SI) 898
Physical Properties of the Brazed or Soldered Joint 853 vi. Abbreviations and Symbols 900
Tensile Strength 853 vii. Metric Conversion Approximations 901
Shear Strength 853 viii. Pressure Conversion 901
Ductility 853 ix. Welding Codes and Specifications 902
Fatigue Resistance 853 x. Welding Associations and Organizations 903
Corrosion Resistance 854
Fluxes Used in Brazing, Braze Welding,
Glossary 904
and Soldering 854
Flux 854 Index 955
Preface
Introduction (3.3.1 LI Module 1 3.1 and Organization
3.3.1 LI Module 1 3.3) The text is organized to guide the student’s learning from
The welding industry presents a continuously growing and an introduction to welding, through critical safety informa-
changing series of opportunities for skilled welders. Even tion, to details of specific welding and cutting processes,
with economic fluctuations, the job outlook for skilled and on to the related areas of shop math, welding metal-
welders is positive. Due to a steady growth in the demand lurgy, weldability of metals, reading technical drawings,
for goods fabricated by welding, new welders are needed in fabrication, testing and inspection of welds, welding joint
every area of welding, such as small shops, specialty fab- design, welding costs, welding symbols, and AWS SENSE
rication shops, large industries, and construction. The stu- certification.
dent who is preparing for a career in welding will need to: Welding has become a very sophisticated and technical
science requiring not only the mental application but also
• be alert and work safely. hands-on abilities.* To achieve the comprehensive goal of
• have excellent hand–eye coordination. complete welder training the AWS established guidelines
• work well with tools and equipment. for Entry Level Welders. In Welding Principles and Appli-
• have effective written and verbal communications cations the AWS SENSE knowledge requirements are iden-
skills. tified with the SENSE torch icon, , along with the related
learning modules. The SENSE skill-learning tasks are iden-
• be able to resolve basic mathematical problems. tified with SENSE Skill and have the related task modules
• be able to follow written and verbal instructions. listed. Learning the knowledge and developing the skills
• work with or without close supervision. established by the AWS SENSE program will help you to
• work well individually and in groups. become an Entry Level Welder.
Each section of the text introducing a welding process
• read and interpret welding drawings and sketches. or processes begins with an introduction to the equipment
• know the theory and application of the various weld- and materials to be used in the process(es), including setup
ing and cutting processes. in preparation for welding. The remaining chapters for the
• be computer literate. specific process concentrate on the actual welding tech-
A thorough study of Welding: Principles and Applications niques in various applications and positions. The content
in a classroom/shop setting will help students prepare for progresses from basic concepts to the more complex weld-
opportunities in welding technology. The comprehen- ing technology. Once this technology is understood, the
sive technical content provides the basis for the welding student is able to quickly master new welding tasks or pro-
processes. The extensive descriptions of equipment and cesses. All of the welding technology and practices lead the
supplies, with in-depth explanations of their operation student toward the ability to take and pass an AWS SENSE
and function, are designed to familiarize students with certification workmanship standard.
the tools of the trade. The process descriptions, practices, The sections on welding processes are laid out so that
and experiments coupled with actual performance teach they can be studied individually and in any order. This was
the critical fabrication and welding skills required on the done so students can study the process or processes that
job. The text also discusses occupational opportunities might relate to their job requirements. However, students
in welding and explains the training required for certain are encouraged to study and learn all of the processes so
welding occupations. The skills and personal traits recom- they have the broadest possible future job opportunities.
mended by the American Welding Society (AWS) for its Objectives listed at the beginning of each chapter tell the
SENSE (School Excelling through National Skill Standards student and instructor what is to be learned while studying
Education) Welder Certification program are included the chapter. A survey of the objectives will show that the
within the text. student will have the opportunity to develop a full range
The National Center for Welding Education and Train- of welding skills. Each major process is presented indepen-
ing, known as Weld-Ed, is a partnership between business dently so that the instructor can include or exclude them
and industry, community and technical colleges, univer-
sities, the American Welding Society, and government to * AWS EG2.0-2017 Guide for the Training of Welding Personnel: Level I— Entry
promote welding education. Welder.
xvi
Preface xvii
to better meet the needs of the local area served by the dents better understand mechanical drawings and to show
program. However, the student can still learn all essential them how the metal is assembled. Most of the drawings are
information needed for a thorough understanding of all laid out in third-angle projection format, some are in the
processes studied. first-angle projection format, and a few are laid out with
Key Terms are listed at the beginning of the chapter. the side view shown in an alternate position. The third-
These key terms are boldface and defined throughout the angle projection format has been the standard used in the
chapters so students will recognize them as they appear. United States for years. However, because of the increasing
Terms and definitions used throughout the text are based interaction with the world economy, and because of the
on the American Welding Society’s standards. Industry jar- fact that many other countries use the first-angle projection
gon has also been included when appropriate. format, it has been included. All three drawing formats
Cautions for the student are given throughout the text are commonly used and are included. Items not normally
and point out potential safety concerns or give additional included on true mechanical drawings such as the weld,
specific information that will make working safer. torch, or electrode, and filler metal have been included to
Think Green text boxes contain information on con- aid in students’ understanding of the drawings.
serving materials, energy, and other natural resources and Summaries at the end of each chapter recap the signifi-
ways to avoid potential environmental contamination. cant material covered in the chapter. This summary will
Metric equivalents are listed in parentheses for dimen- help the student more completely understand the chapter
sions. When the standard unit is an approximation, the material and will serve as a handy study tool.
metric equivalent has been rounded to the nearest whole Review questions at the end of each chapter can be used
number; however, when the standard unit is an exact val- as indicators of how well the student has learned the mate-
ue, the metric conversions are more precise. rial in each chapter.
Illustrations consist of figures, tables, and graphs. Glossary definitions include the key terms listed at the be-
Figures include both photographs and line art. Numerous ginning of each chapter and also other relevant welding terms.
figures contain close-up full-color photos of actual weld- Included in the Glossary are bilingual terms in Spanish. Many
ing, and others show welding products and equipment. definitions feature additional drawings to assist students in
The colorful detailed figure line art is used extensively gaining a complete understanding of the terms.
throughout the text to help illustrate concepts and clarify
the material. Tables and graphs contain valuable technical
information on materials, equipment setup, and welding What’s New in the 9th Edition
process parameters. They are designed to help the student This ninth edition of Welding: Principles and Applications has
in class and later serve as an on-the-job reference. been thoroughly revised and reorganized to reflect the lat-
Experiments and Practices are learning activities that are est welding technologies. Changes include the following:
presented in most of the chapters. The end of each experi-
• Additional areas of safety have been included.
ment is identified by the (◆) symbol and the end of each
practice is identified by the (◆) symbol. • The OFC chapter has been made comprehensive cov-
Experiments help the student learn the parameters of ering all aspects of the operation, equipment, and cyl-
each welding process. Often, performing experiments in a inder construction.
small group where everyone has a turn makes it easier to • The PAC chapter has been updated to reflect the
observe the results more closely. In the experiments, stu- advancements in the process.
dents change the parameters to observe the effect on the • Job related personal skills have been included.
process. In this way, students learn to manipulate the vari-
• Key information regarding materials, setup, and opera-
ables to obtain the desired welding outcome for given con-
tion of practices have been put in an easy to read table.
ditions. The experiments provided in the chapters do not
have right or wrong answers. They are designed to allow • More information regarding new GTAW equipment
the student to learn the operating limitations or the effects and tungsten sharpening has been included.
of changes that may occur during the welding process. • New photos, line art, and equipment for the GMAW
Practices are included to enable the student to develop and FCAW processes have been included.
the required skills using different types of filler metals on a • The GTAW cup walking technique is covered in greater
variety of base metal types and thicknesses in all positions detail.
for each process. A sufficient number of practices is provided
• New material, photos, and line art for testing and in-
so that, after the basics are learned, the student may choose
spection have been included.
an area of specialization. Materials specified in the practices
may be varied in both thickness and length to accommo- • New material, photos, and line art for fabricating
date those supplies that students have access to in their lab. equipment, grinding materials, and power tools have
Changes within a limited range of both thickness and length been included.
will not affect the learning process designed for the practice. The use of new, full-color, detailed close-up photographs
Mechanical drawings are included with many of the and detailed colored line art makes it much easier for the
welding practices. These drawings are included to help stu- student to see what is expected to produce a quality weld.
xviii Preface
Supplements • Instructors can customize the MindTap Learning Path

by adding or hiding content to match their syllabus
Study Guide/Lab Manual and grading preferences. Analytics and reports pro-
The Study Guide/Lab Manual has been updated to reflect vide a snapshot of class progress, time on task, engage-
changes made to the ninth edition. The Study Guide/Lab Man- ment, and completion rates.
ual is designed to reinforce student’s understanding of the con-
cepts presented in the text. Each chapter starts with a review AWS SENSE and Welding
of the important topics discussed in the chapter. Students can Principles and Applications
then test their knowledge by answering additional questions.
Welding Principles and Applications incorporates all of the
Lab exercises are included in those chapters (as appropriate)
key elements found in all of the AWS SENSE Guide for the
to reinforce the primary objectives of the lesson. Artwork and
Training of Welding Personnel: Level I-Entry Welder Modules
safety precautions are included throughout the manual.
for Level I. The AWS SENSE entry-level welder program is
voluntary, so students using this textbook to study welding
Instructor Companion Website principles and applications are not required to participate.
The Instructor Companion Website, found on cengage- One of the advantages of participating in the AWS SENSE
brain.com, includes the following components to help program is that the AWS is the recognized world leader in
minimize instructor preparation time and engage students: welding standards and certifications. As a result, when you
• PowerPoint® lecture slides, which present the high- obtain your AWS SENSE certification, it will be recognized
lights of each chapter. nationally and internationally.
• An Image Gallery, which offers a database of hun-
dreds of images in the text. These can easily be im- SENSE General Elements
ported into the PowerPoint® presentations. There are some general elements found throughout the AWS
• An Answer Key file, which provides the answers to all SENSE modules that are not marked in the text. Marking all
end-of-chapter questions and the quizzes found in the of the occasions that items, such as filling out the “Student
Study Guide/Lab Manual. Welding Report,” would result in almost every page being
marked. Some of these general SENSE items are listed below.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered
AWS SENSE Record Keeping
by Cognero Throughout the AWS SENSE guidelines, the importance to
• Author, edit, and manage test bank content from mul- “Keep training records…” is emphasized. In Welding Principles
tiple Cengage Learning solutions. and Applications that AWS SENSE record keeping requirement
• Create multiple test versions in an instant. is incorporated at the end of every experiment and practice
with the statement “Student Welding Report listed in Appen-
• Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wher-
dix I or provided by your instructor.” Completing this report
ever you want.
will help your instructor maintain the records that can be used
for your submission to the AWS for your SENSE Certification.
MINDTAP Welding for Welding:
Principles and Applications Visual Inspections
• MindTap for Welding Principles and Applications pro- Almost all of the welding practices in Welding Principles and
vides a customized learning solution with relevant Applications are visually inspected to American Welding
assignments that will help students learn and apply Society standards.
concepts while it allows instructors to measure skills
and outcomes with ease. Follow Verbal Instructions
• MindTap meets the needs of today’s welding class- Almost all of the welding instructions your welding in-
room, shop, and student. Within the MindTap, fac- structor gives you are verbal. Also, most instructions given
ulty and students will find editable and submittable by welding shop foremen in the production shop are verbal.
practice sheets correlated to relevant SENSE curricu- That is why it is so important to learn how to listen careful-
lum standards. MindTap also offers students the op- ly, understand, remember, and follow verbal instructions.
portunity to reinforce their understanding of theory, There are drawings and written instructions included
improve their critical thinking skills, and practice in Welding Principles and Applications similar to the ones
welding skills in a virtual environment with the inclu- you might have on the job. But there can be many addi-
sion of Cengage’s unique welding simulations. A suite tional instructions given to you by your instructor or by
of S/P2® safety, pollution, and soft skills modules for your boss, such as which welding machine or booth to use,
welders is available in the Learning Path. Additional where the base metal is located, which filler metal to use,
engaging activities include videos, animations, match- or which welds you should do first. Listening skills are in-
ing exercises, and gradable assessments. cluded throughout the AWS SENSE guidelines.
-
ing it on the ground, or dumping it down the drain
is illegal. Before you dispose of any welding shop
waste that is considered hazardous, you must Features of the Text xix
first consult local, state, and/or federal regula- Chapter 1
Forced is everyone’s to Welding
responsibility. FEATURES OF THE TEXT
tions. Protecting our environment from pollution
Introduction
Objectives
Objectives, found at the beginning
3
or more safety data sheets (sdss)
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to
• explain how each one of the major welding processes works. of each chapter, are a brief list of the
(3.3.2 LI Module 2 6)that must be considered before a welding process is selected.
• list the factors
most important topics to study in
• discuss the history of welding.
All manufacturers of potentially
• describe briefly the responsibilitieshazardous materials
and duties of the welder mustpositions.
in various welding the chapter.
provide to the users
• define of weld,
the terms theirforgeproducts detailed
welding, resistance information
welding, fusion welding, coalescence, and certification.
regarding possible hazards resulting from the use of their Key Terms are the most important
- Key terms
products. These
American Welding data sheets
safety welding were formerly
fusion(SDS) qualification
technical words you will learn in
known as material safety data sheets
Society (AWS) (MSDS)
gas metal They
arc welding (GMAW)must resistance
be welding the chapter. These are listed at the
automated operation
provided to anyone using the product or anyone working
gas tungsten arc semiautomatic operation beginning of each chapter following
automatic operation welding (GTAW)
in the area where the products are machine in use. Often companies
shielded metal arc the Objectives and appear in bold
certification operation welding (SMAW)
will post these sheets on a bulletinmanual
coalescence board or put them intorch
operation a or oxyfuel brazing (TB) print where they are first defined.
convenient place near
flux cored the(FCAW)
arc welding work area. Some
oxyfuel states
gas cutting (OFC)have right- weld These terms are also defined in the
to-know lawsforge
thatwelding
require specific training oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
of all employees welding Glossary at the end of the book.
-
who handle or work in areas with hazardous materials.
intrOductiOn before the ancients discovered a method for joining met-
As methods of joining materials improved through the ages, als. Workers in the Bronze and Iron Ages began to solve
CAUTION
so did the environment and mode of living for humans. the problems of forming, casting, and alloying metals.
Materials, tools, and machinery improved as civilization Welding metal surfaces was a problem that long puzzled
If you feel you have been injured
developed. metalworkers
Chapter of that time
7 Flame period.
Cutting 217Early metal-joining
Fastening together the parts of work implements methods included processes such as forming a sand Cautions summarize critical safety rules. They alert you
while using a product, then you should, if pos-
the beveled plate. Repeat
beganthis practice
when untilattached
someone the cut can be to a stone
a stick A number
to make of factors
moldthat
on do
topnotof aexist
pieceduring practice
of metal and casting the desired
made within tolerance. Turnoroffaxe.
a spear theEgyptians
cylinder valves, bleed tools cuts
used stone can affect
to create tem- your ability
shape to make on
directly a quality
the basecutmetal
on a part.
so that both parts fused to operations that could hurt you or someone else. They
sible, take the material’s SDS with you when you
the hoses, back out the
plespressure regulators,
and pyramids and
that clean
were your together
fastened The following
with anare some of the things
together, formingthat acan become
single prob-
piece of metal, Figure 1-1.
work area when you adhesive
are finishedof cutting.
gypsum mortar. Some walls that lems still
whenexist
cutting: Another metal-joining method used in early years was to are not only covered in the safety chapter but also found
are seeking medical treatment.
Complete a copy depict
of the “Student Welding Report”
a space-oriented figure listed
that was as •appropriate place two pieces
parts of aremetal close together
can and pour molten
in Appendix I or provided
then as by now—an
your instructor. ◆
ibis-headed god named Thoth
Changing positions:
be cutwhofrom onemetal
Often,
between
position, so youthem.
larger
mayWhen
than
have tothemove
edges of the base metal throughout the text when they apply to the discussion,
protected the moon and was believed to cruise space themelted, the flow of restarting
metal wasa then
cut dammed up and
PRaCTICe 7-13in a vessel.
to complete cut. Stopping
can result in a allowed
small flawto harden,
and
in the cut Figure 1-2.If this
surface.
practice, or experiment.
Other types of adhesives were used to join flawwood This bronze goat then
statuethe
at cut
the sur-
Qingyang Taoist Temple
handling and stOring

exceeds the acceptable limits,
36 Section 1 Introduction
Vertical Straight andCutstone in ancient times. However, it was a face longmust
time be repaired
in Chengdu,
beforeChina,
the part was cast
can bemore
used.than
To 1500 years ago and
For this practice, you will need a properly lit and adjusted avoid this problem, always try to stop at corners if the
cylinders (3.3.3 LI module 2 7.3)

cutting torch, welding gloves, appropriate eye protec-
tion and clothing, and one piece of mild steel plate 6 in.
(152 mm) long 3 1/4 in. (6 mm) to 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick
cut cannot be completed without moving.
• Sparks: You will often be making cuts in large plates.
Even an ideal cut can create sparks that bounce around THINK GREEN Waste Material Disposal
Oxygen and fuel gas cylinders or other flammable materi-
marked in strips 1/2 in. (13 mm) wide and held in the ver-
tical position. You will make a straight line cut. Make sure
the plate surface. These sparks often find their way into
your glove, under your arm, or to any other place that
3
als must be stored boxesseparately.

that the sparks do not cause a safety hazard and that the
Think Green contain information The storage on areas must be Welding shops generate a lot of waste material.
will become uncomfortable. Experienced welders will
conserving
usually keep working if the sparks are not too large
metal being cut off will not fall on any person or object.
separated
Starting by 20
at the top, make
77659_ch01_hr_001-024.indd 3 ft (6.1 m)
one cut downward. Then,
materials, energy, and other natural resources and ways or by a wall 5 ft high (1.5 m) Much of the waste is scrap metal. All scrap metal,
or too uncomfortable. With experience you will learn
to 12/5/19 8:00 PM
216
startingSection 3 Cutting
at the bottom, andthe
make Gouging
next cut upward. The cut how to angle the torch, direct the cut, and position
with at least a 30-minute (min)
must be free of hard slag and within 63/32 in. (2 mm) of a
avoid potential environmental contamination. burn rating, Figure 2-26. including electrode stubs, can easily be recycled.
your body to minimize this problem.
16'
straight line and 658 ofSCRAP being square. Repeat these cuts until • Hot surfaces: As you continue making cuts to com-
The purpose of the distance or wall is to keep the heat of a
they can be made within
SINGLE 25'tolerance. Turn off the cylinder Green practices like recycling metal are good for
plete the part, it will begin to heat up. Depending on
(A) the size of the part, the number of cuts per part, and
valves,
CUT bleed the hoses, back out the pressure regulators, and
DISTORTION
small fire from causing the oxygen cylinder safety valve to
clean your work area when you are finished cutting. the environment and can generate revenue for
the number of parts being cut, this heat can become
Complete a copy of the “Student Welding Report” listed uncomfortable. You may find it necessary to hold the
release. If the safety valve were to release the oxygen, then
in Appendix I or provided by your instructor. ◆ torch farther back from
LINE your welding shop.
theCUT
TO BE tip, but this will affect
the quality of your cuts, Figure 7-127. Sometimes you
aPRaCTICe
small
DOUBLE fire would
7-14
SCRAP
become a raging inferno. Some of the other waste, such as burned flux,
might be able to rest your hand on a block to keep it
10,000 Practices are hands-on
Larry Jeffus
CUT
cu(B)ftoff of the plate. Another problem with heat buildup
cleaning solvents, and dust collected in shop air
InertStraight
Overhead gas cylinders
Cut may be stored separately or with is that it may become high enough to affect the cut
NO DISTORTION exercises designed to quality. Heat becomes a problem when it causes the
oxygen cylinders.
eye protection Empty
Using a properly lit and adjusted cutting torch, welding
and 25' cylinders must be stored sepa- filtration systems, may be considered hazardous
top edge of the plate to melt during a cut, as if the
gloves, appropriate clothing, and one
build your welding skills.
torch tip were
PART too
STILLlarge. This CUTTING
is more of a problem
rately or with the same type
piece of mild steel plate 6 in. (152 mm) long 3 1/4 in.
of full cylinders in the same material. Check with the material manufacturer or
HOT FROM
when several cuts are being made in close proximity.
(6 mm) to 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick marked in strips 1/2 in.
Each practice describes in
Planning your cutting sequence and allowing cooling
(13 mm) wide, you will SCRAP
make a cut in the overhead position. an environmental consultant to determine if any
time will help control this potential problem.
ceilingdetail
that iswhat16 ft.skill(4.9 youm) will
When making
FIGURe overhead
7-123 Making twocuts, it iscuts
parallel important to betime
at the same com- (C)
Figure
pletely
will protected
control 2-24from theA
distortion. hotroom
sparks. Inwith
addition a to the waste material is considered hazardous. Throw-
standard safety clothing, you should wear a leather jacket,
high
leather may not require and aforced ventilation learnfor oneand welder.
what equip-
apron, cap, ear protection, full face shield.
PART AFTER IT HAS COOLED ing hazardous waste material into the trash, pour-
The torch can be angled so that most of the sparks will be
ment, supplies, and tools
ing it on the ground, or dumping it down the drain
photo courtesy of Thermadyne Indus-
blown away. The metal should fall free when the cut is com-
pleted. The cut must be within 1/8 in. (3 mm) of a straight
you will need to complete
tries, Inc. - all rights reserved.
line and 658 of being square. Repeat this practice until the
(D) is illegal.
10/14/19 12:10 PM Before you dispose of any welding shop
cut can be made within tolerance. Turn off the cylinder
the exercise. (A)
valves, bleed the hoses, back out the pressure regulators, and waste that is considered hazardous, you must
forced ventilation unless
clean your work area when you are finished cutting.
fumes
Complete a copy of the “Student Welding Report” listed
or smoke begin to collect.
FINISH CUTS AFTER PART HAS COOLED first consult local, state, and/or federal regula-
in Appendix
FIGURe 7-124I Slitting
or provided by your
adaptor instructor.
for cutting ◆ It can
machine. FIGURe 7-125 Steps used during cutting to minimize
Forced Ventilation Small
be used for parallel cuts from 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) to 12 in.
(500 mm). Ideal for cutting test coupons.
shops
distortion.or shops
(A) Lay out the cut.with large
(B) Cut along the line, tions. Protecting our environment from pollution
periodically leaving small tabs. Once the plate has cooled,
CUTTING aPPLICaTIONS
numbers of welders require forced ventilation. Forced
cut the tabs (C). This process reduces thermal distortion
caused by the flame cutting (D).
is everyone’s responsibility.
Making practice cuts on a piece of metal that will only
tabs every 2 ft (0.6 m) to 3 ft (0.9 m) to keep the cut from
become scrap is a good can
cools,be
thegeneral
ventilation tabs areor localized using fixed or
way to learn proper torch tech-
separating. Once the plate the remaining (B)
niques. If a bad cut is made, there is no loss. In a produc-
cut, Figure 7-125.
flexible
tion shop, whereexhausteach piece of metalpickups,
is important, however,
scrapped metal due to bad cuts decreases the shop’s profits.
Figure FIGURe 7-127 It is General
2-25. room
easier to make straight
CUT LINE
smooth cuts if
you can brace the torch closer to the tip-like cut (B).
ventilation
eXPeRIMeNT 7-6
Minimizing Distortion
must be at a rate of 2000 ft 3 (56 m 3 ) or more
Experiments arehave
safety data sheets (sdss)
designed to allow you to see what effect
per person welding. Localized exhaust pickups must
Using a properly lit and adjusted cutting torch, welding gloves,
changes in the process (3.3.2 LI Module 2 6)
m)1" settings, operation, or techniques
10" (254 mm)
aappropriate
drafteyestrong
77659_ch07_hr_163-223.indd 217 enough
protection and clothing, andto two provide
pieces of 100 linear feet (30.5 10/22/19 9:04 PM
mild steel 10 in. (254 mm) long 3 1/4 in. (6 mm) thick, you
per minute
will make two cuts and then of compare
air velocity
the distortion. Laypulling
out have
welding on the fumes typeaway of weld 4
(6 mm)
All manufacturers
produced. Many are group of potentially
activi- hazardous materials must
you learn provide to the users of their products detailed information
and cut out both pieces of metal as shown in Figure 7-126. CUT LINE
from
Allow the themetal towelder.
cool, and then Local,
cut the remainingstate,tabs. or federal ties and will help may
regulations as a team.
Compare the four pieces of metal for distortion.
require
Complete a copy that of thewelding
“Student Welding fumes Report” listed be treatedCUTto THIS remove
ONLY AFTER haz- regarding possible hazards resulting from the use of their
in Appendix I or provided by your instructor. ◆
ardous components before they are
THE PLATE HAS COOLED
released into the products. These safety data sheets (SDS) were formerly
SENSE PRaCTICe 7-12 (3.3.8 LI Module 8 2.6.3,
atmosphere.
SKILL
3.3.8 LI Module 8 1.7.3, 3.3.8 LI Module 8 1.7.4)
FIGURe 7-126 Making two cuts with minimum distortion.
Note: Sizes of these and other cutting projects can be known as material safety data sheets (MSDS) They must be
changed to fit available stock.
Anya Plate
beveling system
Copyrightof 2021 ventilation
Cengage Learning. shouldAll Rightsdraw the fumes
Reserved. May not be provided
orcopied, scanned, to anyone
or duplicated, in whole using theWCN
or in part. product
02-200-203 or anyone working
UseCopyright
smoke
a properly2021lit and
away
adjusted
Cengage cutting torch,
before
Learning.
it
welding
appropriate eye protection and clothing, and one piece ofrises
All Rights gloves, May not be
past
Reserved.
the
Mark the scanned,
level
copied, plate in or
of
strips
the
1/2 in.in(13
welder’s
duplicated, mm)
whole or wide.
in part.Set
the tip for beveling and cut a bevel. The bevel should be
in
Due to the
electronic area
rights, where
some third partythe
contentproducts
may be suppressedare in
from the use.
eBook Often
and/or companies
eChapter(s).
3 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick. within 6 658 of a 458
For this weld, undercut is a problem on both sides of the
weld, with a high buildup in the center. It can be controlled
by holding the arc on the side long enough for filler metal
to flow in and fill the undercut. Cool, chip, and inspect
the weld for uniformity and defects. Repeat the welds as
xx Features of the Text necessary with all three (F) groups of electrodes until you
can consistently make welds free of defects for both single
and multiple pass welds. Turn off the welding machine and
Figure 4-89 Pausing just above the undercut will fill it. clean your work area when you are finished welding.
This action also causes undercut, but that will be filled on Complete a copy of the “Student Welding Report” listed
the next cycle. in Appendix I or provided by your instructor. ◆
Summaries review the impor-
tant points in the chapter and SuMMAry Chapter 4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Plate 113
serve as a useful study tool. The shieldedFor
metal
a newarc welder,
weldingitprocess
is oftenisdifficult
most often referred to on any-
to concentrate experienced bybecome
you to all new welders;
a highlyitproficient
is the tendency
welder.for the electrode
Nothing enhances your
in welding shops
thing otherasthan
stickthe
welding. Some and
bright sparks people
glowsay thatend
at the it gets to stick to
of the elec- the workpiece.
welding All new
skills more thanwelders
time underexperience this, actually
the hood, and yourwelding,
this name for But,
trode. one with
of two reasons.
time, The first your
as you develop is most
skills,obviously
your visualasfield will
ability tocleaning
control the weld,
sticking of the electrode
inspecting can bethe
it, determining improved as correc-
necessary
a result of the stick
increase, shape you
allowing of the electrode.
to see a muchThe second
larger reason
welding zone.isThis skill
you develop
tionsthe proper
to be made,arc-striking techniques.
and immediately trying to produce the next weld
comes with time and practice. Developing this skill is essential for with a higher level of quality.
revieW
77659_ch04_hr_077-113.indd 112 12/20/19 8:57 AM
1. Describe two methods of striking an arc with an electrode. 12. Describe the difference between using a leading and a trail-
Review questions help mea- 2. Why is it important to strike the arc only in the weld ing electrode angle.
joint? 13. Can all electrodes be used with a leading angle? Why or
sure the skills and knowledge 3. What problems may result by using an electrode at too low why not?
you learned in the chapter. Each of a current setting? 14. What characteristics of the weld bead does the weaving of
question is designed to help you 4. What problems may result by using an electrode at too high the electrode cause?
of a current setting? 15. What are some of the applications for the circular pattern in
apply and understand the infor- 5. According to Table 4-1, what would the amperage range be the flat position?
mation in the chapter. for the following electrodes? 16. Using a pencil and paper, draw two complete lines of the
a. 1/8 in. (3.2 mm), E6010 (70-130) weave patterns you are most comfortable making.
b. 5/32 in. (4 mm), E7018 (125-220) 17. Why is it important to find a good welding position?
c. 3/32 in. (2.4 mm), E7016 (75-105) 18. Which electrodes would be grouped in the following F num-
bers: F3, F2, and F4?
d. 1/8 in. (3.2 mm), E6011 (85-125)
19. Give one advantage of using electrodes with cellulose-based
6. What makes some spatter “hard?”
fluxes.
7. Why should you never change the current setting during a
weld? 20. What are stringer beads?
8. What factors should be considered when selecting an elec- 21. Describe an ideal tack weld.
trode size? 22. What effect does the root opening or root gap have on a
9. What can a welder do to control overheating of the metal butt joint?
pieces being welded? 23. What can happen if the fillet weld on a lap joint does not have
10. What problems can result from too long or too short of an a smooth transition?
arc length? 24. Which plate heats up faster on a tee joint? Why?
11. What arc problems can occur in deep or narrow weld 25. Can a tee weld be strong if the welds on both sides do not
joints? have deep penetration? Why or why not?
Success Stories are found at

the beginning of each of the
seven sections in the text. These
SucceSS Story stories are about real people who
My name is Brandon Pritchard. Up until I completed the welding have become successful by using
program at Northwest Florida State College (NWF), I was work-
ing dead-end jobs, living paycheck to paycheck, never having
their welding skills. Each story
ends meet. After seventh grade, I dropped out of school and is different, but one message is
practically lived in a different place every month, including foster
homes. I made choices in my life that set me up for nothing but
repeated by all story contribu-
failure, including time in jail. I faced continuous hurdles, and at tors: welding can be a rich and
times I found myself emotionally and physically beaten down.
I knew I wanted more out of life. I knew I could 77659_ch04_hr_077-113.indd
do it. I just needed a 113
push and some hope from somewhere.
rewarding career.
9/30/19 2:59 PM
The welding program at Northwest Florida State College did that for me.
I remember driving by the NWF State College welding trailer, and I took that as a sign that I needed to apply
to the program. I did, the very next day. I started attending classes the following semester. Even though I lived
over 30 minutes away and didn’t have a driver’s license at the time, I never questioned if I was going to welding
class that day, no matter how much life got in the way. The welding program sparked something in me the
very first day. I knew it was what I was meant to do, and I felt motivated and driven every day to do my best. It
felt like this was my second chance at obtaining the life I wanted.
One of the best parts about the NWF State College welding program was the instructor, Mr. Scottie Smith.
Glossary
Scottie and his program taught me much more than just welding. He taught me how to be punctual, safe,
Bilingual Glossary
definitions
hardworking, dedicated, goal oriented, and someone others can count on.
provide a Spanish equivalent for
I completed the welding program and earned a college degree. I even had a welding job lined up before
I graduated. I have been employed in the welding field nonstop since I graduated, and I couldn’t be happier.
each new term. Additional line
Within two years of graduating from NWF State College, I bought a house for my family and me, a car for my
art in the Glossary will also help
wife, and a truck for myself. Thanks to welding and the NWF State College program, I have self-confidence know-
The terms and definitions in this glossary are extracted from the American Welding Society publication AWS A3.0-80 Welding Terms and
ing that I have been able to accomplish so much, regardless of my negative past and unfortunate circumstances.
you gain a greater understanding Definitions. The terms with an asterisk are from a source other than the American Welding Society. Note: The English term and definition are
given first, followed by the same term and definition in Spanish.
of challenging terms.
A es C 2 H 2. No tiene color, es más ligero que el aire, y tiene un olor
fuerte como a ajo. El acetileno es inestable en presiones más altas
*abrasives. Materials that are usually sharp and are used to de 15 psig (1.05 kg/cm 2 g). Cuando se quema en presencia del
clean or grind a surface. They may be used as a powder such oxígeno, el acetileno produce una de las llamás con una tempera-
as sand to blast the surface or they may be formed into disks or
tura más alta que la que se utiliza.
stones to be used by a grinder.
abrasivos. Materiales que son por lo general ásperos y que se *acicular structure. A fine micrograin structure found in rap-
utilizan para limpiar o pulir superficies. Pueden venir en polvo, idly cooled steel.
como arena, para bruñir las superficies, o en forma de discos o *estructura acicular. Una estructura micro granulada fina
piedras para ser usados por una esmeriladora. que se encuentra en el acero que se ha enfriado con rapidez.
*absolute pressure. The sum of the gauge pressure and the actual throat. See throat of a fillet weld.
atmospheric pressure. garganta actual. Vea garganta de soldadura filete.
presión absoluta. La suma de la presión manómetro y la pre-
sión atmosférica. *adaptable. Capable of making self-directed corrections; in
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated,
a robot, this isinoften
whole or in part.
accomplished WCN force,
with visual, 02-200-203
or tactile
absorptive lens. A filter lens designed to attenuate the effects sensors.
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, and
of transmitted or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
reflected light. adaptable. Capaz de hacer correcciones por instrucción propia
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materiallylente
affect absorbente.
the overall learning experience.
Un lente de filtroCengage
diseñadoLearning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
para disminuir de un robot, esto se lleva a cabo con sensores tangibles visuales,
Acknowledgments xxi
Acknowledgments
To bring a book of this size to publication requires the Mine Safety Appliances, Co.; NASA Media Research
assistance of many individuals, and the author and pub- Center; National Machine Co.; Otto Arc Systems;
lisher thank the following for their unique contributions to Pearl Abrasive Co.; Philips Gmbh; Plumbing and Pipe
this and/or prior editions: Fitting Industry of the United States; Praxair; Prince
• Marilyn K. Burris, for the years of work on this text & Izant Company; Rexarc; Reynolds Metals Co.; RPB
and graphics. Safety; Sciaky Brothers, Inc.; Sonobond Ultrasonics;
Stanley Works; T.J. Snow Co., Inc.; Technical Systems;
• The American Welding Society, Inc.
Thermadyne Holdings; Victor Equipment; WARDJet;
• Denise Champagne, Harry Mellott, and Betsy Van and West Chester Protective Gear.
Duyne Donka with Hypertherm for the loan of equip-
• The following individuals who are featured in
ment as props, the photos, and other valuable assis-
the Success Stories in the text. They are valuable
tance provided.
contributors to the textbook and an inspiration
• Jessica Marhefke with Miller Electric Mfg. LLC for the for those entering the welding industry: Brandon
loan of equipment as props and the equipment photos. Pritchard, Darrell Fisher, Harman Beyer, John Karney,
• Daisy Gosson with West Chester Protective Gear for Sarah Stork, and Sophie Lewis.
the loan of gloves, other PPE props, and photos. The author also expresses his deepest appreciation to:
• Michael S. Polito with Goss® Professional Torch Equip- • The welding instructors at Aims Community College,
ment for providing equipment for props. Greeley, CO; Antelope Valley College, Lancaster, CA;
• David DuBois for the use of his shop and help with the Applied Technology Education Campus, Camden,
setting up, welding, and photographing of welding. SC; Atlantic Technical Center, Coconut Creek, FL;
• Jeff Kestner, Josh Osterhaus, and Clayton Norris for Augusta Technical College, Augusta, GA; Austin
their help with the welding and photos. Community College, Riverside Campus, Austin,
TX; B entonville HS, Bentonville, AR; Bessemer State
• Dewayne Roy, Welding Department Chairman at
Technical College, Bessemer, AL; Blackhawk Technical
Mountain View College, Dallas, Texas, for his many
College, Jacksonville, WI; Caddo Mills HS, Caddo
contributions to this text.
Mills, TX; Calcasieu Parish School, Lake Charles, LA;
• Ernest Levert, welding engineer at Lockheed Martin, Central Carolina Community College, Sanford, NC;
for all of his great technical advice and for sharing his Central Piedmont Community College, Charlotte, NC;
welding experiences. Centralia College, Centralia, WA; Chattanooga State
• Special thanks are due to the following companies Community College, Chattanooga, TN; Clearfield
for their contributions to the text: Skills USA-VICA; County Career & Technology Center, Clearfield, PA;
Alexander Binzel Corp.; Alphagaz Div.; Aluminum Co. Coastal Carolina Community College, Jacksonville,
of America; American Torch Tip; United Association NC; College of Southern Nevada, Henderson, NV;
of the Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing College of the Ozarks, Point Lookout, MO; Colorado
and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and School of Mines, Golden, CO; Community College
Canada, Local No. 100; ARC Machines, Inc.; Atlas of Denver, Denver, CO; Craven Community College,
Copco Drilling Solutions Inc; The Aluminum Assoc./ New Bern, NC; C y-Fair High School, Cypress, TX;
Automotive & Light Truck Group; B & B Pipe and Doña Ana Community College, Las Cruces, NM; East
Industrial Tools; Buehler Ltd.; Caterpillar, Inc.; Cherry Career & Technical Academy, Las Vegas, NV; Eastfield
Point Refinery; Chicago Pneumatic; City of Garland College, Mesquite, TX; El Camino Community College,
Texas: Garland Power and Light; Concoa Controls Torrance, CA; Florence-Darlington Technical College,
Corp.; CRC-Evans Automatic Welding; Creative Safety Florence, SC; Front Range Community College, Ft.
Supply; E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.; E.O. Paton Collins, CO; Grand Rapids Community College,
Electric Welding Institute; ESAB Welding & Cutting Grand Rapids, MI; Great Plains Technology Center,
Products; FANUX Robotics North America, Inc.; Foster Frederick, OK; Greater Lowell Technical High School,
Instruments; Frommelt Safety Products; Garland Lowell, MS; Houston Community College, Houston,
Welding Supply Co., Inc.; Goss Inc.; GWS Welding TX; Jefferson High School, Dallas, TX; John A. Logan
Supply Co.; Hobart Brothers Co.; Hornell Speedglas, College, Carterville, IL; Joseph P. Keefe Technical HS,
Inc.; IAP Air Products; Industrial Air Solutions; Framingham, MA; Kansas City Kansas Community
Industrial Solutions; Jackson Products/Thermadyne; College, Kansas City, KS; Kilgore College, Kilgore, TX;
LA-CO Markal; Leybold Heraeus Vacuum Systems, Laramie County Community College, Cheyenne, WY;
Inc.; Lincoln Electric; Liquid Air Corp.; Magnaflux Lone Star College North Harris County, Houston, TX;
Corp.; Merrick Engineering, Inc.; Miller Electric Co.; Long Beach City College, Long Beach, CA; Midlands
xxii Acknowledgments
Technical College, Columbia, SC; Mohave Community Community College, Walla Walla, WA; Warren Tech,
College, Kingman, AZ; Mountain View College, Dallas, Lakewood, CO; Wenatchee Valley College, Wenatchee,
TX; Navarro College, Corsicana, TX; New England WA; Western High School, Las Vegas, NV; Wichita Area
Institute of Technology, East Greenwich, RI; New Technical College, Wichita, KS; Worcester Technical
Hampshire Technical College at Manchester, NH; New High School, Worcester, MA; York Technical College,
River Community College, Dublin, VA; Newberry Rock Hill, SC; and York Technical College, York, SC.
County Career Center, Newberry, SC; Northeast Texas The welders at all of these institutions have shared with
Community College, Mt. Pleasant, TX; Northwest me their welding experiences, teaching experiences,
Mississippi Community College, Senatobia, MS; and students’ experiences, which have helped form the
Northwest Technical Institute, Springdale, AR; Palm basis for many of the updates in this edition.
Beach Community College, Lake Worth, FL; Paris • David DuBois, for the use of his welding shop for
Junior College, Sulphur Springs, TX; Pewitt CISD, many of the photo shootings, and both David and
Omaha, TX; Pueblo Community College, Pueblo, Amy DuBois, for their editorial assistance in prepar-
CO; Reading Area Community College, Reading, PA; ing the text.
Renton Technical College, Renton, WA; San Jacinto
• Kevin Gratton and Ashley Black, welding instructors
College, Central Campus, Pasadena, TX; South Garland
at Lexington Area Technical High School, South Caro-
HS, Garland, TX; Southern Union State Community
lina, for sharing their knowledge gained from years of
College, Opelika, AL; Tarrant County College, Fort
experience in welding and teaching, but most of all for
Worth, TX; Tennessee College of Applied Technology at
their friendship.
Memphis, Memphis, TN; Texas State Technical College,
Red Oak, TX; Texas State Technical College, Waco, TX; • In memory of Brian Walker, a former student and
Trenholm State Community College, Montgomery, AL; friend who contributed to this book over the years.
Tulsa Technology Center, Tulsa, OK; Tulsa Welding • To my wife, Carol, for all of her moral support, and to
School, Tulsa, OK, Houston, TX, and Jacksonville my daughters, Wendy and Amy, for all of the general
FL; Tyler Junior College, Tyler, TX; Walla Walla office help they provided.
About the Author xxiii
About the Author

In 1965, during my senior year at New Bern High School in how to fill out a job application, how to interview, and so
North Carolina, while taking shop classes, I am proud to say on. In the afternoons, I worked as a welder at Barbour Boat
I joined the Vocational Industrial Clubs of America (VICA), Works. After graduation, I started a full-time job weld-
now SkillsUSA-VICA. SkillsUSA brings together educators, ing and fitting at the shipyard, where I refined my weld-
administrators, corporate America, labor organizations, ing skills and was allowed to work with the other welders
trade associations, and government in a coordinated effort in the shipyard. My first solo welding assignment was on
to address America’s need for a globally competitive, skilled a barge making overhead intermittent welds to attach the
workforce. The mission of SkillsUSA is to help our students deck to the barge’s ribs. Welding overhead all day, I quickly
become world-class workers and responsible American learned how to control the molten weld pool!
citizens. Through my involvement in SkillsUSA, I learned As my welding skills improved, my supervisor allowed
a great deal about industry and business. In SkillsUSA I me to apply my new welding skills to more difficult jobs.
learned the value of integrity, responsibility, citizenship, ser- I welded on barges, military landing crafts, tugboats, PT
vice, and respect. In addition, I developed leadership skills, boats, small tankers, and other welded vessels. This is how
established goals, and learned the value of performing qual- I earned money toward my college education.
ity work. These are all things that I still use in my life today. With my welding skills, I was able to get a job in a
During my junior year of high school, I learned to weld small welding shop in Madisonville, Tennessee and attend
in metal shop. I was taught basic welding principles and Hiwassee College. After graduating from Hiwassee, I found
applications, and I was able to build a number of projects in other welding jobs that allowed me to continue my educa-
shop using oxyacetylene welding, shielded metal arc weld- tion at the University of Tennessee, where I earned a bach-
ing, twin carbon arc welding, and torch brazing. elor’s degree. After four years, I had both a college degree
The practice welds helped me develop welding skills, and four more years of welding experience, which together
and building the projects allowed me to start developing qualified me for my job as a vocational teacher. During my
some fabrication skills. By the end of my junior year, I had teaching career, I completed postgraduate studies at the
become a fairly skilled welder. University of Tennessee and Texas A & M Commerce.
In my senior year I was given an opportunity to join During my career as a welder, I have welded on tanks,
Mr. Z. T. Koonce’s first class in a new program called In- pressure vessels, oil well drilling equipment, farm equip-
dustrial Cooperative Training (ICT). ICT was a cooperative ment, structural steel, racecars, aircraft, piping systems, and
work experience program, much like today’s cooperative more. I still weld on a regular basis in my fully equipped
education programs, that coordinated school experiences welding shop. As a vocational teacher, I have taught in high
with real jobs. This allowed me to attend high school in the schools, schools for special education, schools for the deaf,
morning, where I completed my required English, math, three colleges, and numerous industrial shops. I still work
and other academic courses for graduation. In my ICT class as an author; a consultant to the welding industry; and a
we were taught skills that would help us get a job—such as resource for students, educators, and school administrators.
Another random document with
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its mode of origin, it is here regarded as a right hydrocoel, i.e. a
rudimentary fellow of the organ which develops into the water-
vascular system.
Fig. 287.—Diagrams of the mode of formation and division of the coelom in

Echinodermata. a.c, Anterior coelom; coe, primitive coelomic rudiment; int,
intestine; l.a.c, left anterior coelom; l.hy, left hydrocoel; l.p.c, left posterior
coelom; oes, oesophagus; p.c, posterior coelom; r.a.c, right anterior coelom;
r.hy, right hydrocoel; r.p.c, right posterior coelom; st, stomach; stom,
stomodaeum.
In Auricularia (Fig. 287, D) the coelomic vesicle, after the pore-canal

is formed, divides into an anterior and a posterior half. The posterior
part then divides into right and left halves, whilst the anterior sac
divides into dorsal and ventral halves, connected by a narrow neck.
The ventral half soon assumes the familiar feature of the hydrocoel
(Fig. 287, D3, l.hy), whilst the dorsal half forms an insignificant
swelling on the course of the conjoined stone- and pore-canals,
which represents the left anterior coelom of the other types; neither
right anterior coelom nor right hydrocoel being developed. The neck
of communication between dorsal and ventral halves is, of course,
the stone-canal.
The Dipleurula larva leads a free-swimming life for a period varying

from two weeks to two months, and then undergoes
metamorphosis into the adult form. The details of this process have
been worked out in comparatively few cases; and the species in
which they are most thoroughly known is the Asteroid Asterina
gibbosa. The development of this species is intermediate in
character between the embryonic and larval types. The eggs are
larger than is usual among Asteroidea, and are filled with a bright
orange yolk. The larva differs from the Bipinnaria in the absence of
the characteristic ciliated bands and in the very early occlusion of the
anus. There is, however, a band of cilia round the edge of the prae-
oral lobe, which corresponds to portions of the prae-oral and post-
oral bands combined of the Bipinnaria.[519]
The larva has a form which may be described as boot-shaped (Figs.

288, 289). The sole of the boot is the great prae-oral lobe, behind
which is the mouth. The larva takes little or no food, and completes
its metamorphosis in ten to twelve days. It does not swim at the
surface, but creeps slowly over the bottom by the aid of the ciliated
band mentioned above, while it can also attach itself, using the
edges of the prae-oral lobe as a sucker.
After leading an existence of this kind for seven or eight days it fixes
itself permanently by a disc-like prominence, which appears on the
anterior surface of the prae-oral lobe within the area surrounded by
the thickened rim which, as explained above, forms a margin to the
prae-oral lobe. The larva then becomes divided by a constriction into
a disc and a stalk, and the former is gradually converted into the
body of the young Starfish, whilst the latter continually diminishes in
size, and eventually entirely disappears, when the young Starfish
commences to walk about on its podia. The disc becomes bent
downwards and to the left, so as to make nearly a right angle with
the stalk, and the last vestige of the latter springs from the peristome
of the Starfish inside the water-vascular ring (Figs. 289, B, C).
Fig. 288.—Fully grown larval stages of Asterina gibbosa. A, fully grown larva; B,
left, and C, right view of a larva seven days old in the beginning of the
metamorphosis. m, Mouth; 1-5, the five lobes of the hydrocoel; I.-V., the
rudiments of the arms. (After Ludwig.) × 45.
The form of the Starfish is attained principally by the preponderant

growth of the left hydrocoel and of the left posterior coelom. Both
these sacs take on the form of hoops, which, by the meeting of their
ends, are converted into rings. The hydrocoel has already grown out
into five lobes, which are the rudiments of the radial water-vascular
canals, and the tips of which become the terminal sensory tentacles
(Figs. 288, 289, 1-5); but now the left posterior coelom grows out into
five lobes also, forming a parallel but outer ring. These lobes (Figs.
288, 289, I.-V.) are the rudiments of the arms, which are at first quite
independent of those of the radial canals, but gradually, when the
larva has attained the age of nine days (Fig. 289, B, C), they become
applied to the outgrowths of the hydrocoel. These by this time have
developed each two pairs of branches, the rudiments of the first two
pairs of tube-feet in each radius. The larval mouth vanishes, and a
new mouth is formed on the left side in the centre of the hydrocoel
ring, when the metamorphosis is complete. The adult anus is formed
about the same time. The primary pore-canal in Asterina as in all
Dipleurulae opens into the anterior coelom; the stone-canal is
formed from a ciliated groove running along the neck of
communication between this and the hydrocoel. The constriction
dividing the body into disc and stalk divides the anterior coelom
(single in Asterina as in the older Bipinnaria) into two parts; the
portion included in the disc forms the axial sinus of the adult. The
lower end of the axial sinus expands and surrounds the adult mouth,
forming the inner perihaemal ring; the outer perihaemal ring is
formed by the juxtaposition of four wedge-shaped outgrowths from
the left posterior coelom and one from the anterior coelom. From
these the radial perihaemal canals subsequently grow out into the
arms. The metamorphosis of Bipinnaria has been well worked out by
Goto,[520] and it agrees in essential features with that of Asterina
gibbosa; in fact, the differences which Goto maintains between the
two types may be reasonably explained on the supposition of some
stages having escaped the notice of this observer. The larva
develops on the apex of the prae-oral lobe three papillae for
occasional attachment,[521] and in the centre of these a cup-shaped
disc for permanent fixation when the prae-oral lobe is converted into
a stalk. When these papillae (Fig. 290, fix) have been developed the
larva is known as a Brachiolaria.
Fig. 289.—Views of larvae of Asterina gibbosa in the course of metamorphosis.

A, larva of eight days, from the right; B, left, and C, right view of larva of
nine days; 1-5, lobes of hydrocoel; I-V, rudiments of arms. (After Ludwig.) ×
45.
Fig. 290.—Brachiolaria fixing itself, × 60. Ast, rudiment of the body of the
Starfish; fix, fixing processes. (After Johannes Müller.)
The metamorphoses of the other types of Dipleurula contain no fixed
stage. They are what might be called "cataclysmal metamorphoses."
That is to say, the outer form and habits of the larva are preserved till
the last moment, whilst the organs of the adult are being gradually
perfected; then in an hour or two all trace of larval structures
disappears. The Ophiopluteus preserves the larval mouth, round
which the hydrocoel grows; the long lateral ciliated processes are
preserved till the animal has attained all the adult characters. Before
this, however, it passes through what may be called an "Asteroid"
stage in development, in which the ambulacral grooves are open.
The Echinopluteus loses both larval mouth and anus. It develops the
adult organs on the floor of a sac-like invagination of the ectoderm,
situated on the left side within a loop of the ciliated band (Fig. 291, B,
C). This invagination becomes completely closed. It is termed the
"amniotic cavity," and its roof is termed the "amnion." On its floor are
developed the primary tentacles, terminating the radial canals, as
well as a number of spines. After taking on a creeping life and losing
its larval appendages, the young Sea-urchin passes through an
"Asteroid" condition, in which the arched dorsal surface, the future
periproct, is greater in extent than the ventral, and the radial canals
run horizontally out from the water-vascular ring and terminate in
free movable podia (Fig. 291, C and D, pod), ending in suckers, in
the centre of which are pointed sense-organs. These podia become
later enclosed in grooves in the corona, and are reduced to vestiges
in the adult.
Fig. 291.—Four views of Echinopluteus from the left side, to show the
metamorphosis. A, B, and C are taken from the development of Echinus
miliaris. D is a young Echinus esculentus. The rudiment of the oral disc of
the Echinus is seen beginning in B and larger in C. ad.stom, Adult
stomodaeum; cil.ad, adoral ciliated band; cil.ep, ciliated epaulette; coe,
coelom; d.sp, prismatic spine of dorsal surface (periproct) of adult; ech,
rudiment of Echinus; int, intestine; l.oes, larval oesophagus; mp, madreporic
pore; nerve circ, nerve-ring of adult; pod, first paired tube-feet; st, stomach;
t, terminal tentacle of the radial band; v.sp, pointed ventral spine of adult. A,
B, and D magnified 45 diameters; C, 60 diameters.
The Auricularia is the only type of Dipleurula in which larval mouth

and anus are retained. For this reason it has been supposed that its
median plane of symmetry remains the median plane of the adult.
The researches of Bury[522] have shown that this is not so. As in
other types of Dipleurula (with the possible exception of the
Ophiopluteus) the adult position of the mouth is on the left side of the
larva, and in the commencement of the metamorphosis the mouth
migrates into this position (Fig. 286, C). Then the rudimentary prae-
oral lobe is rapidly absorbed, so that the mouth again acquires a
terminal position. The hydrocoel (Fig. 286, A, hy) has by this time
completely encircled the oesophagus, and from it grow out the radial
canals which bud off the feelers[523] (buccal tentacles) into the larval
stomodaeum. This, although it later flattens out to form the adult
peristome, forms in these stages an almost closed sac, reminding us
of the amniotic cavity in the Echinopluteus. The ciliated band breaks
up into a number of pieces, which rearrange themselves so as to
form a series of transverse rings of cilia; so that the free-swimming
life can be carried on somewhat longer. The animal in this stage is
called a "pupa" (Fig. 292); it eventually loses the rings, drops to the
bottom, and develops tube-feet. From specimens which the author
has seen, he has little doubt that in some cases the young animal
passes through an "Echinoid" stage, for it possesses, besides the
feelers, only median tube-feet, terminating the radial canals, and it is
covered by a cuirass of plates, which recalls the Echinoid corona.
[524]
Fig. 292.—"Pupa" of Synapta digitata. × 50. circ.cil, Ciliated rings; oss,

calcareous ossicle; ot, otocysts; pod, feelers; w.v.r, radial water-vessel.
(After Semon.)
Reviewing the development of the Eleutherozoa in the light of the

facts so far presented, and using the same method of reasoning
which is employed in the case of other groups of animals, we seem
to be justified in concluding that the Echinodermata are descended
from a simple free-swimming ancestor possessing the fundamental
characters of the Dipleurula. These would include a longitudinal
folded band of cilia as the principal organ of locomotion; a thickened
plate of nervous epithelium at the anterior end serving as combined
sense-organ and brain; a V-shaped band of cilia projecting into the
oesophagus as the organ of nutrition; a wide, shallow stomodaeum
and an alimentary canal consisting of three well-marked divisions,
viz. oesophagus, stomach, and intestine; and finally a secondary
body-cavity or coelom, consisting of three divisions on each side,
though possibly the most anterior pair were confluent in the prae-oral
lobe. On the left side the anterior coelom opened to the exterior by a
short ciliated canal. To the hypothetical group so defined which were
certainly not Echinodermata the name Protocoelomata may be
given.
Fig. 293.—Tornaria larva. a, Anus; a.c, anterior coelom; a.p, apical plate; g.s,
rudiments of gill-sacs; m, mouth; m.c, middle or "collar" coelom; p, posterior
ciliated band; p.c, posterior coelom; pr, longitudinal ciliated band. (After
Morgan.)
Now amongst the lowest types of animal in which traces of

Vertebrate structure can be detected, there is one group, the
Hemichordata (Vol. VII. p. 3), in which there is a larva which
strikingly recalls the Dipleurula. This larval form belongs to
Balanoglossus and is called the Tornaria. It possesses a well-marked
prae-oral lobe and a folded longitudinal ciliated band, which
resembles that of Auricularia. Its peculiarity is that in addition there is
a posterior ring of cilia (Fig. 293, p). The coelom is in five divisions:—
a median anterior sac (a.c) opening to the exterior by a short ciliated
canal on the left side; and paired middle divisions (m.c) and posterior
divisions (p.c). At the apex of the prae-oral lobe there is a plate
consisting of sensory epithelium, with nerve-fibres at its base, which
acts as a brain. Tornaria undergoes metamorphosis, assumes a
worm-like form, and takes on a burrowing life. The five divisions of
the coelom are retained, and it can be proved that the pore-canal,
like the madreporite of Echinodermata, is used for taking in water.
Further, there are two aberrant sessile members of the group
(Cephalodiscus and Rhabdopleura), in which the middle divisions of
the coelom which would correspond to the hydrocoels are produced
into long arms, each with a double row of ciliated tentacles, which
strikingly recall the radial canals and podia of the Pelmatozoa.
Taking all these facts into consideration, it seems probable that
Vertebrata and Echinodermata both arose from Protocoelomata.
When we turn to the developmental history of Echinodermata for

light on the question as to how the bilaterally symmetrical ancestor
became converted into the radially symmetrical Echinoderm, it
seems probable that only in the development of the Asteroidea can
we hope to find the solution of the problem. The abrupt changes of
habits shown in the metamorphoses of the other types are clearly
secondary phenomena. No species of animal could suddenly change
its habits from swimming by means of cilia to walking with tube-feet.
In the development, however, of Asterina gibbosa we get a hint of
the way in which a free-swimming life could alternate with periods of
temporary fixation, gradually passing into a condition in which the
fixation was permanent. This period in the history of the race when
ancestral Echinodermata were sessile would mark the point at which
Eleutherozoa diverged from Pelmatozoa, and the former existence of
a fixed ancestor explains the tendency first to asymmetry and later to
radial symmetry. Bilateral symmetry is characteristic of most free-
swimming animals which have to pursue a straight course through
the water, but in fixed forms no disadvantage arises from want of
symmetry. A radial disposition of organs is, however, valuable to
them, since food must be sought and danger avoided from all points
of the compass; and hence we can understand, when fixation
became permanent, how one hydrocoel could grow larger than the
other, and finally assume the form of a ring.
The last question which arises is the vexed one of the mutual
relationships of the various Classes constituting the Phylum. Before
attempting to seek for light on this problem from development, it will
be necessary to sketch the life-history of Antedon rosacea, the only
Pelmatozoon whose development is known.
Fig. 294.—Three views of the development of Antedon rosacea. A, free-
swimming larva; B, longitudinal section of free-swimming larva; C, oral view
of young fixed form. a.c, Anterior coelom; amb, ambulacral groove; ap,
apical plate of sensory and nervous tissue; cil, ciliated ring; hy, hydrocoel;
l.p.c, left posterior coelom; mad, primary pore-canal; pod, podia; r.p.c, right
posterior coelom; stom, larval stomodaeum. (A and B after Bury; C after
Perrier.)
The eggs are comparatively large and full of food-yolk, and they
adhere for a considerable period to the pinnules. They pass through
a large portion of the development within the egg-membrane. The
blastula and gastrula are formed in the usual way, but the formation
of the coelom is most remarkable (Fig. 287, E1, E2). The
archenteron divides into anterior and posterior divisions. The
posterior divides into right and left, posterior coelomic sacs, but
before the division is complete a dorsal and a ventral tongue grow
out from the anterior division and unite posteriorly, encircling the
band of connexion between right and left posterior coelomic sacs like
a ring. This band of connexion becomes solid and is absorbed, and
pari passu the ring becomes converted, by the disappearance of its
central opening, into a sac, which is the definitive gut (Fig. 287, E).
The rest of the anterior division divides into a thick-walled sac, the
hydrocoel, on the left, and a median thin-walled anterior coelom,
which sends a long extension into the anterior portion of the larva,
which we may compare to the prae-oral lobe of the Bipinnaria. The
anterior coelom communicates with the exterior by a short pore-
canal, and later forms a connexion, the stone-canal, with the
hydrocoel. At the apex of the prae-oral lobe there is formed a
thickened patch of ectoderm, bearing stiff sensory hairs, and having
at their bases nerve-fibres and ganglion cells. This larval brain
corresponds to that of the Tornaria and Echinopluteus. Behind the
brain there is a glandular pit, which is used for fixation, and recalls
the similar organ in the Bipinnaria. A series of ciliated rings is then
formed, and between the second and third of them an oval
depression appears. This is the stomodaeum; but as the larva takes
no food it does not communicate with the gut (Fig. 295, A, stom).
The larva next escapes from the egg-membrane and swims freely for
a day or two, and then, like the Bipinnaria, fixes itself by the apex of
the prae-oral lobe, which is converted into a stalk. The larval
stomodaeum closes, and the oesophagus of the adult appears as a
solid peg of cells abutting against it; round this peg the hydrocoel
grows like a ring.
The closed stomodaeum and the underlying hydrocoel are now

rotated backwards until they come to be at the end of the animal
opposite the stalk (Fig. 295, C). The left posterior coelom, which has
also, as in the Asteroid larva, assumed a hoop-like form, is carried
along with them; but the right posterior coelom becomes shifted
forwards and sends out five outgrowths into the stalk, which form the
rudiments of the chambered organ, and a central one as a
continuation of the genital stolon (Fig. 295, D, gen.st), the extension
of the anterior coelom (Fig. 294, B) having disappeared.
Then the outer wall of the stomodaeum splits into five valves—the
future oral valves. The radial canals appear as freely projecting
tentacles, which issue in the intervals of these valves and soon
acquire two pairs of lateral branches. The skeleton consists of five
oral plates in the oral valves, of a ring of five basals, of three small
under-basals, and of a series of "columnals," i.e. stem-ossicles, as
rings embracing the stalk. The area of attachment is supported by a
"foot-plate." The radial plates next appear as a ring of small ossicles
between the orals and basals, and simultaneously the arms make
their appearance as five outgrowths supported by the first radials,
and by the other radials when these appear. The free radial canals
now become adherent to the arms, but these canals soon give off
paired branches of unlimited growth, which are supported by
bifurcations of the primitive arms, and in this way the ten arms of the
adult are established. So far, then, as the water-vascular system is
concerned, the apparent forking is not a true dichotomy, but results
from the production of two opposite branches, whilst the main axis
ceases to grow. The appearance of cirri marks the fusion of the
uppermost stem-ossicles to form a centro-dorsal, and shortly
afterwards the young Antedon snaps off its stem and swims away.
Fig. 295.—Four diagrams to explain the metamorphosis of the larva of Antedon

rosacea. a.c, Anterior coelom; gen.st, genital stolon; l.hy, left hydrocoel;
l.pc, left posterior coelom; mp, madreporic pore; r.p.c. right posterior
coelom; stom, stomodaeum. (A, B, and C after Korschelt and Heider; D
after Perrier.)
Now in reviewing this life-history we cannot fail to be struck with

resemblances to the development of Asteroidea, and especially to
that of Asterina gibbosa. The absence of a connexion between
stomodaeum and gut is due to the embryonic mode of life. On the
other hand, the presence of a long prae-oral lobe, containing an
extension of the anterior coelom and having a fixing organ at its
apex, can only be paralleled among Asteroidea. In broad outlines,
then, up to the period of fixation the two developments are parallel,
but after this point a divergence takes place, which points clearly to
the splitting of the Echinoderm stem into two main branches,
corresponding with two different sets of habits. In the Eleutherozoan
stock, represented by the development of the Asteroidea, the disc
became flexed ventrally on the stalk, so that the mouth and podia
were brought within reach of material drifting along the bottom, which
the podia were employed to seize. As a consequence the base of
the stalk was brought near the mouth, and so it came about that the
hydrocoel, when it became a ring, encircled both. In the
Pelmatozoan stock, on the other hand, the podia and mouth are
rotated upwards and backwards from the stalk, which thus came to
have an aboral position (Fig. 296, B). The podia are thus placed in a
favourable position for capturing free-swimming organisms, which
their cilia sweep toward them. It is worthy of note that a similar
change of position of the mouth occurs in other groups of animals
which have similar habits (Polyzoa Entoprocta, Tunicata).
Fig. 296—Figures to show the supposed connexion of Eleutherozoa and

Pelmatozoa. A, common fixed ancestor of the two stocks, still bilaterally
symmetrical; B, primitive Pelmatozoon; C, primitive Eleutherozoon. a, Anus;
a.c, anterior coelom; l.p.c, l.p.c1, left posterior coelom; m, mouth; p, primary
pore-canal; r.p.c, right posterior coelom.
The division therefore of the phylum must have occurred at an

extremely remote epoch, before the hydrocoel was a closed ring,
and before, therefore, radial symmetry was completely attained.
Turning now to the question of the origin of the classes of

Eleutherozoa, we find that the study of development strongly
reinforces the views gained from the study of adult anatomy. The
Asteroidea are the most primitive group; only in their case is the
fixed stage retained, and both Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea pass
through an Asteroid stage in development. The only serious
competitors for the position are the Holothuroidea, which many have
imagined to have been directly derived from Cystoidea (in the old
sense; better Thecoidea). This view, though adopted by Semon,[525]
Haeckel,[526] and Bather,[527] is open to many objections. The type
of Holothuroid development referred to in these discussions is that of
the extremely aberrant Synapta digitata, in which the radial canals
are vestigial structures which disappear in the adult. In this species,
where the feelers are multiplied, some originate in the larva directly
from the water-vascular ring, and thus alternate with the canals.
From this circumstance Semon drew the conclusion that the radial
canals of Holothuroidea are not homologous with those of other
Echinoderms, but this conclusion is contradicted by the development
of more normal species, in which all the feelers spring from the radial
canals. The meridional course of these canals, the closure of the
ambulacral grooves, coupled with the retention of a nervous
ectoderm, are all features found in Echinoidea. So is also a reduction
in the number of the genital organs, on which Bell[528] laid such
stress that he separated Holothuroidea from all other Echinoderms.
But if in Spatangoidea a reduction to four and even three can take
place (Fig. 246, p. 552), why should a reduction to two or one excite
surprise? The primitive outer appearance of the Auricularia is
counterbalanced by the development of the coelom, which is much
modified, so that the primitive bilateral arrangement is obscured. If,
then, Asteroidea are the most primitive Eleutherozoa, we may
imagine that primitive Echinoidea were derived from Asteroidea
through adaptation to life in crevices, where an upward bending of
the radii was of advantage, in order to enable the animal to attach its
podia above as well as below itself; and that Holothuroidea arose
from primitive Echinoidea in which the plates of the corona were still
movable, through a further adaptation to narrow crevices, where
worm-like wriggling would be the most successful method of
adapting themselves to their environment.
The final result, then, of all our inquiries leads us to a view of the
mutual affinities of the classes of Echinoderms, which may be
indicated in the following table:—
We shall hazard the prophecy that if ever pre-Cambrian
Echinoderms are found, there will be amongst them small stalked
forms which may be superficially classed with "Cystids," but which
are in reality the fixed ancestors of Asteroidea. They should have an
irregular skeleton, and be devoid of arms, which are secondary
formations; but they should indicate, by the proximity of the mouth to
the stalk and by the relation to the stalk of the grooves for the podia,
that they have diverged from the Pelmatozoan stock, and are the
ancestors of Eleutherozoa.
INDEX
Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or

species; figures in italics indicate that the reference relates to systematic
position; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page
or pages; n. = note.
Abbott, 422
Abdomen (= third chamber of Monaxonic Radiolarian shell), 84
Abdominal cirrhi, 139 f.
Aboral, blood-ring, of Asterias rubens, 452;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 490;
of Echinus esculentus, 529;
coelom, of Antedon rosacea, 585;
nervous system, of Antedon rosacea, 584;
sinus, of Asterias rubens, 449;
of Echinus esculentus, 528, 529
Abortive nuclei, of Myxosporidiaceae, 107
Abyla, 307
Abylinae, 307
Abyssal, Radiolaria, 76;
Sponges, 239 f.
Acamptogorgia, 356
Acanella, 353;
A. simplex, 353
Acantharia (Actipylaea), 76, 78, 78, 80;
myophrisks in, 80;
Zooxanthella in, 80;
reproduction of, 86 n.;
skeleton of, 82
Acanthaster, 458, 462
Acanthin, 71 n., 75, 76
Acanthocephala, nutrition of, 38
Acanthoconia barrandei, 207, 207
Acanthocystis, 71;
budding of, 73;
habitat, 75
Acanthogorgia, 355
Acanthometrids (= Acantharia, q.v.), parasitic Amoebophrya in, 161
Acanthonida, 78
Acanthotrochus, 577
Acarnus, 223
Accumulative anabolism, growth, 9, 13, 15 f.;
in relation to brood-formation, 32 f.
Acephalinidae, 97
Acineta, 159, 160
Acinetina = Suctoria, 158 f.
Acontia, 369
Acrasieae, 90 f.
Acrophytum, 333, 349
Actine, 183
Actinelida, 78
Actinia, 381;
A. cari, 378;
A. equina, sense organ of larva of, 373;
A. mesembryanthemum, 379, 381;
longevity of, 375
Actiniaria, 377 f.;
viviparity of, 373;
symbiosis of, 377;
colours of, 379
Actiniidae, 381
Actiniina, 380
Actinobolus, 137;
tentacles and trichocysts of, 152
Actinocrinus, 594
Actinodendron, 384;
A. arboreum, 384;
A. glomeratum, 366;
A. plumosum, 366, 384
Actinoloba (= Metridium), 371, 372, 381;
A. dianthus, 379, 381;
A. marginata, 378
Actinolophus, 70;
habitat of, 75
Actinometra, 588, 589, 594
Actinomma, 77;
A. asteracanthion, skeleton of, 77
Actinomonas, 70, 73, 75 n.
Actinomyxidiaceae, 98
Actinophrys, 70 f., 96 n.;
A. sol, 71;
habitat of, 75
Actinopoda, 570
Actinosphaerium, 70, 72 f.;
endogamy of, 73 f., 75;
regeneration of, 35;
A. eichornii, 72
Actinostola (usually placed in Hertwig's family Paractidae, allied to
Bunodidae, 382), 379
Actinotryx, 371, 383;
A. mussoides, 383
Actinozoa = Anthozoa, 326 f.
Actipylaea (= Acantharia), 76
Actissa, 77, 83
Acystosporidae, 97, 102 f.;
active zygote of, 34
Adambulacral, ossicle, of Asterias rubens, 434;
of Asteroidea compared to covering-plates of Crinoidea, 589;
spine, of Asterias rubens, 434
Adamsia, 377;
A. palliata, 378, 381;
A. rondeletii, 378
Adaptation to fresh water, 176 f.
Adelea ovata, syngamy of, 101
Adelocodonic, 265
Adhesion of species, 174 n.
Adinidae, 130 n.
Adoral, band of cilia in Dipleurula larva, 605;
membranellae, 145;
trichocysts, 145;
wreath, 137 f.;
wreath of Vorticella, 156, 157
Aegina, 296
Aeginidae, 296
Aeginopsis, 296
Aeolis, nematocysts of, 248
Aequorea, 278
Aequoreidae, 278
Aerotaxy, 23
Aethalium septicum (= Fuligo varians), 92 f.
Afferent canal of contractile vacuole, of Stylonychia, 139, 140;
of Stentor, 156
Africa, Tropical, antimalarial measures in, 106;
Trypanosomic diseases of, 120 f.
Agalma, 300, 307
Agalminae, 307
Agaricia, 403
Agaricoides, 350
Agassiz, 258, 312, 319;
on classification of Endocyclica, 533;
of Clypeastroidea, 548
Aggregate, formation, in Microgromia, 59;
social, of Vorticella, 158;
(rosette) of Treponema, 120
Aggregation of plasmodia into aethalium, 92 f.
Agitation, stimulus of, 19 f.
Aglaophenia, 276, 279
Aglaophenopsis (Plumulariidae, 279), 277
Aglaura, 294
Aglauridae, 294
Aiptasia couchii, 382
Air, presence of Flagellate spores in dust of, 118
Air-borne germs in relation to putrefaction, etc., 43
Alate, 185
Alcock, 268
Alcyonacea, 346 f.
Alcyonaria, 329 f., 340;
colour, 337;
dimorphism, 333;
food, 339;
mesenteric filaments, 333;
nematocysts, 247;

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(eBook PDF) Welding: Principles and

Applications 9th Edition

Weld Standards 121 Fuel Gases 167

Oxyfuel Gouging 221 Beveling Pipe 252

Chapter 8 Plasma Arc Cutting 224 Arc Cutting (CAC-A))

Axial Spray Metal Transfer 279 Horizontal 2G and 2F Positions 326

Chapter 13 Flux Cored Arc Welding 359 Practice Welds 401

Remote Controls 450 Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

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Assembly Tools 628 Chapter 24 Welding Codes and

Leak Checking 686 Carbon Dioxide 716

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Cast Iron 811 Forms of Fluxes 855

Chapter 32 Brazing, Braze Welding,

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Fig. 287.—Diagrams of the mode of formation and division of the coelom in

In Auricularia (Fig. 287, D) the coelomic vesicle, after the pore-canal

The Dipleurula larva leads a free-swimming life for a period varying

The larva has a form which may be described as boot-shaped (Figs.

The form of the Starfish is attained principally by the preponderant

Fig. 289.—Views of larvae of Asterina gibbosa in the course of metamorphosis.

The Auricularia is the only type of Dipleurula in which larval mouth

Fig. 292.—"Pupa" of Synapta digitata. × 50. circ.cil, Ciliated rings; oss,

Reviewing the development of the Eleutherozoa in the light of the

Now amongst the lowest types of animal in which traces of

When we turn to the developmental history of Echinodermata for

The closed stomodaeum and the underlying hydrocoel are now

Fig. 295.—Four diagrams to explain the metamorphosis of the larva of Antedon

Now in reviewing this life-history we cannot fail to be struck with

Fig. 296—Figures to show the supposed connexion of Eleutherozoa and

The division therefore of the phylum must have occurred at an

Turning now to the question of the origin of the classes of

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or

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