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vi Contents
2.3 F
ormatting the Title Page, Wording the Title, and Writing the Author Note 31
2.3.1 Formatting the Title Page 31
2.3.2 Wording the Title 32
2.3.3 Writing the Author Note 32
2.4 Abstract 33
2.4.1 Writing the Abstract 33
2.4.2 Formatting the Abstract 33
2.5 Introduction 34
2.5.1 Introduce Generally and Gently 34
2.5.2 Introduce Key Issues 35
2.5.3 If Necessary, Introduce Key Definitions 35
2.5.4 Introduce and State Your Thesis 35
2.5.5 Arouse the Reader’s Curiosity 36
2.6 Body 36
2.6.1 Make the Material Tell a Coherent Story: Have a Theme, Organize Your
Notes, and Outline Your Paper 36
2.6.2 Be Both Concise and Precise 40
2.6.3 Focus on Facts and Fairness 41
2.6.4 Know Your (Facts’) Limitations 42
2.7 Conclusion 42
2.7.1 Conclude by Summing Up Your Case 42
2.7.2 Conclude—Do Not Introduce 43
2.8 References 43
2.9 Tense 44
2.10 Sample Term Paper 44
2.11 Checklist for Evaluating Your Paper 59
2.12 Summary 60
CHAPTER 3
Writing Research Reports and Proposals 61

3.1 G
eneral Strategies for Writing Your Paper: Presenting,
Writing, and Planning Its Different Parts 61
3.1.1 Main Headings and Sections: Formatting the Research
Paper’s 10 Sections 62
3.1.2 The Value of Writing Your Paper out of Order 62
3.1.3 The General Plan of Your Paper 62
3.2 Formatting the Title Page, Wording the Title, and Writing the Author Note 65
3.2.1 Formatting the Title Page 65
3.2.2 Wording the Title 66
3.2.3 Writing the Author Note 67
3.3 Abstract 68
3.3.1 Writing the Abstract 68
3.3.2 Keywords 70
3.3.3 Finishing and Formatting the Abstract Page 70
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Contents vii
3.4 Introduction 70
3.4.1 Introduce the General Topic 71
3.4.2 Review Relevant Research and Theory 71
3.4.3 Introduce the Hypothesis 73
3.5 Method 74
3.5.1 Participants or Subjects 75
3.5.2 Apparatus 76
3.5.3 Materials or Measures 77
3.5.4 Design and Other Optional Subsections 77
3.5.5 Procedure 78
3.6 Results 79
3.6.1 Statistical Significance 80
3.6.2 Formatting Statistical Information 81
3.6.3 When Not to Use Either a Table or a Figure 82
3.6.4 When to Use Tables 82
3.6.5 Creating Tables 82
3.6.6 When to Use Figures 85
3.6.7 Creating Figures 85
3.6.8 Units 91
3.7 Discussion 91
3.7.1 Briefly Restate the Results 92
3.7.2 Relate Results to Other Research 93
3.7.3 State Qualifications and Reservations—And Use Them
to Propose Future Research 94
3.7.4 Explain the Research’s Implications 95
3.7.5 Conclude 95
3.8 References 96
3.9 Appendixes 96
3.10 Tense 97
3.11 Sample Research Report 98
3.12 Report and Proposal Content Checklist 113
3.13 Summary 118
CHAPTER 4
Finding, Reading, Citing, and Referencing Sources 119

4.1 Finding Information 119
4.1.1 Starting Your Search: Databases, Search Terms, and Secondary Sources 119
4.1.2 Using One Reference to Find More References 122
4.1.3 Deciding What to Read: Choosing Acceptable Sources 124
4.2 Reading 129
4.2.1 Read Purposefully 129
4.2.2 Take Thoughtful, Useful Notes—And if You Copy, Be Careful 130
4.2.3 Reread 130
4.2.4 Revise Your Notes 130
viii Contents
4.3 Citations: What to Cite and Why 134

4.3.1 Citing From Secondary Sources 134
4.3.2 Citing Information Obtained From the Internet 135
4.3.3 Citing Personal Communications 135
4.4 General Rules for How to Format Citations 136
4.4.1 What Your Citation Should Include: Usually, Only Name and Date 136
4.4.2 General Strategies for Formatting Author and Date Information:
Use Only Name Citations and Parenthetical Citations 137
4.5 F
ormatting Individual Citations: Principles and Examples 139
4.5.1 Work by One Author: Whether the Listed Author
Is a Person, Organization, or “Anonymous” 140
4.5.2 Work by Two Authors 140
4.5.3 Work by Three, Four, or Five Authors 141
4.5.4 Work by Six or More Authors 141
4.5.5 Work by Author Sharing Same Last Name as Another Cited Author 142
4.5.6 Work With No Listed Author 142
4.5.7 Works With Dating Problems: Not Published, Not Yet
Published, No Publication Date, Multiple Publication Dates 142
4.5.8 Works From Nontraditional Sources: Personal Communications and
Secondary Sources 143
4.6 Formatting Multiple Citations 143
4.6.1 More Than Two Works by Different Authors 143
4.6.2 More Than Two Works by the Same Author 144
4.6.3 Citing the Same Work by the Same Author More Than Once 144
4.6.4 Citing the Same Work by the Same Authors More Than Once 145
4.7 Paraphrasing 145
4.8 Quoting 146
4.8.1 Embedded Quotations 146
4.8.2 Block Quotations 147
4.9 Deciding What to Reference 148
4.9.1 Cite but Do Not Reference Communications That Cannot Be Retrieved 148
4.9.2 Reference Secondary Sources You Read but Not
Original Sources That You Only Read About 149
4.10 Formatting References 150
4.10.1 Starting the Reference Page 150
4.10.2 General Tips for Formatting Individual References 151
4.10.3 Put Your References in Alphabetical Order
and Follow These Rules to Break Ties 152
4.10.4 Formatting the First Part of the Reference: The Author Names 154
4.10.5 Formatting the Second Part of the Reference: The Publication Date 155
4.10.6 Formatting the Third Part of the Reference: The Title 156
4.10.7 Abbreviations 156
4.10.8 Referencing Books 156
4.10.9 Referencing Book Chapters 158
4.10.10 Referencing Journal Articles 160
Contents ix
4.10.11 Referencing Abstracts of Journal Articles 162

4.10.12 Referencing Internet Sources 162
4.11 Checklists 167
4.11.1 Academic Honesty Checklist 167
4.11.2 Formatting Citations Checklist 168
4.11.3 Finding and Using Sources Checklist 169
4.11.4 Reference Page Checklist 169
4.12 Summary 171
CHAPTER 5
Making Your Case: A Guide to Skeptical Reading

and Logical Writing 175
5.1 Deductive Arguments 176
5.2 I nductive Arguments: Making Relatively
Careful Generalizations 178
5.3 Argument by Analogy 180
5.4 Overview of Problems in Making Arguments 181
5.5 Appeals to Emotion, Faith, or Authority 181
5.5.1 Appeals to Emotion 181
5.5.2 Appeals to Faith 181
5.5.3 Appeals to Authority 181
5.6 Unfair Arguments 182
5.6.1 Ad Hominem Arguments 182
5.6.2 Ignoring Contradictory Evidence 182
5.6.3 Straw Man Arguments 183
5.7 General Errors in Reasoning From Evidence 183
5.7.1 Inferring Causation From Correlation 183
5.7.2 Making Something out of Nothing: Misinterpreting Null Results 186
5.7.3 Adding Meaning to Significance: Misinterpreting Significant Results 186
5.7.4 Trusting Labels Too Much: Not Questioning Construct Validity 188
5.7.5 Not Questioning Generalizations 189
5.8 Critical Thinking Checklist 190
5.9 Summary 190
CHAPTER 6
Writing the Wrongs: How to Avoid Gruesome Grammar, Putrid

Punctuation, and Saggy Style 193
6.1 Elements of Grammar 194
6.1.1 Nouns 194
6.1.2 Personal and Impersonal Pronouns 195
6.1.3 Verbs 197
6.1.4 Articles 198
6.1.5 Adjectives 199
x Contents
6.1.6 Adverbs 199

6.1.7 Prepositions 200
6.1.8 Conjunctions 201
6.1.9 Relative Pronouns 202
6.1.10 Phrases 203
6.1.11 Clauses 203
6.1.12 Sentences 203
6.1.13 Paragraphs 204
6.2 Punctuation 205
6.2.1 End Marks (Periods, Question Marks, Exclamation Points) 205
6.2.2 Commas 205
6.2.3 Semicolons 206
6.2.4 Colons 206
6.2.5 Apostrophes 206
6.2.6 Parentheses 207
6.2.7 Dashes 207
6.2.8 Hyphens 207
6.2.9 Quotation Marks 208
6.3 Usage 208
6.3.1 Know What You Mean 208
6.3.2 Let the Reader Know What You Are Comparing 212
6.3.3 Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly 212
6.3.4 Divide or Reconnect Run-On Sentences 213
6.3.5 Help Readers Get “It” (and Other Pronouns) by Specifying Nonspecific
Referents 213
6.3.6 Attribute Humanity Only to Humans 214
6.4 Writing With Style 215
6.4.1 Accentuate the Positive 215
6.4.2 Point the Way Within and Between Paragraphs 215
6.4.3 Use Parallel Construction 216
6.4.4 Use a Consistent, Formal Tone 217
6.4.5 Use Small Words and Short Sentences 217
6.4.6 Be Precise 217
6.4.7 Be Concise 218
6.4.8 Be Cautious 218
6.5 Your Own Style 220
6.6 Checklists 220
6.6.1 Parts of Speech 220
6.6.2 Punctuation 221
6.6.3 Style 222
6.7 Summary 222
Contents xi
CHAPTER 7
Preparing the Final Draft 225

7.1 Presentation: Appearance Matters 225
7.1.1 Paper, Margins, Spacing, and Spaces 225
7.1.2 Word Processor Settings: Making Your Word Processor
Help You 226
7.1.3 Fonts 227
7.2 APA Format 227
7.2.1 Page Headers and the Title Page 227
7.2.2 Paragraphs 228
7.2.3 Headings 228
7.2.4 Italics 229
7.2.5 Abbreviations 230
7.2.6 Numbers 232
7.2.7 Tables and Figures 233
7.3 Conclusions 234
7.4 Format Checklists 234
7.4.1 General Appearance Checklist 234
7.4.2 Headings and Headers Checklist 234
7.4.3 Numbers Checklist 235
7.4.4 Citations and References Checklist 235
7.4.5 Abbreviations Checklist 235
7.4.6 Title Page Checklist 236
7.5 Summary 236
References 239
Appendix A APA Copy Style Versus APA Final-Form Style 241
Appendix B Problem Plurals 243
Index 247
To The Student
Your professor has asked you to use this book to guide you in writing a paper. In
response, you may be asking yourself three questions:
1. Why is my professor asking me to write a paper?

2. Why is it important to write a good paper?
3. How can this book help me?
In the next few sections, we will answer these questions.
Why Professors Assign Papers

Some day, employers may use brain scans to find out which applicants will become
trusted, expert workers. Today, professors use papers to help you develop and display
the skills that will help you become a trusted expert: learning independently, thinking
critically, communicating clearly, representing both the evidence and other people’s
contributions honestly, and working conscientiously.
Producing an original paper shows that you are someone who can leave the class-
room to find, evaluate, and produce knowledge. Producing a well-written paper shows
that you can share your knowledge and sell your ideas. Producing an intellectually hon-
est paper—one that not only gives proper credit to others for their ideas, words, and
contributions but also includes evidence that goes against your position—shows that
you can be fair, considerate, and honorable. Producing an “A” paper shows that you can
◆◆ complete tasks on time,
◆◆ follow directions,
◆◆ work independently, and
◆◆ produce an excellent product.
The skills that you will display in your paper will be refined as you write that paper.
As you prepare to write your first draft, you will become a more independent learner
and thinker because you have to do the following tasks:
◆◆ find relevant material in journals,
◆◆ read and understand complex material,
◆◆ evaluate what you read,
◆◆ organize both your notes and your thinking about what you read, and
◆◆ create new knowledge by pulling together information from several different
sources and critically analyzing that information.
xiii
xiv To The Student
As you write and rewrite drafts of your paper, you refine two general skills: thinking
clearly and writing clearly. Finally, as you proof and polish your paper so that you can
present your professor with an error-free paper by the deadline, you develop time
management, stress management, and detail management skills that will help you in
almost any job.
Why You Should Write a Good Paper

Writing a good paper will help you impress teachers and employers with your in-
tegrity and independence, your professionalism and persistence, as well as your re-
sourcefulness and reliability. Writing will also help you achieve the goals that make
psychology appealing: describing, explaining, and controlling thoughts and behavior.
As a writer, you are trying to describe, explain, and control your own thoughts. By
writing well, not only will you discover your own thoughts (to quote Forster, 1927,
p. 101, “How can I know what I think until I see what I say?”), but you will also learn
to evaluate your own thinking. You will see where your thinking is logical, where it is
biased, where it is based more on faith than on evidence, and where it is slightly disor-
ganized—and you will use those insights to improve your thinking.
Successful writing also requires that you understand and control the mind of the
reader. Indeed, King (2000) argues that writing is almost like telepathy—your vision
is sent into a reader’s mind. At a more practical level, you want to control the reader’s
heart, mind, and behavior. For example, you want the reader (your professor) to give
you a good grade.
Finally, writing a good paper is its own reward. As Chesterfield (1739/1827) wrote,
“Next to the doing of things that deserve to be written, there is nothing that gets a
person more credit or pleasure than to write things that deserve to be read” (p. 99).
Ideally, as you prepare to write your paper, you will be doing things—conducting re-
search studies or having insights—“that deserve to be written,” and, as you polish your
paper, your work will “deserve to be read.” Thus, our dream is that, after writing one
of your papers, you will—at least momentarily—feel like Plato (trans. 1932) felt when
he wrote, “What task in life could I have performed nobler than this … to bring the
nature of things into the light for all to see?” (Epistles, 7.341.d).
How This Book Can Help You

This book is full of tips, checklists, and practical advice to improve your writing.
You will gain so much insight into how professors look at papers that you will be able
to grade—and correct—your paper before it reaches your professor.
◆◆ Chapter 1 helps you understand what teachers look for in papers so that you can
avoid the most common errors that students make, regardless of what kind of
paper you are writing.
◆◆ Chapter 2 helps you write better essays and term papers by telling you the
secrets of writing such papers, showing you an example paper, and giving you a
checklist that helps you evaluate and improve your own paper.
To The Student xv
◆◆ Chapter 3 helps you write better research reports and proposals by giving you
useful tips, an example research report, and a research report checklist.
◆◆ Chapter 4 helps you find the references you need and shows you how to make
sense of them after you have found them. Then, it helps you avoid two common
student mistakes: (a) not citing sources correctly and (b) not referencing sources
correctly.
◆◆ Chapter 5 helps you understand what professors mean by “critical thinking.”
After reading Chapter 5, (a) you will be more likely to find flaws that others
made in their research and in their arguments, and (b) you will be less likely to
make those mistakes in your research and in your arguments.
◆◆ Chapter 6 contains a review of basic grammar as well as some tips on how to
write well. You will probably consult this chapter when you are editing the next-
to-final draft of your paper. You may also find the definitions of grammatical
terms helpful in trying to decipher the American Psychological Association’s
(APA) Publication Manual.
◆◆ Chapter 7 will be useful as you prepare to print out the final draft of your paper.
Follow the formatting tips in that chapter to ensure that your paper makes a
good first impression.
◆◆ Appendix A lists the key differences between APA copy style (the format of an
unpublished manuscript submitted to an editor for review) and APA final-form
style (the format of a published article). If your professor asks you to use APA
final-form style, Appendix A will be invaluable. By highlighting the formatting
rules that published articles follow, it will help you use a published article as a
model for your paper. If your professor asks you to use APA copy style, Appendix
A will still be valuable. By highlighting the differences between published articles
and unpublished manuscripts, it will help you know what you should not model
from published articles. For example, you will know that although published
articles are single-spaced, your unpublished manuscript should be double spaced.
◆◆ This book’s website (http://www.writingforpsychology.com) contains many
useful resources, including
◆◆ screen shots that show you exactly how to set up your word processor to
make it work for you,
◆◆ templates that you can use so that your paper will be correctly formatted,
◆◆ practice quizzes that you can take, and
◆◆ sample papers that you can grade.
Formatting Practices We Use That You Should Not

As you can see from the table of contents, the section headings of this book contain
both a number and a title (e.g., Chapter 1’s third section is “1.3 Understanding APA
Style”). When you have a specific question about how to write your paper, having
these section numbers in the headings will help you quickly find the section of this
xvi To The Student
book that has the answer to your question. However, in your papers, do not use numbers
to label your headings.
We have also used formatting to help you easily spot examples. All examples are in
a “typewriter” font (like this). When we are contrasting examples of correct and incor-
rect writing, we include these symbols for quick reference:
a check mark next to good examples
an “x” next to bad examples
However, in your papers, use Times New Roman font.

Finally, we use footnotes to draw your attention to particular points. However,
when you write papers for psychology classes, do not use footnotes.
To the Professor
When you ask students to write an APA-style paper, many of them are clueless
both about why you are forcing them to go through such an onerous ritual and about
whether you will find their sacrifices (their papers) acceptable. In this book, we help
students understand and meet your expectations by (a) explaining the purpose behind
papers, (b) helping students understand how to write for an academic audience,
(c) giving them strategies for accomplishing the many tasks involved in writing a good
paper, (d) showing them how to avoid common mistakes, (e) giving them examples
they can model, and (f ) giving them checklists so that they can monitor their own
performance.
Admittedly, if you had enough time, you could do what this book does. You could
give your students lectures on APA style; assign the APA’s Publication Manual; prepare
handouts that explain the Manual; take students on tours of both the library and the
writing center; and teach students about grammar, logic, and plagiarism. However, if
you assign this book, you will not need to provide detailed instructions about writing
in APA style; avoiding plagiarism; or finding, citing, and referencing sources. Instead,
the only instructions you will need to give your students are a general description of
the project, a due date, and a word limit.
Acknowledgments
The first edition of this book was an adaptation of the fourth edition of Robert
O’Shea’s Writing for Psychology (2002). Therefore, we owe a great debt to the indi-
viduals whose constructive comments shaped that successful book: Kypros Kypri,
Lea McGregor Dawson, Lorelle Burton, Sue Galvin, Jamin Halberstadt, Cindy Hall,
Neil McNaughton, Jeff Miller, David O’Hare, Ann Reynolds, Rob Thompson, Diana
Rothstein, and 13 anonymous reviewers.
The second edition of this book was an improvement over the first edition, thanks
mostly to award-winning journalist K. Lee Howard’s editing skills, psychology profes-
sor Ruth Ault’s advice on teaching APA style, and English professor Darlynn Fink’s
advice on teaching writing. In addition, psychology professor Jeanne Slattery’s com-
ments about how to teach writing to psychology majors improved Chapter 1, philoso-
phy professor Todd Lavin’s comments about how to teach critical thinking improved
Chapter 5, and history professor Robert Frakes’s comments about how to prevent
student writing errors improved Chapter 6.
This edition of Writing for Psychology: A Guide for Students owes a tremendous debt
to two people we consider coauthors of this book: psychology professor Ruth Ault and
English professor Darlynn Fink. We thank them not only for their editing skills but
also for their insights about how to teach writing. In addition, we owe a substantial debt
to psychology professor Thomas Vilberg for his extensive comments on Chapter 3, to
xvii
xviii To the Professor
hilosophy professor Jamie Phillips for his invaluable comments on Chapters 1 and 5,
p
and to reference librarian Mary Buchanan for her comments on Chapter 4.
We would also like to thank the following reviewers for their constructive
comments: Marie Balaban, Eastern Oregon University; Shannon Edmiston, Clar-
ion University; Michael Hulsizer, Webster University; Hal Miller, Brigham Young
University; Moises Salinas, Central Connecticut State University; Vann B. Scott Jr.,
Armstrong Atlantic State University; Linda Mezydlo Subich, University of Akron;
and Daniel Webster, Georgia Southern University. In addition, we would like to
thank the entire team at Cengage, particularly Timothy Matray, Acquiring Spon-
soring Editor; Lauren K. Moody, Assistant Editor; and Dewanshu Ranjan, Project
Manager at PreMediaGlobal.
C H A P T E R
What Every Student Should Know

About Writing Psychology Papers
1.1 Understanding the Written and 1.5 Submitting the Finished Product
Unwritten Directions
1.6 Avoiding Common Problems:
1.2 Understanding Academic Values A Checklist
1.3 Understanding APA Style 1.7 Summary
1.4 Writing and Revising
To write successfully, you need to write for your audience. Unfortunately, most
students do not understand how writing for a psychology professor is different from
writing an e-mail to a friend or writing an essay for an English teacher. Therefore, in
this chapter, we will help you understand your professor’s expectations about how you
should plan, write, revise, and present your paper so that you can write a paper that has
the intellectual weight, formal tone, editorial sound, and professional look that your
professor—and you—will like.
1.1 Understanding the Written and Unwritten Directions

Most professors will expect you to write your paper using American Psychological
Association (APA) copy style, the style used for submitting a manuscript to a jour-
nal. Therefore, this book focuses on helping you write in that style. However, you
still need to pay attention to your professor’s formatting instructions because your
professor may impose formatting requirements that are more extensive than APA’s.
For example, your professor may require a special cover sheet or require that your
paper be between 10 and 12 pages long.
Although it is important to know your professor’s formatting requirements, it is
essential that you know what type of assignment you have and what goals your profes-
sor has for the assignment. You should know whether you are writing a paper about
a study that you either conducted or plan to conduct (if so, consult Chapter 3) or
2 Chapter 1
whether you are writing an essay or term paper that will be based on other people’s
studies (if so, consult Chapter 2).
Once you know what type of assignment you have, try to find out your professor’s
goals for the paper. For example, if your professor’s main goal for a term paper is that
you analyze strengths and weaknesses of research studies, you should write a different
paper than you would if your professor’s goal is that you find and summarize recent
research on your topic.
Once you understand your professor’s main goals, you may still be frustrated
because he or she has not answered your main question: “Exactly what do you want?”
Three obstacles prevent your professor from answering that question in as much
detail as you might like.
First, if your professor told you exactly how to write the paper, the professor would
be writing the paper for you. Thus, just as your professor would not tell you exactly
how to take a multiple-choice test (“Answer ‘a’ for question 1, ‘c’ for question 2”), your
professor is not going to tell you exactly how to write the paper.
Second, if your professor gave you detailed instructions on how to write the paper,
those instructions would be hundreds of pages long. Consequently, your professor
must use shorthand. For example, “appropriately referenced” is shorthand for the
rules you will find in Chapter 4; “making a logical argument and informed criticisms”
is shorthand for following the rules you will find in Chapter 5; “grammatical and well
written” is shorthand for following numerous grammatical rules, the most important
of which are explained in Chapter 6; and “conforming to APA format” is shorthand
for following the rules we describe in Chapter 7.
Third, if, as is usually the case, many of your professor’s goals for the paper are
the same goals that almost all professors have, your professor may think those goals
“go without saying.” One reason that almost all professors have similar expectations
is that almost all professors share certain underlying values that affect what professors
expect from a paper. Unless you understand those values, you cannot write a paper
that your professor—or other psychology professors—will like. Therefore, we will
devote the next section to helping you understand how academic values should guide
you throughout the writing process.
1.2 Understanding Academic Values

Researchers across all academic disciplines value objective understanding and
genuine knowledge. Consequently, academics value virtues that lead to achieving
such understanding and knowledge (e.g., basing opinions on facts, being open to
new evidence) and reject those human tendencies that work against such under-
standing and knowledge (e.g., forcing evidence to fit preconceived opinions, being
closed-minded).
Behaving consistently with traditional academic values is not something only aca-
demics do. It is something most professionals do. Indeed, one reason psychologists,
physicians, accountants, judges, and other professionals go to college is to make it
more likely that they will behave consistently with academic values such as being hon-
est and seeking knowledge. You and the rest of society hope that experts will carefully
What Every Student Should Know About Writing Psychology Papers 3
come to conclusions based on thoughtful, fair, and honest evaluations of the evidence,
and then clearly state those conclusions.
To help you visualize how academic values are the values professionals should hold,
imagine that a crime scene investigator (CSI) is testifying in court. You hope that the
CSI is behaving consistently with academic values by being fair, being honest, and
presenting a conclusion that makes sense based on a careful examination of the best
evidence available. You would not want to hear that the CSI had used a discredited
procedure, hidden some evidence, or not considered an alternative explanation for
the evidence. Similarly, when your professor looks at your paper, the professor would
not want to see that you failed to be fair, failed to consider key evidence, or failed to
consider alternative explanations. Instead, as you will see in the next sections, your
professor will expect your paper to show that you have the following academic values:
◆◆ the curiosity to find out what others have said, done, and thought;
◆◆ the humility and wisdom to learn from what others have said, done, and
thought;
◆◆ the honesty to give others credit when you use what you have learned from
them, such as when you quote, paraphrase, or summarize what others have said;
◆◆ the originality to come to a conclusion that is not merely a summary of what
others have said, but rather is based—at least in part—on your own thinking;
◆◆ the rationality to support your conclusion with logic and evidence;
◆◆ the integrity to present evidence that does not fit with your conclusion; and
◆◆ the objectivity to acknowledge alternative explanations for the evidence that you
present in support of your conclusion.
1.2.1 Be Informed: Read to Write

Professors value knowledge, learning, and tracing the history of an idea. Most
professors want you to demonstrate these values by expressing well-supported and
well-informed opinions. They want you to build on what others have found and done.
Therefore, before writing your paper, find, study, and understand what is already
known about your topic. (In section 4.1, we will show you some strategies for using
the library and the Internet to get resources that both you and your professor will find
worthy. In section 4.2, we will discuss strategies to help you digest the information
you obtain.)
1.2.2 Make a Claim: Have a Point, Get to That Point,

and Stick to That Point
To show that you have found what is already known about your topic, you would
cite key sources (usually, by stating the source’s author’s last name and the year
the source was published) and quote, paraphrase, or summarize material from that
source. If you merely quote other people’s words, your acknowledgment that you are
4 Chapter 1
quoting others (by citing the source’s author, year it was published, and page number
and indicating—usually by quotation marks—which words are from that source)
shows that you have found background material, but not that you understand that
material. If you paraphrase—restate other people’s ideas in your own words—from a
source, your paraphrase shows that you understand the individual sentences that you
paraphrased, but does not show that you understand the passage as a whole. If you
summarize material from a source, your summary shows that you understand the
main point of what you found, but not that you can use what you found. Therefore,
to show that you are not merely regurgitating (quoting), restating (paraphrasing), or
condensing (summarizing) the information you have found, use that information to
support a claim. Ideally, that claim will be an original idea based on your thinking
about what you have read.
If you are writing a term paper, your claim will be a thesis statement (see 2.1). You
must support your thesis statement by interpreting, analyzing, and synthesizing the
information you have uncovered. (For more on writing a term paper, see Chapter 2.)
If you are writing a research paper, your claim will be your hypothesis. You will
use the works of others to argue that (a) the hypothesis being tested is reasonable
and interesting, (b) the procedure used was a good way to test the hypothesis, and
(c) the results have important implications. (For more on writing a research paper,
see Chapter 3.)
1.2.3 Defend Your Claim with Logic and Evidence

Not only must you make a claim, but you must also support it. However, you
should not support it by asserting how strongly you feel that it is true—deluded
people can feel quite strongly that they are being controlled by radio waves. Nor
should you use techniques common to talk-radio hosts: ridiculing those who support
other claims, appealing to emotions, and arguing that popular opinion must be right.
Instead, support your claim with logic and evidence.
To see how well you supported your claim with logic, read your paper while taking
the position of someone who disagrees with your conclusion. Start by questioning
whether your conclusions logically follow from your assertions. Specifically, assume
that your evidence is factually sound and then ask two questions.
First, ask, “Do the reasons and arguments I give clearly lead to my conclusion?”
Asking that question may help you identify places where your reasons seem to contra-
dict each other, where you included reasons that seem irrelevant to your conclusion,
where you failed to spell out all of the steps in your reasoning, or where you leapt
to a conclusion—and may prevent your professor from writing “does not follow” on
your paper.
Second, ask, “Could someone use my arguments to support a different conclusion?”
Asking that question may help you realize that your argument is not as strong as you
originally thought—and may prevent your professor from writing “not necessarily” or
“that is just one interpretation” on your paper.
Once you establish that your conclusions logically follow from your assertions
(if you need help finding or fixing problems with your paper’s logic, see Chapter 5),
What Every Student Should Know About Writing Psychology Papers 5
uestion whether your assertions are true and supported by evidence. If you find that
q
you have made unsupported statements that a skeptic could question, cite evidence to
back up those claims by using at least one of the following two approaches.
The first, and most common, way to mount an empirical defense is to cite evidence
from a study someone else conducted. For example, if you assert that children with
high self-esteem are more resistant to peer pressure than children with low self-
esteem, support would be that someone has tested children’s resistance to conformity
and found children with high self-esteem to be more resistant to conformity pressure
than children with low self-esteem. Your citation will usually include a description—
in your own words—of the study or its findings, along with the last name(s) of the
person(s) who conducted it and the year it was published. Thus, you might cite such
a study this way:
Miller (1988) found that, relative to children with low self-esteem, children with high
self-esteem are more likely to resist pressure from peers to use drugs and alcohol.
A full reference to each citation should appear in the reference list at the end of
your paper (see 4.10). For example, you would reference the Miller (1988) study this
way:
Miller, R. L. (1988). Positive self-esteem and alcohol/drug related attitudes among
school children. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 33, 26–31.
(To learn more about citing material in the body of your paper and referencing it
in the reference list, see Chapter 4.)
The second way to mount an empirical defense is to present evidence from a study
you conducted. We will discuss how to report such evidence in Chapter 3.
Although you should present evidence to support your main point, you should
make the case for both sides because (a) your professor will expect you to present
both sides and (b) fairness and honesty demand that you present both sides. To avoid
being unfair, identify weaknesses in studies that appear to support your main point and
discuss studies that seem to contradict your main point.
1.2.4 Be Honest
Whereas being unfair may hurt your grade, being dishonest may end your college
career. The two types of dishonesty that are most likely to lead to a range of penalties
including being kicked out of school are (a) falsifying data and (b) plagiarism.
Falsifying data is either altering or inventing data. Most of your professors are
deeply committed to using data to find truth. Therefore, most of your professors
would be outraged at anyone who falsified data. In short, do not falsify data: For most
class projects, both the chances and the costs of getting caught are high.
Plagiarism involves presenting someone’s words or ideas as your own. The words
or ideas that you must be most careful about crediting are those that come from class-
mates, roommates, professors, and published authors.
Although isolating yourself from classmates would prevent you from plagiariz-
ing from them, such isolation is often undesirable or impossible. On group projects,
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Writing Research Reports and Proposals 61

Finding, Reading, Citing, and Referencing Sources 119

4.3 Citations: What to Cite and Why 134

4.10.11 Referencing Abstracts of Journal Articles 162

Making Your Case: A Guide to Skeptical Reading

Writing the Wrongs: How to Avoid Gruesome Grammar, Putrid

6.1.6 Adverbs 199

Preparing the Final Draft 225

1. Why is my professor asking me to write a paper?

In the next few sections, we will answer these questions.

Why Professors Assign Papers

Why You Should Write a Good Paper

How This Book Can Help You

Formatting Practices We Use That You Should Not

However, in your papers, use Times New Roman font.

What Every Student Should Know

1.3 Understanding APA Style 1.7 Summary

1.4 Writing and Revising

1.1 Understanding the Written and Unwritten Directions

1.2 Understanding Academic Values

1.2.1 Be Informed: Read to Write

1.2.2 Make a Claim: Have a Point, Get to That Point,

1.2.3 Defend Your Claim with Logic and Evidence

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1.2.2 Make a Claim: Have a Point, Get to That Point,