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Preface vii
Worked Examples and Related Problems There is an abundance of worked out examples
that help to illustrate and clarify basic concepts or specific procedures. Each example ends
with a Related Problem that reinforces or expands on the example by requiring the student
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to work through a problem similar to the example. A typical worked example with Related
Problem is shown in Figure P-5.
268 Combinational Logic Analysis
solution Figure P-5

All the intermediate waveforms and the final output waveform are shown in the timing
diagram of Figure 5–34(c).
related problem
Determine the waveforms Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4 and X if input waveform A is inverted.
EXaMPlE 5–15
Determine the output waveform X for the circuit in Example 5–14, Figure 5–34(a), directly from the output expression.
solution
The output expression for the circuit is developed in Figure 5–35. The SOP form indicates that the output is HIGH when A
is LOW and C is HIGH or when B is LOW and C is HIGH or when C is LOW and D is HIGH.
A A+B
(A + B)C
B
X = (A + B)C + CD = (A + B)C + CD = AC + BC + CD
C
C
D CD
FIGURE 5–35
fg05_03500
The result is shown in Figure 5–36 and is the same as the one obtained by the intermediate-waveform method in Example
5–14. The corresponding product terms for each waveform condition that results in a HIGH output are indicated.
BC
CD
AC AC
A
X = AC + BC + CD
FIGURE 5–36
fg05_03600
related problem
Repeat this example if all the input waveforms are inverted.
SEcTIon 5–5 CheCKup

1. One pulse with tW = 50 ms is applied to one of the inputs of an exclusive-OR cir-
cuit. A second positive pulse with tW = 10 ms is applied to the other input beginning
15 ms after the leading edge of the first pulse. Show the output in relation to the
inputs.
2. The pulse waveforms A and B in Figure 5–31 are applied to the exclusive-NOR cir-
cuit in Figure 5–32. Develop a complete timing diagram.
Troubleshooting Section Many chapters include a troubleshooting section that relates to

the topics covered in the chapter and that emphasizes troubleshooting techniques and the
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use of test instruments and circuit simulation. A portion of a typical troubleshooting section
is illustrated in Figure P-6. Troubleshooting 413 414 Latches, Flip-Flops, and Timers
Figure P-6
tPHL
SEcTIon 7–6 CheCKup
1. Explain the difference in operation between an astable multivibrator and a monosta-

ble multivibrator. CLK
2. For a certain astable multivibrator, tH = 15 ms and T = 20 ms. What is the duty
CLK A Q
cycle of the output?
7–7 Troubleshooting CLK B CLK A
It is standard practice to test a new circuit design to be sure that it is operating as specified.
New fixed-function designs are “breadboarded” and tested before the design is finalized.
The term breadboard refers to a method of temporarily hooking up a circuit so that its
operation can be verified and any design flaws worked out before a prototype unit is built.
(a) Oscilloscope display of CLK A and CLK B waveforms with ( b) Oscilloscope display showing propagation delay that creates
After completing this section, you should be able to glitches indicated by the “spikes”. glitch on CLK A waveform
u Describe how the timing of a circuit can produce erroneous glitches FIGURE 7–62 Oscilloscope displays for the circuit in Figure 7–61.
fg07_06300
u Approach the troubleshooting of a new design with greater insight and awareness
of potential problems
CLK
The circuit shown in Figure 7–61(a) generates two clock waveforms (CLK A and CLK B)
that have an alternating occurrence of pulses. Each waveform is to be one-half the fre-
Q
quency of the original clock (CLK), as shown in the ideal timing diagram in part (b). D
Q CLK A
Q
CLK C
CLK
Q
CLK A
Q CLK B
Q CLK A
D CLK B
Q (a) (b)
CLK C
Q FIGURE 7–63 Two-phase clock generator using negative edge-triggered flip-flop to
CLK A
CLK B eliminate glitches. Open file F07-63 and verify the operation.
CLK B
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7–61 Two-phase clock generator with ideal waveforms. Open file F07-61 and
verify the operation.
Glitches that occur in digital systems are very fast (extremely short in duration) and can be difficult to
see on an oscilloscope, particularly at lower sweep rates. A logic analyzer, however, can show a glitch
When the circuit is tested with an oscilloscope or logic analyzer, the CLK A and CLK B easily. To look for glitches using a logic analyzer, select “latch” mode or (if available) transitional
waveforms appear on the display screen as shown in Figure 7–62(a). Since glitches occur sampling. In the latch mode, the analyzer looks for a voltage level change. When a change occurs,
on both waveforms, something is wrong with the circuit either in its basic design or in the even if it is of extremely short duration (a few nanoseconds), the information is “latched” into the
way it is connected. Further investigation reveals that the glitches are caused by a race analyzer’s memory as another sampled data point. When the data are displayed, the glitch will show
as an obvious change in the sampled data, making it easy to identify.
condition between the CLK signal and the Q and Q signals at the inputs of the AND gates.
As displayed in Figure 7–62(b), the propagation delays between CLK and Q and Q create
a short-duration coincidence of HIGH levels at the leading edges of alternate clock pulses.
Thus, there is a basic design flaw.
The problem can be corrected by using a negative edge-triggered flip-flop in place of
the positive edge-triggered device, as shown in Figure 7–63(a). Although the propaga- SEctIon 7–7 CheCkup
tion delays between CLK and Q and Q still exist, they are initiated on the trailing edges
1. Can a negative edge-triggered J-K flip-flop be used in the circuit of Figure 7–63?
of the clock (CLK), thus eliminating the glitches, as shown in the timing diagram of
Figure 7–63(b). 2. What device can be used to provide the clock for the circuit in Figure 7–63?
viii Preface
Applied Logic Appearing at the end of many chapters, this feature presents a practical
application of the concepts and procedures covered in the chapter. In most chapters, this
feature presents a “real-world” application in which analysis, troubleshooting, design,
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VHDL programming, and simulation are implemented. Figure P-7 shows a portion of a
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typical Applied Logic feature.

594 Programmable Logic Applied Logic 595
Floor Counter
Applied Logic library ieee;
ieee.numeric_std_all is included to enable casting of
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all; unsigned identifier. Unsigned FloorCnt is converted to
Elevator Controller: Part 2 use ieee.numeric_std.all; std_logic_vector.
entity FLOORCOUNTER is UP, DOWN: Floor count
˛˚˚˝˚˚¸
direction signals
port (UP, DOWN, Sensor: in std_logic; Sensor: Elevator car floor
In this section, the elevator controller that was introduced in the Applied Logic in Chap- FLRCODE: out std_logic_vector(2 downto 0)); sensor
ter 9 will be programmed for implementation in a PLD. Refer to Chapter 9 to review the
end entity FLOORCOUNTER; FLRCODE: 3-digit floor
elevator operation. The logic diagram is repeated in Figure 10–62 with labels changed to
count
facilitate programming. architecture LogicOperation of FLOORCOUNTER is
PanelCode
signal FloorCnt: unsigned(2 downto 0) := “000”; Floor count is initialized to 000.
begin
Numeric unsigned FloorCnt is con-
process(UP, DOWN, Sensor, FloorCnt)
verted to std_logic_vector data type
1 begin and sent to std_logic_vector output
CallCode
FLRCODE 6= std_logic_vector(FloorCnt); FLRCODE.
J K
CallEn if (Sensor’EVENT and Sensor = ‘1’) then
˛˚˚˝˚˚¸
Q Sensor event high pulse causes the
Not CallEn
CALL/REQ FF if UP = ‘1’ and DOWN = ‘0’ then floor count to increment when UP
FloorCnt 6= FloorCnt + 1; is set high or decrement by one
CLK when DOWN is set low.
elsif Up = ‘0’ and DOWN = ‘1’ then
FloorCnt 6= FloorCnt - 1;
CLOSE end if;
FRIN end if;
Request FlrCodeIn QOut end process;
SetCount
CLK CALL/REQ Code Register Sys Clk Clk Timer end architecture LogicOperation;
Enable
FlrCodeOut
Call
FRCLOUT
FLRCALL/FLRCNT Comparator
FLRCALL/FLRCNT
Comparator library ieee;
STOP/OPEN use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
FlrCodeCall
UP
use ieee.std_logic_arith.all;
Floor
Counter DOWN entity FLRCALLCOMPARATOR is
Sensor
FlrCodeCall, FlrCodeCnt:
CLK FLRCODE FlrCodeCnt port (FlrCodeCall, FlrCodeCnt: in std_logic_vector(2 downto 0);
¸˝˛
(Floorpulse) Compared values
UP, DOWN, STOP: Output UP, DOWN, STOP: inout std_logic;
control signals end entity FLRCALLCOMPARATOR;
FRCNT
architecture LogicOperation of FLRCALLCOMPARATOR is
UP DOWN
H0 7-segment begin
7-Segment
H1 display of
˛˚˚˝˚˚¸
Decoder STOP 6= ‘1’ when (FlrCodeCall = FlrCodeCnt) else ‘0’; STOP, UP, and DOWN
H2 floor number
UP 6= ‘1’ when (FlrCodeCall 7 FlrCodeCnt) else ‘0’; signals are set or reset
a-g
based on =, 7, and 6
DOWN 6= ‘1’ when (FlrCodeCall 6 FlrCodeCnt) else ‘0’; relational comparisons.
FIGURE 10–62 Programming model of the elevator controller.
end architecture LogicOperation;
The VHDL program code for the elevator controller will include component definitions
for the Floor Counter, the FLRCALL/FLRCNT Comparator, the Code Register, the Timer,
the Seven-Segment Decoder, and the CALL/REQ Flip-Flop. The VHDL program codes
for these six components are as follows. (Blue annotated notes are not part of the program.)
Figure P-7
End of Chapter
The following features are at the end of each chapter:
• Summary
• Key term glossary
• True/false quiz
• Self-test
• Problem set that includes some or all of the following categories in addition to core prob-
lems: Troubleshooting, Applied Logic, Design, and Multisim Troubleshooting Practice.
• Answers to Section Checkups
• Answers to Related Problems for Examples
• Answers to True/False quiz
• Answers to Self-Test
End of Book
The following features are at the end of the book.
• Answers to selected odd-numbered problems
• Comprehensive glossary
• Index
Preface ix
To the Student
Digital technology pervades almost everything in our daily lives. For example, cell phones
and other types of wireless communications, television, radio, process controls, automotive
electronics, consumer electronics, aircraft navigation— to name only a few applications—
depend heavily on digital electronics.
A strong grounding in the fundamentals of digital technology will prepare you for
the highly skilled jobs of the future. The single most important thing you can do is to
understand the core fundamentals. From there you can go anywhere.
In addition, programmable logic is important in many applications and that topic in
introduced in this book and example programs are given along with an online tutorial.
Of course, efficient troubleshooting is a skill that is also widely sought after by potential
employers. Troubleshooting and testing methods from traditional prototype testing to more
advanced techniques such as boundary scan are covered.
To the Instructor
Generally, time limitations or program emphasis determines the topics to be covered in a
course. It is not uncommon to omit or condense topics or to alter the sequence of certain
topics in order to customize the material for a particular course. This textbook is specifi-
cally designed to provide great flexibility in topic coverage.
Certain topics are organized in separate chapters, sections, or features such that if they are
omitted the rest of the coverage is not affected. Also, if these topics are included, they flow
seamlessly with the rest of the coverage. The book is organized around a core of fundamental
topics that are, for the most part, essential in any digital course. Around this core, there are other
topics that can be included or omitted, depending on the course emphasis and/or other factors.
Even within the core, selected topics can be omitted. Figure P-8 illustrates this concept.
Programmable Logic
and
PLD programming
Core
Troubleshooting Applied Logic
Fundamentals
Integrated
Special Topics Circuit
Technologies
Figure P-8
◆ Core Fundamentals The fundamental topics of digital technology should be cov-

ered in all programs. Linked to the core are several “satellite” topics that may be
considered for omission or inclusion, depending on your course goals. All topics
presented in this text are important in digital technology, but each block surrounding
the core can be omitted, depending on your particular goals, without affecting the
core fundamentals.
◆ Programmable Logic and PLD Programming Although they are important topics,
programmable logic and VHDL can be omitted; however, it is highly recommended
that you cover this topic if at all possible. You can cover as little or as much as you
consider appropriate for your program.
x Preface
◆ Troubleshooting Troubleshooting sections appear in many chapters and include

the application and operation of laboratory instruments.
◆ Applied Logic Selected real-world applications appear in many chapters.
◆ Integrated Circuit Technologies Chapter 15 is an online chapter. Some or all of the
topics in Chapter 15 can be covered at selected points if you wish to discuss details of
the circuitry that make up digital integrated circuits. Chapter 15 can be omitted with-
out any impact on the rest of the book.
◆ Special Topics These topics are Signal Interfacing and Processing, Data Transmission,
and Data Processing and Control in Chapters 12, 13, and 14 respectively, as well as
selected topics in other chapters. These are topics that may not be essential for your course
or are covered in another course. Also, within each block in Figure P-8 you can choose to
omit or deemphasize some topics because of time constraints or other priorities in your
particular program. For example in the core fundamentals, the Quine-McCluskey method,
cyclic redundancy code, carry look-ahead adders, or sequential logic design could possi-
bly be omitted. Additionally, any or all of Multisim features throughout the book can be
treated as optional. Other topics may also be candidates for omission or light coverage.
Whether you choose a minimal coverage of only core fundamentals, a full-blown cover-
age of all the topics, or anything in between, this book can be adapted to your needs.
Acknowledgments
This revision of Digital Fundamentals has been made possible by the work and skills of
many people. I think that we have accomplished what we set out to do, and that was to further
improve an already very successful textbook and make it even more useful to the student and
instructor by presenting not only basics but also up-to-date and leading-edge technology.
Those at Pearson Education who have, as always, contributed a great amount of time,
talent, and effort to move this project through its many phases in order to produce the
book as you see it, include, but are not limited to, Rex Davidson, Lindsey Gill, and Vern
Anthony. Lois Porter has done another excellent job of manuscript editing. Doug Joksch
contributed the VHDL programming. Gary Snyder revised and updated the Multisim
circuit files. My thanks and appreciation go to all of these and others who were indirectly
involved in the project.
In the revision of this and all textbooks, I depend on expert input from many users
as well as nonusers. My sincere thanks to the following reviewers who submitted many
valuable suggestions and provided lots of constructive criticism:
Dr. Cuiling Gong,
Texas Christian University;
Jonathan White,
Harding University;
Zane Gastineau,
Harding University; and
Dr. Eric Bothur,
Midlands Technical College.
I also want to thank all of the members of the Pearson sales force whose efforts have
helped make this text available to a large number of users. In addition, I am grateful to all
of you who have adopted this text for your classes or for your own use. Without you we
would not be in business. I hope that you find this eleventh edition of Digital Fundamentals
to be even better than earlier editions and that it will continue to be a valuable learning tool
and reference for the student.
Tom Floyd
Contents
Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts 1

1-1 Digital and Analog Quantities 2
1-2 Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms 5
1-3 Basic Logic Functions 11
1-4 Combinational and Sequential Logic Functions 13
1-5 Introduction to Programmable Logic 20
1-6 Fixed-Function Logic Devices 26
1-7 Test and Measurement Instruments 29
1-8 Introduction to Troubleshooting 40
Chapter 2 Number Systems, Operations, and Codes 51

2-1 Decimal Numbers 52
2-2 Binary Numbers 53
2-3 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 57
2-4 Binary Arithmetic 60
2-5 Complements of Binary Numbers 63
2-6 Signed Numbers 65
2-7 Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers 71
2-8 Hexadecimal Numbers 78
2-9 Octal Numbers 84
2-10 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) 86
2-11 Digital Codes 90
2-12 Error Codes 95
Chapter 3 Logic Gates 111

3-1 The Inverter 112
3-2 The AND Gate 115
3-3 The OR Gate 122
3-4 The NAND Gate 126
3-5 The NOR Gate 131
3-6 The Exclusive-OR and Exclusive-NOR Gates 135
3-7 Programmable Logic 139
3-8 Fixed-Function Logic Gates 146
3-9 Troubleshooting 156
Chapter 4 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification 177

4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions 178
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra 179
4-3 DeMorgan’s Theorems 185
xi
xii Contents
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits 189

4-5 Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra 191
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions 195
4-7 Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables 202
4-8 The Karnaugh Map 205
4-9 Karnaugh Map SOP Minimization 208
4-10 Karnaugh Map POS Minimization 219
4-11 The Quine-McCluskey Method 223
4-12 Boolean Expressions with VHDL 226
Applied Logic 230
Chapter 5 Combinational Logic Analysis 247

5-1 Basic Combinational Logic Circuits 248
5-2 Implementing Combinational Logic 253
5-3 The Universal Property of NAND and NOR gates 258
5-4 Combinational Logic Using NAND and NOR Gates 260
5-5 Pulse Waveform Operation 265
5-6 Combinational Logic with VHDL 269
Applied Logic 280
Chapter 6 Functions of Combinational Logic 299

6-1 Half and Full Adders 300
6-2 Parallel Binary Adders 303
6-3 Ripple Carry and Look-Ahead Carry Adders 310
6-4 Comparators 313
6-5 Decoders 317
6-6 Encoders 327
6-7 Code Converters 331
6-8 Multiplexers (Data Selectors) 333
6-9 Demultiplexers 342
6-10 Parity Generators/Checkers 344
Applied Logic 351
Chapter 7 Latches, Flip-Flops, and Timers 373

7-1 Latches 374
7-2 Flip-Flops 381
7-3 Flip-Flop Operating Characteristics 392
7-4 Flip-Flop Applications 395
7-5 One-Shots 400
7-6 The Astable Multivibrator 409
Applied Logic 415
Contents xiii
Chapter 8 Shift Registers 435

8-1 Shift Register Operations 436
8-2 Types of Shift Register Data I/Os 437
8-3 Bidirectional Shift Registers 448
8-4 Shift Register Counters 451
8-5 Shift Register Applications 455
8-6 Logic Symbols with Dependency Notation 462
Applied Logic 466
Chapter 9 Counters 483

9-1 Finite State Machines 484
9-2 Asynchronous Counters 486
9-3 Synchronous Counters 493
9-4 Up/Down Synchronous Counters 501
9-5 Design of Synchronous Counters 505
9-6 Cascaded Counters 513
9-7 Counter Decoding 517
9-8 Counter Applications 520
9-9 Logic Symbols with Dependency Notation 525
Applied Logic 531
Chapter 10 Programmable Logic 547

10-1 Simple Programmable Logic Devices (SPLDs) 548
10-2 Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) 553
10-3 Macrocell Modes 560
10-4 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) 563
10-5 Programmable Logic software 571
10-6 Boundary Scan Logic 581
Applied Logic 594
Chapter 11 Data Storage 613

11-1 Semiconductor Memory Basics 614
11-2 The Random-Access Memory (RAM) 619
11-3 The Read-Only Memory (ROM) 632
11-4 Programmable ROMs 638
11-5 The Flash Memory 641
11-6 Memory Expansion 646
11-7 Special Types of Memories 652
11-8 Magnetic and Optical Storage 656
11-9 Memory Hierarchy 662
11-10 Cloud Storage 666
xiv Contents
Chapter 12 Signal Conversion and Processing 683

12-1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 684
12-2 Methods of Analog-to-Digital Conversion 690
12-3 Methods of Digital-to-Analog Conversion 701
12-4 Digital Signal Processing 709
12-5 The Digital Signal Processor (DSP) 710
Chapter 13 Data transmission 725

13-1 Data Transmission Media 726
13-2 Methods and Modes of Data Transmission 731
13-3 Modulation of Analog Signals with Digital Data 736
13-4 Modulation of Digital Signals with Analog Data 739
13-5 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 745
13-6 Bus Basics 750
13-7 Parallel Buses 755
13-8 The Universal Serial Bus (USB) 761
13-9 Other Serial Buses 764
13-10 Bus Interfacing 770
Chapter 14 Data Processing and Control 787

14-1 The Computer System 788
14-2 Practical Computer System Considerations 792
14-3 The Processor: Basic Operation 798
14-4 The Processor: Addressing Modes 803
14-5 The Processor: Special Operations 809
14-6 Operating Systems and Hardware 814
14-7 Programming 817
14-8 Microcontrollers and Embedded Systems 824
14-9 System on Chip (SoC) 830
on website: http://www.pearsonhighered.com/careersresources
Chapter 15 Integrated Circuit Technologies 841
15-1 Basic Operational Characteristics and Parameters 842
15-2 CMOS Circuits 849
15-3 TTL (Bipolar) Circuits 854
15-4 Practical Considerations in the Use of TTL 859
15-5 Comparison of CMOS and TTL Performance 866
15-6 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) Circuits 867
15-7 PMOS, NMOS, and E2CMOS 869
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-1

Glossary A-31
Index A-42
CHAPTER
1
Introductory Concepts
Chapter Outline Key Terms

1–1 Digital and Analog Quantities Key terms are in order of appearance in the chapter.
1–2 Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital ■ Analog ■ NOT
Waveforms
■ Digital ■ Inverter
1–3 Basic Logic Functions
■ Binary ■ AND
1–4 Combinational and Sequential Logic Functions
1–5 Introduction to Programmable Logic
■ Bit ■ OR
1–6 Fixed-Function Logic Devices ■ Pulse ■ Programmable logic
1–7 Test and Measurement Instruments ■ Duty cycle ■ SPLD
1–8 Introduction to Troubleshooting ■ Clock ■ CPLD
■ Timing diagram ■ FPGA
■ Data ■ Microcontroller
Chapter Objectives
■ Serial ■ Embedded system
■ Explain the basic differences between digital and ■ Parallel ■ Compiler
analog quantities
■ Logic ■ Integrated circuit (IC)
■ Show how voltage levels are used to represent
digital quantities
■ Input ■ Fixed-function logic
■ Describe various parameters of a pulse waveform
■ Output ■ Troubleshooting
such as rise time, fall time, pulse width, frequency, ■ Gate
period, and duty cycle
Visit the Website
■ Explain the basic logic functions of NOT, AND,
and OR Study aids for this chapter are available at
■ Describe several types of logic operations and http://www.pearsonhighered.com/careersresources/
explain their application in an example system
Introduction
■ Describe programmable logic, discuss the
various types, and describe how PLDs are The term digital is derived from the way operations
programmed are performed, by counting digits. For many years,
■ Identify fixed-function digital integrated circuits applications of digital electronics were confined
according to their complexity and the type of circuit to computer systems. Today, digital technology is
packaging applied in a wide range of areas in addition to com-
puters. Such applications as television, communi-
■ Identify pin numbers on integrated circuit packages
cations systems, radar, navigation and guidance
■ Recognize various instruments and understand systems, military systems, medical instrumentation,
how they are used in measurement and industrial process control, and consumer electron-
troubleshooting digital circuits and systems ics use digital techniques. Over the years digital
■ Describe basic troubleshooting methods technology has progressed from vacuum-tube circuits
1
2 Introductory Concepts
to discrete transistors to complex integrated circuits, This chapter introduces you to digital electronics
many of which contain millions of transistors, and and provides a broad overview of many important
many of which are programmable. concepts, components, and tools.
1–1 Digital and Analog Quantities

Electronic circuits can be divided into two broad categories, digital and analog. Digital
electronics involves quantities with discrete values, and analog electronics involves quan-
tities with continuous values. Although you will be studying digital fundamentals in this
book, you should also know something about analog because many applications require
both; and interfacing between analog and digital is important.
After completing this section, you should be able to
u Define analog
u Define digital
u Explain the difference between digital and analog quantities
u State the advantages of digital over analog
u Give examples of how digital and analog quantities are used in electronics
An analog* quantity is one having continuous values. A digital quantity is one having
a discrete set of values. Most things that can be measured quantitatively occur in nature in
analog form. For example, the air temperature changes over a continuous range of values.
During a given day, the temperature does not go from, say, 70 to 71 instantaneously; it
takes on all the infinite values in between. If you graphed the temperature on a typical sum-
mer day, you would have a smooth, continuous curve similar to the curve in Figure 1–1.
Other examples of analog quantities are time, pressure, distance, and sound.
Temperature
(°F)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A.M. P.M.
FIGURE 1–1 Graph of an analog quantity (temperature versus time).

fg01_00100
Rather than graphing the temperature on a continuous basis, suppose you just take a
temperature reading every hour. Now you have sampled values representing the temperature
at discrete points in time (every hour) over a 24-hour period, as indicated in Figure 1–2.
*All bold terms are important and are defined in the end-of-book glossary. The blue bold terms are key terms
and are included in a Key Term glossary at the end of each chapter.
Digital and Analog Quantities 3
Temperature
(°F)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A.M. P.M.
FIGURE 1–2 Sampled-value representation (quantization) of the analog quantity in

Figure 1–1. Each value represented by a dot can be digitized by representing it as a digital
fg01_00200
code that consists of a series of 1s and 0s.
You have effectively converted an analog quantity to a form that can now be digitized by
representing each sampled value by a digital code. It is important to realize that Figure 1–2
itself is not the digital representation of the analog quantity.
The Digital Advantage

Digital representation has certain advantages over analog representation in electronics applica-
tions. For one thing, digital data can be processed and transmitted more efficiently and reli-
ably than analog data. Also, digital data has a great advantage when storage is necessary. For
example, music when converted to digital form can be stored more compactly and reproduced
with greater accuracy and clarity than is possible when it is in analog form. Noise (unwanted
voltage fluctuations) does not affect digital data nearly as much as it does analog signals.
An Analog System
A public address system, used to amplify sound so that it can be heard by a large audience, is
one simple example of an application of analog electronics. The basic diagram in Figure 1–3
illustrates that sound waves, which are analog in nature, are picked up by a microphone and
converted to a small analog voltage called the audio signal. This voltage varies continuously as
the volume and frequency of the sound changes and is applied to the input of a linear amplifier.
The output of the amplifier, which is an increased reproduction of input voltage, goes to the
speaker(s). The speaker changes the amplified audio signal back to sound waves that have a
much greater volume than the original sound waves picked up by the microphone.
Original sound waves
Microphone Reproduced
sound waves
Linear amplifier
Audio signal
Speaker
Amplified audio signal
FIGURE 1–3 A basic audio public address system.

A System Using Digital and Analog Methods

The compact disk (CD) player is an example of a system in which both digital and analog
circuits are used. The simplified block diagram in Figure 1–4 illustrates the basic principle.
Music in digital form is stored on the compact disk. A laser diode optical system picks up
the digital data from the rotating disk and transfers it to the digital-to-analog converter
(DAC). The DAC changes the digital data into an analog signal that is an electrical repro-
duction of the original music. This signal is amplified and sent to the speaker for you to
enjoy. When the music was originally recorded on the CD, a process, essentially the reverse
of the one described here, using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) was used.
CD drive
10110011101 Digital-to-analog Linear amplifier

Digital data converter Analog
reproduction
of music audio Speaker
signal
Sound
waves
FIGURE 1–4 Basic block diagram of a CD player. Only one channel is shown.
Mechatronics
Both digital and analog electronics are used in the control of various mechanical systems.
The interdisciplinary field that comprises both mechanical and electronic components is
known as mechatronics.
Mechatronic systems are found in homes, industry, and transportation. Most home appliances
consist of both mechanical and electronic components. Electronics controls the operation of a
washing machine in terms of water flow, temperature, and type of cycle. Manufacturing indus-
tries rely heavily on mechatronics for process control and assembly. In automotive and other
types of manufacturing, robotic arms perform precision welding, painting, and other functions
on the assembly line. Automobiles themselves are mechatronic machines; a digital computer
controls functions such as braking, engine parameters, fuel flow, safety features, and monitoring.
Figure 1–5(a) is a basic block diagram of a mechatronic system. A simple robotic arm is
shown in Figure 1–5(b), and robotic arms on an automotive assembly line are shown in part (c).
Electronic controls
Electromechanical Robotic unit

interface
(a) Mechatronic system block diagram (b) Robotic arm (c) Automotive assembly line
FIGURE 1–5 Example of a mechatronic system and application. Part (b) Beawolf/Fotolia;
Part (c) Small Town Studio/Fotolia.
Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms 5
The movement of the arm in any quadrant and to any specified position is accomplished with
some type of digital control such as a microcontroller.
Section 1–1 Checkup
Answers are at the end of the chapter.

1. Define analog.
2. Define digital.
3. Explain the difference between a digital quantity and an analog quantity.
4. Give an example of a system that is analog and one that is a combination of both
digital and analog. Name a system that is entirely digital.
5. What does a mechatronic system consist of?
1–2 Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms

Digital electronics involves circuits and systems in which there are only two possible
states. These states are represented by two different voltage levels: A HIGH and a LOW.
The two states can also be represented by current levels, bits and bumps on a CD or DVD,
etc. In digital systems such as computers, combinations of the two states, called codes, are
used to represent numbers, symbols, alphabetic characters, and other types of information.
The two-state number system is called binary, and its two digits are 0 and 1. A binary digit
is called a bit.
After completing this section, you should be able to
u Define binary
u Define bit
u Name the bits in a binary system
u Explain how voltage levels are used to represent bits
u Explain how voltage levels are interpreted by a digital circuit
u Describe the general characteristics of a pulse
u Determine the amplitude, rise time, fall time, and width of a pulse
u Identify and describe the characteristics of a digital waveform
u Determine the amplitude, period, frequency, and duty cycle of a digital waveform
InfoNote
u Explain what a timing diagram is and state its purpose
The concept of a digital computer
u Explain serial and parallel data transfer and state the advantage and disadvantage can be traced back to Charles
of each Babbage, who developed a crude
mechanical computation device in
the 1830s. John Atanasoff was the
first to apply electronic processing
Binary Digits to digital computing in 1939. In
Each of the two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, is called a bit, which is a contraction 1946, an electronic digital compu-
of the words binary digit. In digital circuits, two different voltage levels are used to repre- ter called ENIAC was implemented
sent the two bits. Generally, 1 is represented by the higher voltage, which we will refer to with vacuum-tube circuits. Even
as a HIGH, and a 0 is represented by the lower voltage level, which we will refer to as a though it took up an entire room,
LOW. This is called positive logic and will be used throughout the book. ENIAC didn’t have the computing
power of your handheld calculator.
HIGH 1 and LOW 0
Another system in which a 1 is represented by a LOW and a 0 is represented by a HIGH is

called negative logic.
Groups of bits (combinations of 1s and 0s), called codes, are used to represent numbers,
letters, symbols, instructions, and anything else required in a given application.
Logic Levels
The voltages used to represent a 1 and a 0 are called logic levels. Ideally, one voltage level
represents a HIGH and another voltage level represents a LOW. In a practical digital circuit,
however, a HIGH can be any voltage between a specified minimum value and a specified
maximum value. Likewise, a LOW can be any voltage between a specified minimum and a
specified maximum. There can be no overlap between the accepted range of HIGH levels
and the accepted range of LOW levels.
Figure 1–6 illustrates the general range of LOWs and HIGHs for a digital circuit. The
VH(max) variable VH(max) represents the maximum HIGH voltage value, and VH(min) represents the
minimum HIGH voltage value. The maximum LOW voltage value is represented by VL(max),
HIGH
(binary 1) and the minimum LOW voltage value is represented by VL(min). The voltage values between
VH(min) VL(max) and VH(min) are unacceptable for proper operation. A voltage in the unacceptable
range can appear as either a HIGH or a LOW to a given circuit. For example, the HIGH
Unacceptable input values for a certain type of digital circuit technology called CMOS may range from
2 V to 3.3 V and the LOW input values may range from 0 V to 0.8 V. If a voltage of 2.5 V
VL (max) is applied, the circuit will accept it as a HIGH or binary 1. If a voltage of 0.5 V is applied,
LOW the circuit will accept it as a LOW or binary 0. For this type of circuit, voltages between
(binary 0) 0.8 V and 2 V are unacceptable.
VL (min)
Digital Waveforms
FIGURE 1–6 Logic level ranges
of voltage for a digital circuit.
fg01_00500
Digital waveforms consist of voltage levels that are changing back and forth between the
HIGH and LOW levels or states. Figure 1–7(a) shows that a single positive-going pulse
is generated when the voltage (or current) goes from its normally LOW level to its HIGH
level and then back to its LOW level. The negative-going pulse in Figure 1–7(b) is gener-
ated when the voltage goes from its normally HIGH level to its LOW level and back to its
HIGH level. A digital waveform is made up of a series of pulses.
HIGH HIGH
Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or

leading edge trailing edge leading edge trailing edge
LOW LOW
t0 t1 t0 t1
(a) Positive–going pulse (b) Negative–going pulse
FIGURE 1–7 Ideal pulses.

fg01_00600
The Pulse
As indicated in Figure 1–7, a pulse has two edges: a leading edge that occurs first at time t0
and a trailing edge that occurs last at time t1. For a positive-going pulse, the leading edge
is a rising edge, and the trailing edge is a falling edge. The pulses in Figure 1–7 are ideal
because the rising and falling edges are assumed to change in zero time (instantaneously).
In practice, these transitions never occur instantaneously, although for most digital work
you can assume ideal pulses.
Figure 1–8 shows a nonideal pulse. In reality, all pulses exhibit some or all of these
characteristics. The overshoot and ringing are sometimes produced by stray inductive and
Overshoot
Ringing
Droop
90%
Amplitude tW
50%
Pulse width
10%
Ringing
Base line
Undershoot
tr tf
Rise time Fall time
FIGURE 1–8 Nonideal pulse characteristics.
fg01_00700
capacitive effects. The droop can be caused by stray capacitive and circuit resistance, form-
ing an RC circuit with a low time constant.
The time required for a pulse to go from its LOW level to its HIGH level is called the
rise time (tr), and the time required for the transition from the HIGH level to the LOW level
is called the fall time (tf). In practice, it is common to measure rise time from 10% of the
pulse amplitude (height from baseline) to 90% of the pulse amplitude and to measure the
fall time from 90% to 10% of the pulse amplitude, as indicated in Figure 1–8. The bottom
10% and the top 10% of the pulse are not included in the rise and fall times because of
the nonlinearities in the waveform in these areas. The pulse width (tW) is a measure of the
duration of the pulse and is often defined as the time interval between the 50% points on
the rising and falling edges, as indicated in Figure 1–8.
Waveform Characteristics
Most waveforms encountered in digital systems are composed of series of pulses, some-
times called pulse trains, and can be classified as either periodic or nonperiodic. A periodic
pulse waveform is one that repeats itself at a fixed interval, called a period (T ). The
frequency ( f ) is the rate at which it repeats itself and is measured in hertz (Hz). A non-
periodic pulse waveform, of course, does not repeat itself at fixed intervals and may be
composed of pulses of randomly differing pulse widths and/or randomly differing time
intervals between the pulses. An example of each type is shown in Figure 1–9.
T1 T2 T3
Period = T1 = T2 = T3 = . . . = Tn
Frequency = T1
(a) Periodic (square wave) (b) Nonperiodic
FIGURE 1–9 Examples of digital waveforms.

fg01_00800
The frequency ( f ) of a pulse (digital) waveform is the reciprocal of the period. The
relationship between frequency and period is expressed as follows:
1
f Equation 1–1
T
1
T Equation 1–2
f
An important characteristic of a periodic digital waveform is its duty cycle, which is the
ratio of the pulse width (tW) to the period (T ). It can be expressed as a percentage.
tW
Duty cycle ¢ ≤100% Equation 1–3
T
EXAMPLE 1–1
A portion of a periodic digital waveform is shown in Figure 1–10. The measurements

are in milliseconds. Determine the following:
(a) period (b) frequency (c) duty cycle
T
tW
t (ms)
0 1 10 11
FIGURE 1–10
fg01_00900
Solution
(a) The period (T) is measured from the edge of one pulse to the corresponding edge
of the next pulse. In this case T is measured from leading edge to leading edge, as
indicated. T equals 10 ms.
1 1
(b) f = = = 100 Hz
T 10 ms
tW 1 ms
(c) Duty cycle = ¢ ≤100% = ¢ ≤100% = 10%
T 10 ms
Related Problem*
A periodic digital waveform has a pulse width of 25 ms and a period of 150 ms. Deter-
mine the frequency and the duty cycle.
*Answers are at the end of the chapter.
A Digital Waveform Carries Binary Information

InfoNote Binary information that is handled by digital systems appears as waveforms that represent
sequences of bits. When the waveform is HIGH, a binary 1 is present; when the waveform
The speed at which a computer is LOW, a binary 0 is present. Each bit in a sequence occupies a defined time interval called
can operate depends on the type a bit time.
of microprocessor used in the
system. The speed specifica- The Clock
tion, for example 3.5 GHz, of
In digital systems, all waveforms are synchronized with a basic timing waveform called the
a computer is the maximum
clock. The clock is a periodic waveform in which each interval between pulses (the period)
clock frequency at which the
equals the time for one bit.
microprocessor can run.
An example of a clock waveform is shown in Figure 1–11. Notice that, in this case, each
change in level of waveform A occurs at the leading edge of the clock waveform. In other
cases, level changes occur at the trailing edge of the clock. During each bit time of the
clock, waveform A is either HIGH or LOW. These HIGHs and LOWs represent a sequence
Bit
time
1
Clock
0
1
A
0
Bit sequence
represented by 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
waveform A
FIGURE 1–11 Example of a clock waveform synchronized with a waveform representation

of a sequence of bits. fg01_01000
of bits as indicated. A group of several bits can contain binary information, such as a num-
ber or a letter. The clock waveform itself does not carry information.
Timing Diagrams
A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms showing the actual time relationship of
two or more waveforms and how each waveform changes in relation to the others. By look-
ing at a timing diagram, you can determine the states (HIGH or LOW) of all the waveforms
at any specified point in time and the exact time that a waveform changes state relative
to the other waveforms. Figure 1–12 is an example of a timing diagram made up of four
waveforms. From this timing diagram you can see, for example, that the three waveforms
A, B, and C are HIGH only during bit time 7 (shaded area) and they all change back LOW
at the end of bit time 7.
Clock
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
A, B, and C HIGH
FIGURE 1–12 Example of a timing diagram.

fg01_01100 InfoNote
Data Transfer Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a
serial bus standard for device
Data refers to groups of bits that convey some type of information. Binary data, which
interfacing. It was originally devel-
are represented by digital waveforms, must be transferred from one device to another
oped for the personal computer
within a digital system or from one system to another in order to accomplish a given
but has become widely used on
purpose. For example, numbers stored in binary form in the memory of a computer must
many types of handheld and
be transferred to the computer’s central processing unit in order to be added. The sum of
mobile devices. USB is expected
the addition must then be transferred to a monitor for display and/or transferred back to
to replace other serial and parallel
the memory. As illustrated in Figure 1–13, binary data are transferred in two ways: serial
ports. USB operated at 12 Mbps
and parallel.
(million bits per second) when
When bits are transferred in serial form from one point to another, they are sent one bit
first introduced in 1995, but it now
at a time along a single line, as illustrated in Figure 1–13(a). During the time interval from
provides transmission speeds of
t0 to t1, the first bit is transferred. During the time interval from t1 to t2, the second bit is
up to 5 Gbps.
transferred, and so on. To transfer eight bits in series, it takes eight time intervals.
1
Sending Receiving
device 0 device
0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1
Sending t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 Receiving
device device 0
t0 t1
(a) Serial transfer of 8 bits of binary data. Interval t0 to t1 is first. (b) Parallel transfer of 8 bits of binary data. The beginning time is t0.
FIGURE 1–13 Illustration of serial and parallel transfer of binary data. Only the data lines
are shown.
When bits are transferred in parallel form, all the bits in a group are sent out on separate
lines at the same time. There is one line for each bit, as shown in Figure 1–13(b) for the
example of eight bits being transferred. To transfer eight bits in parallel, it takes one time
interval compared to eight time intervals for the serial transfer.
To summarize, an advantage of serial transfer of binary data is that a minimum of only
one line is required. In parallel transfer, a number of lines equal to the number of bits to be
transferred at one time is required. A disadvantage of serial transfer is that it takes longer to
transfer a given number of bits than with parallel transfer at the same clock frequency. For
example, if one bit can be transferred in 1 ms, then it takes 8 ms to serially transfer eight
bits but only 1 ms to parallel transfer eight bits. A disadvantage of parallel transfer is that it
takes more lines than serial transfer.
EXAMPLE 1–2
(a) Determine the total time required to serially transfer the eight bits contained in
waveform A of Figure 1–14, and indicate the sequence of bits. The left-most bit is
the first to be transferred. The 1 MHz clock is used as reference.
(b) What is the total time to transfer the same eight bits in parallel?
Clock
FIGURE 1–14
fg01_01300
Solution
(a) Since the frequency of the clock is 1 MHz, the period is
1 1
T = = = 1 ms
f 1 MHz
It takes 1 ms to transfer each bit in the waveform. The total transfer time for 8 bits is
8 * 1 ms = 8 Ms
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And when the lamb heard this, it suffered Moses to take it up and lay
it upon his shoulders; and, carrying the lamb, he returned to the
flock.
Now whilst Moses walked, burdened with the lamb, there fell a voice
from heaven, “Thou, who hast shown so great love, so great
patience towards the sheep of man’s fold, thou art worthy to be
called to pasture the sheep of the fold of God.”[487]
4. MOSES BEFORE PHARAOH.
One day that Moses was keeping sheep, his father-in-law, Jethro,
came to him and demanded back the staff that he had given him.
Then Moses cast the staff from him among a number of other rods,
but the staff ever returned to his hand as often as he cast it away.
Then Jethro laid hold of the rod, but he could not move it. Therefore
he was obliged to let Moses retain it. But he was estranged from
him.
Now Pharaoh was dead. And when the news reached Moses in
Midian, he gat him up, and set his wife Zipporah and his son
Gershom on an ass, and took the way of Egypt.
And as they were in the way, they halted in a certain place; and it
was cloudy, and cold, and rainy. Then they encamped, and Zipporah
tried to make a fire, but could not, for the wood was damp.
Moses said, “I see a fire burning at the foot of the mountain. I will go
to it, for there must be travellers there; and I will fetch a brand away
and will kindle a fire, and be warm.”
Then, he took his rod in his hand and went. But when he came near
the spot, he saw that the fire was not on the ground, but at the
summit of a tree; and the tree was a thorn. A thorn-tree was the first
tree that grew, when God created the herb of the field and the trees
of the forest. Moses was filled with fear, and he would have turned
and fled, but a voice[488] called to him out of the fire, “Moses, Moses!”
And he said, “Here am I.” And the voice said again, “Put off thy
shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy
ground.” This was the reason why he was bidden put off his shoes;
they were made of asses’ hide, and Moses had trodden on the dung
of his ass as he followed Zipporah and Gershom.
Then God gave Moses his commission to go into Egypt, and release
His captive people. But Moses feared, and said, “I am of slow lips
and tongue!” for he had burnt them, with his finger, when he took the
live coal before Pharaoh, as already related. But God said to him, “I
have given thee Aaron thy brother to speak for thee. And now, what
is this that thou hast in thy hand?”
Moses answered, “This is my rod.”
“And to what purpose dost thou turn it?”
“I lean on it when I am walking, and when I come where there is no
grass, I strike the trees therewith, and bring down the leaves to feed
my sheep withal.” And when he had narrated all the uses to which he
put the staff, God said to him, “With this staff shalt thou prevail
against Pharaoh. Cast it upon the ground.” And when he cast it
down, it was transformed into a serpent or dragon, and Moses
turned his back to run from it; but God said, “Fear not; take it up by
the neck;” and he caught it, and it became a rod in his hands. Then
said the Most Holy, “Put thy hand into thy bosom.” And he did so,
and drew it forth, and it was white, and shining like the moon in the
dark of night.
Then Moses desired to go back to Zipporah his wife, but the angel
Gabriel retained him, saying, “Thou hast higher duties to perform
than to attend on thy wife. Lo! I have already reconducted her to her
father’s house. Go on upon thy way to Pharaoh, as the Lord hath
commanded thee.”
The night on which Moses entered Egyptian territory, an angel
appeared to Aaron in a dream, with a crystal glass full of good wine
in his hand, and said, as he extended it to him:—
“Aaron, drink of this wine which the Lord sends thee as a pledge of
good news. Thy brother Moses has returned to Egypt, and God has
chosen him to be His prophet, and thee to be his spokesman. Arise,
and go forth to meet him!”
Aaron therefore arose from his bed and went out of the city to the
banks of the Nile, but there was no boat there by which he could
cross. Suddenly he perceived in the distance a light which
approached; and as it drew nearer he saw that it was a horseman. It
was Gabriel mounted on a steed of fire, which shone like the
brightest diamond, and whose neighing was hymns of praise, for the
steed was one of the cherubim.
Aaron at first supposed that he was pursued by one of Pharaoh’s
horsemen, and he would have cast himself into the Nile; but Gabriel
stayed him, declared who he was, mounted him on the fiery cherub,
and they crossed the Nile on his back.
There stood Moses, who, when he saw Aaron, exclaimed, “Truth is
come, Falsehood is passed.” Now this was the sign that God had
given to Moses, “Behold he cometh to meet thee.”[489] And they
rejoiced over each other.
But another account is this: Moses entered Memphis with his sheep,
during the night. Now Amram was dead, but his wife Jochebed was
alive. When Moses reached the door, Jochebed was awake. He
knocked at the door; then she opened, but knew him not, and asked,
“Who art thou?”
He answered, “I am a man from a far country; I pray thee lodge me,
and give me to eat this night.”
She took him in, and brought him some meat, and said to Aaron, “Sit
down and eat with the guest, to do him honour.” Aaron, in eating,
conversed with Moses and recognized him.
Then the mother and sister knew him also. And when the meal was
over, Moses acquitted himself of his mission to Aaron, and Aaron
answered, “I will obey the will of God.”[490]
Moses spent the night, and the whole of the following day, in relating
to his mother the things that had befallen him.
And on the second night, Moses and Aaron went forth to Pharaoh’s
palace. Now the palace had four hundred doors, a hundred on each
side, and each door was guarded by sixty thousand fighting men.
The angel Gabriel came to them and led them into the palace, but
not by the doors.
When they appeared before Pharaoh, they said: “God hath sent us
unto thee to bid thee let the Hebrews go, that they may hold a feast
in the wilderness.”
But Pharaoh said, “Who is the Lord, that I should obey His voice to
let Israel go? I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go.”[491]
Tabari tells a different story. Moses and Aaron sought admittance
during two years. Now Pharaoh gave himself out to be a god.
But Moses and Aaron, when they spake at the door with the porters,
said, “He is no god.” One day the jester of Pharaoh heard his master
read the history of his own life, and when he came to the passage
which asserted he was a god, the jester exclaimed, “Now this is
strange! For two years there have been two strangers at thy gate
denying thy divinity.”
When Pharaoh heard this, he was in a fury, and he sent and had
Moses and Aaron brought before him.
But to return to the Rabbinic tale. Moses and Aaron were driven out
from the presence of Pharaoh; and he said, “Who admitted these
men?” And some of the porters he slew, and some he scourged.
Then two lionesses were placed before the palace, to protect it, and
the beasts suffered no man to enter unless Pharaoh gave the word.
And the Lord spake to Moses and Aaron, saying, “When Pharaoh
talketh with you, saying, Give us a miracle, thou shalt say to Aaron,
Take thy rod and cast it down, and it shall became a basilisk serpent;
for all the inhabitants of the earth shall hear the voice of the shriek of
Egypt when I destroy it, as all creatures heard the shriek of the
serpent when I stripped it, and took from it its legs and made it lick
the dust after the Fall.”[492]
On the morrow, Moses and Aaron came again to the king’s palace,
and the lionesses would have devoured them. Then Moses raised
his staff, and their chains brake, and they followed him, barking like
dogs, into the house.[493]
When Moses and Aaron stood before the king, Aaron cast down the
rod before Pharaoh, and before his servants, and it became a
serpent, which opened its jaws, and it laid one jaw beneath the
throne, and its upper jaw was over the canopy above it; then the
servants fled from before it, and Pharaoh hid himself beneath his
throne, and the fear it caused him gave him bowel-complaint for a
week. Now before this Pharaoh was only moved once a week, and
this was the occasion of his being lifted up with pride, and giving
himself out to be a god.[494]
Pharaoh cried out from under the throne, “O Moses, take hold of the
serpent, and I will do what you desire.”[495]
Moses took hold of the serpent, and it became a rod in his hands.
Then Pharaoh crawled out from under his throne, and sat down upon
it. And Moses put his hand into his bosom, and when he drew it
forth, it shone like the moon.
The king sent for his magicians, and the chief of these were Jannes
and Jambres. He told them what Moses had done.
They said, “We can turn a thousand rods into serpents.”
Then the king named a day when Moses and Aaron on one side
should strive with Jannes and Jambres[496] and all the magicians on
the other; and he gave them a month to prepare for the contest.
On the day appointed—it was Pharaoh’s birthday—all the inhabitants
of Memphis were assembled in a great plain outside the city, where
lists were staked out, and the royal tent was spread for the king to
view the contest.
Moses and Aaron stood on one side and the magicians on the other.
The latter said, “Shall we cast our rods, or will you?”
Moses answered, “Do you cast your rods first.”
Then the magicians threw down a hundred ass-loads of rods, tied
the rods together with cords, and by their enchantment caused them
to appear to the spectators like serpents, leaping and darting from
one side of the arena to the other.
And all the people were filled with fear, and the magicians said, “We
have this day triumphed over Moses.”
Then the prophet of God cast his rod before Pharaoh, and it became
a mighty serpent. It rolled its tail round the throne of the king, and it
shot forth its head, and swallowed all the rods of the enchanters, so
that there remained not one.
After that all had disappeared, Moses took the serpent, and it
became a rod in his hand again, but all the rods of the magicians
had vanished.
And when the magicians saw the miracle that Moses had wrought,
they were converted, and worshipped the true God. But Pharaoh cut
off their hands and feet, and crucified them; and they died.
Pharaoh’s own daughter Maschita believed; and the king in his rage
did not spare her, but cast her into a fire, and she was burnt. Bithia
was also denounced to him, and she was condemned to the flames,
but the angel Gabriel delivered her. The Mussulmans say that he
consoled her by telling her that she would become the wife of
Mohammed in Paradise, after which he gave her to drink, and when
she had tasted, she died without pain.
Then Moses and Aaron met Pharaoh in the morning as he went by
the side of the river, and Moses said to the king, “The Lord of the
Hebrews hath sent me unto thee, saying, Let My people go, that they
may serve Me in the wilderness.”
But Pharaoh would not hearken to him. Then Aaron stretched out his
rod over the river, and it became blood.
All the water that was in the vessels also became blood, even the
spittle that was in the mouth of the Egyptians. The Rabbi Levi said
that by this means the Israelites realized large fortunes; for if an
Israelite and an Egyptian went together to the Nile to fetch water, the
vessel of the Egyptian was found to contain blood, but that of the
Israelite pure water; but if an Israelite brought water to the house of
an Egyptian and sold it, it remained water.[497]
But Pharaoh’s heart was hard; and seven days passed, after that the
Lord had smitten the river.
Then went Moses and Aaron to him. But the four hundred doors of
the palace were guarded by bears, lions, and other savage beasts,
so that none might pass, till they were satisfied with flesh. But Moses
and Aaron came up, collected them together, drew a circle round
them with the sacred staff, and the wild beasts licked the feet of the
prophets and followed them into the presence of Pharaoh.[498]
Moses and Aaron repeated their message to Pharaoh, but he would
not hearken to them, but drove them from his presence. Aaron
smote the river; but Moses on no occasion smote the Nile, for he
respected the river which had saved his life as a babe.[499] Then the
Lord brought frogs upon the land, and filled all the houses; they were
in the beds, on the tables, in the cups. And the king sent for Moses
and said: “Intreat the Lord, that He may take the frogs from me and
from my people.” So the Lord sent a great rain, and it washed the
frogs into the Red Sea.
The next plague was lice.[500]
The fourth plague was wild beasts.
The fifth was murrain.
The sixth was boils and blains upon man and beast.[501]
The seventh was hail and tempest. Now Job regarded the word of
Moses, and he brought his cattle within doors, and they were saved;
but Balaam regarded it not, and all his cattle were destroyed.[502]
The eighth was locusts; these the Egyptians fried, and laid by in
store to serve them for food; but when the west wind came to blow
the locusts away, it blew away also those that had been pickled and
laid by for future consumption.[503]
The ninth plague was darkness.
The tenth was the death of the first-born.
The Book of Jasher says that, the Egyptians having closed their
doors and windows against the plagues of flies, and locusts, and
lice, God sent the sea-monster Silinoth, a huge polypus with arms
ten cubits long, and the beast climbed upon the roofs and broke
them up, and let down its slimy arms, and unlatched all the doors
and windows, and threw them open for the flies and locusts and lice
to enter.[504]
But the Mohammedans give a different order to the signs:—(1) the
rod changed into a serpent; (2) the whitened hand; (3) the famine;
(4) a deluge, the Nile rose over the land so that every man stood in
water up to his neck; (5) locusts; (6) anommals,—these are two-
legged animals smaller than locusts; (7) blood; (8) frogs; (9) every
green thing throughout the land, all fruit, all grain, eggs, and
everything in the houses were turned to stone.[505]
After the plague of the darkness, Pharaoh resolved on a general
massacre of all the children of the Hebrews. The Mussulmans put
the temporary petrifaction of all in the land in the place of the
darkness. The Book of Exodus says that during the darkness “they
saw not one another, neither rose any from his place;” but the Arabs
say that they were turned to stone. Here might be seen a petrified
man with a balance in his hand sitting in the bazaar; there, another
stone man counting out money; and the porters at the palace were
congealed to marble with their swords in their hands.[506] But others
say that this was a separate plague, and that the darkness followed
it.
And now Gabriel took on him the form of a servant of the king, and
he went before him and asked him what was his desire.
“That vile liar Moses deserves death,” said Pharaoh.
“How shall I slay him?” asked Gabriel.
“Let him be cast into the water.”
“Give me a written order,” said the angel. Pharaoh did so.
Then Gabriel went to Moses and told him that the time was come
when he was to leave Egypt with all the people, for the measure of
the iniquity of Pharaoh was filled up, and the Lord would destroy him
with a signal overthrow.
5. THE PASSAGE OF THE RED SEA.
The Israelites had made their preparations to depart out of Egypt a

month before the call came to escape.
And when all was ready, Moses called together the elders of the
people and said to them, “When Joseph died, he ordered his
descendants to take up his bones, or ever they went out of the land,
and to bear them to the cave of Machpelah, where lie the bones of
his father Jacob. Where are the bones of Joseph?”
The elders answered him, “We do not know.”
Now there was an old Egyptian woman, named Miriam, and she
believed in the Lord. She said to Moses, “I will show thee where is
the tomb of Joseph, if thou wilt swear unto me that thou wilt take me
with thee from Egypt, and that thou wilt ask the Most High to admit
me into Paradise.”
Moses said, “I will do these things that thou askest.”
Then the woman said, “The tomb of Joseph is in the middle of the
river Nile, which flows through Memphis, at such a spot.”
Moses prayed to God, and the water fell till the bed of the river was
left dry; and then he and the woman went into it, and came on the
tomb of Joseph; it was a sarcophagus of marble without joints.[507]
Moses made preparations for departure, and said to the children of
Israel, “God will destroy the Egyptians, and will give you their
precious things.”
Then every one among the Hebrews who had an Egyptian neighbour
said to him, if he was rich: “I am going to a feast in the country, I pray
thee lend me jewels of gold and silver to adorn my wife and
children.”
The Egyptians lent their precious things, and the Israelites by this
means found themselves possessed of borrowed jewels in great
abundance. Then Moses said, “We will leave Egypt this night when
the Egyptians are asleep. Let every housekeeper softly desert his
house, and bring with him his precious things, and meet outside the
town. And let every one slay a lamb, and sprinkle with the blood the
lintel and door-posts of the house, that the neighbours may know,
when they see the blood, that the house is empty.”
When the middle of the night was passed, the Israelites were
assembled outside Memphis, at the place which Moses had
appointed. Then the host was numbered, and it contained six
hundred thousand horsemen, not including those who were on foot,
the women, the children, and the aged. All who were under twenty
were accounted infants, and all who were over sixty were accounted
aged.
After that, Moses placed Aaron in command of the first battalion, and
he said to him, “March in the direction of the sea, for Gabriel has
promised to meet me on its shores.” At that time one branch of the
Nile (the Pelusiac branch) flowed into the Red Sea, which extended
over where is now sandy desert to Migdol.
Moses made the host follow Aaron, troop by troop, and tribe by tribe;
and he brought up the rear with a strong guard of picked men.
It was dawning towards the first day of the week when Israel
escaped out of Egypt.
And when day broke, behold, they were gone away. Then the
Egyptians came and told Pharaoh. He sent to search all the houses
of the Israelites, but they were all empty, only their lamps were left
burning. Pharaoh said, “We will pursue them.” The Egyptians said,
“They have borrowed our jewels; we must follow after them, and
recover what is our own.”
Now Moses had used craft touching these ornaments, in order that
the Egyptians might be constrained to follow. For if the Israelites had
gone without these, the Egyptians would have rejoiced at their
departure. But because they had borrowed of the Egyptians,
therefore the Egyptians went after them to recover their ornaments,
and by this means rushed into destruction.
And Israel marched all day through the wilderness protected by
seven clouds of glory on their four sides: one above them, that
neither hail nor rain might fall upon them, nor that they should be
burned by the heat of the sun; one beneath them, that they might not
be hurt by thorns, serpents, or scorpions; and one went before them,
to make the valleys even, and the mountains low, and to prepare
them a place of habitation.[508]
Also, when the morning dawned, there was not a house in all Egypt
in which there was not a first-born dead. And this delayed the people
from pursuing after the Israelites; for they were engaged in bewailing
their dead, and in digging graves for them. Thus they were not at
leisure to follow after their former slaves, till they had escaped clean
away.
Also that night was every metal image in Egypt molten, and every
idol of stone was broken, and every idol of clay was shattered, and
every idol of wood was dissolved to dust.[509]
The same day Pharaoh sent into all the cities of Egypt and collected
an army. When even was come the whole army was assembled
about the king, and Pharaoh said to Dathan and Abiram, who had
remained behind,[510] “The Israelites are few in number, they are
entangled in the land, the wilderness hath shut them in.” For all the
way was full of marshes and canals of water and desert tracts. “They
have acted wrongly by us, for they have carried away the ornaments
and jewels of our people; and Moses, by magic, has slain all our
first-born, so that there is not a house in which there is not one
dead.”
On the morrow—it was the second day of the week—the army was
reviewed, and Pharaoh numbered the host, and he had six hundred
chosen chariots, and two million foot soldiers, and five million
horsemen, and, in addition, there were one million seven hundred
thousand horses, and on these horses were black men.
When the sun rose on the third day, Pharaoh marched out of
Memphis, and he pursued for half a day with forced marches. At
noon, Pharaoh had come up with Moses, and the fore-front of
Pharaoh’s army thrust the rear-guard of the army of Moses. Then the
children of Israel cried unto the Lord, and they said to Moses,
“Because there were no graves in Egypt, hast thou taken us away to
die in the wilderness? Wherefore hast thou dealt thus with us, to
carry us forth out of Egypt?”
They were divided into four opinions. One set said, “Let us fling
ourselves into the sea.” Another set said, “Let us return and
surrender ourselves.” The third set said, “Let us array battle against
the Egyptians.” The fourth recommended, “Let us shout against
them, and frighten them away with our clamour.”[511]
And Moses said unto the people, “Fear ye not, stand still, and see
the salvation of the Lord. The Lord shall fight for you, and ye shall
hold your peace.”[512]
Then Moses raised his rod over the sea, and it divided, and let
twelve channels of dry land appear traversing it, one for each of the
twelve tribes. “When Moses had smitten,” says the Koran, “the sea
divided into twelve heaps, and left twelve ways through it, and each
heap was as a great mountain.”[513]
The Israelites hesitated to enter; for they said, “O Moses! the bottom
of this sea is black mud, and when we place our feet on it we shall
sink in and be swallowed up.”
But Moses prayed to God, and He sent a wind and the rays of the
sun, and the wind and the sun dried the mud, and it became as
sand.
Then Gabriel and Michael appeared to Moses, and said, “Pass on,
and lead the people through. As for us, we have orders to tarry for
Pharaoh.” So Moses galloped forward into the sea, crying, “In the
name of the merciful and glorious God!” and all the people went in
after him. But as they marched by twelve ways, and there were walls
of water between, they could not see each other, and they were in
fear; therefore Moses prayed to the Lord, and the Lord made the
water-heaps rise and arch over them like bowers, and shelter them
from the fire of the sun; and He made the watery walls so clear they
were as sheets of glass, and through them the columns of the
advancing army were visible to each other.
Moses traversed the sea in two hours, and he came forth with all the
people on the other side.
Then Pharaoh and his host came to the water’s side, but he feared
to enter in. Now Pharaoh was mounted on an entire horse of great
beauty. He reined in his steed and would not go forward, for he
thought that this was part of the enchantment of Moses.
But now Gabriel appeared mounted on a mare, and this was the
cherub Ramka.[514] And when the horse of Pharaoh saw the mare of
Gabriel, he plunged forward and followed the mare into the sea.
Then, when the Egyptian army saw their king enter fearlessly into
one of the channels, they also precipitated themselves into the ways
through the deep.
They advanced till they reached the middle of the Red Sea, and then
Gabriel reined in and turned and unfurled before Pharaoh the order
he had given for the destruction of Moses in the water, and it was
signed by Pharaoh and sealed with his own signet.
“See!” exclaimed the angel. “What thou wouldest do to Moses, that
shall be done to thee; for thou art but a man, thou who fightest
against God.”
Then the twelve heaps of water overwhelmed the host. But
Pharaoh’s horse was so fleet of foot that he outfled the returning
waters, and he brought the king to the shore. He would have been
saved, had not Gabriel smitten him on the face, and he fell back into
the sea and perished with the rest. Then said Miriam, as he sank,
“Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath triumphed gloriously; the horse and
his rider hath He thrown into the sea.”[515]
Another curious incident is related by Tabari. When the water
reached Pharaoh, and he knew that he must perish, he cried out, “I
believe in the God of Israel!” Gabriel, fearing lest Pharaoh should
repeat these words, and that God in His mercy should accept his
profession of faith, and pardon him, passed his wing over the bottom
of the sea, raised the earth, and threw it into the mouth of Pharaoh
so as to prevent him from swallowing again, and said, “Now thou
believest, but before thou wast rebellious; nevertheless, thou art
numbered with the wicked.”[516]
It was the ninth hour of the day when the children of Israel stood on
dry land on the further side of the sea.
On the morrow, the children of Israel assembled around Moses, and
said to him, “We do not believe that Pharaoh is drowned, for he had
peculiar power. He never suffered from headache, nor from fever,
nor from any sickness, and was internally moved but once a week.”
Then Moses clave the sea asunder with his rod, and they saw
Pharaoh and all his host dead at the bottom of the sea. The bodies
of the Egyptians were covered with armour and much gold and
silver, and on the corpse of Pharaoh were chains and bracelets of
gold. The children of Israel would have spoiled the dead, but Moses
forbade them, for he said, “It is lawful to spoil the living, but it is
robbery to strip the dead.” Nevertheless many of the Hebrews went
in and took from the Egyptians all that was valuable. Then God was
wroth, because they had disobeyed Moses, and the sea was
troubled, and for ten days it raged with fury, and even to this day the
water is not at rest where the Israelites committed this sin. And the
name of that place at this day is Bab el Taquath.[517]
6. THE GIVING OF THE LAW.
As long as Moses was with them, the Israelites did not venture to
make idols, but when God summoned Moses into the Mount to talk
with Him face to face, then they spake to Aaron that he should make
a molten god to go before them.
Aaron bade them break off their earrings and bracelets and give
them to him, for he thought that they would be reluctant to part with
their jewels. Nevertheless the people brought their ornaments to him
in great abundance, and one named Micah cast them into a copper
vessel; and when the gold was melted, he threw in a handful of the
sand which had been under the hoof of Gabriel’s horse, and there
came forth a calf, which ran about like a living beast, and bellowed;
for Sammael (Satan) had entered into it. “Here is your god that shall
go before you,” cried Micah; and all the people fell down and
worshipped the golden calf.[518]
And when Moses came down from the Mount and drew near to the
camp, and saw the calf, and the instruments of music in the hands of
the wicked, who were dancing and bowing before it, and Satan
among them dancing and leaping before the people, the wrath of
Moses was suddenly kindled, and he cast the tables of the
Commandments, which he had received from God in the Mount, out
of his hand and brake them at the foot of the mountain; but the holy
writing that was on them flew, and was carried away into the
heavens; and he cried, and said, “Woe upon the people who have
heard from the mouth of the Holy One, ‘Thou shalt not make to
thyself any image, a figure, or any likeness;’ and yet at the end of
forty days make a useless molten calf!”
And he took the calf which they had made, and burned it with fire,
and crushed it to powder, and cast it upon the face of the water of
the stream, and made the sons of Israel drink; and whoever had
given thereto any trinket of gold, the sign of it came forth upon his
nostrils.[519]
Of all the children of Israel only twelve thousand were found who had
not worshipped the calf.[520]
The Mussulmans say that the Tables borne by Moses were from ten
to twelve cubits in length, and were made, say some, of cedar wood,
but others say of ruby, others of carbuncle; but the general opinion is
that they were of sapphire or emerald;[521] and the letters were
graven within them, not on the surface, so that the words could be
read on either side. When the golden calf had been pounded to dust,
Moses made the Israelites drink water in which was the dust, and
those who had kissed the idol were marked with gilt lips. Thus the
Levites were able to distinguish them; and they slew of them twenty
and three thousand.[522]
It is a common tradition among the Jews that the red hair which is by
no means infrequently met with in the Hebrew race is derived from
this period; all those who had sinned and drank of the water lost their
black hair and it became red, and they transmitted the colour to their
posterity.
Another version of the story is as follows. Samiri (Micah), who had
fashioned the golden calf, was of the tribe of Levi. When Moses
came down from the Mount, he would have beaten Aaron, but his
brother said, “It is not I, it is Samiri who made the calf.” Then Moses
would have slain Samiri, but God forbade him, and ordered him
instead to place him under ban.
From that time till now, the man wanders, like a wild beast, from one
end of the earth to the other; every man avoids him, and cleanses
the earth on which his feet have rested; and when he comes near
any man, he cries out, “Touch me not!”
But before Moses drave Samiri out of the camp, he ground the calf
to powder, and made Samiri pollute it; then he mixed it with the
water, and gave it to the Israelites to drink. After Samiri had
departed, Moses interceded with God for the people. But God
answered, “I cannot pardon them, for their sin is yet in them, and it
will only be purged out by the draught they have drunk.”
When Moses returned to the camp, he heard a piteous cry. Many
Israelites with yellow faces and livid bodies cast themselves before
him, and cried, “Help! Moses, help! the golden calf consumes our
intestines; we will repent and die, if the Lord will pardon us.”
Some, really contrite, were healed. Then a black cloud came down
on the camp, and all those who were in it fought with one another
and slew one another; but upon the innocent the swords had no
power. Seven thousand idolaters had been slain, when Moses,
hearing the cry of the women and children, came and prayed; and
the cloud vanished, and the sword rested.[523]
According to some, the complaint caused by swallowing the dust of
the calf was jaundice, a complaint which has never ceased from
among men since that day. Thus the calf brought two novelties into
the world, red hair and jaundice.
And Moses went up again into the Mount, and took with him seventy
of the elders. And he besought the Lord, “Suffer me, O Lord, to see
Thee!”[524] But the Lord answered him, “Thinkest thou that thou canst
behold Me and live?” And He said, “Look at this mountain; I will
display Myself to this mountain.”
Then the mountain saw God, and it dissolved into fine dust. So
Moses knew that it was not for him to see God, and he repented that
he had asked this thing.[525] After that he went with the seventy elders
to Sinai, and a cloud, white and glistening, came down and rested on
the head of Moses, and then descended and wholly enveloped him,
so that the seventy saw him not; and when he was in the cloud, he
received again the Tables of the Commandments, and he came forth
out of the cloud. But they murmured that they had not also received
the revelation. Then the cloud enveloped them also, and they heard
all the words that had been spoken to Moses; and after that they
said, “Now we believe, because we have heard with our own ears.”
Then the wrath of God blazed forth, and a thundering was heard so
great and terrible that they fainted and died. But Moses feared, and
he prayed to God, and God restored the seventy men to life again,
and they came down the Mount with him.[526]
And it was at this time that the face of Moses shone with the
splendour which had come upon him from the brightness of the glory
of the Lord’s Shekinah in the time of His speaking with him. And
Aaron and all the sons of Israel saw Moses, and, behold, the glory of
his face was dazzling, so that they were afraid to come near to him.
And Moses called to them, and Aaron, and all the princes of the
congregation; and he taught them all that the Lord had spoken to
him on Mount Sinai. And when Moses spoke with them, he had a veil
upon his face; and when he went up to speak with the Lord, he
removed the veil from his countenance until he came forth.[527]
This was the reason why the face of Moses shone. He saw the light
which God had created, whereby Adam was enabled to see from
one end of the earth to the other. God showed this light now to
Moses, and thereby he was able to see to Dan.[528]
When Moses went up into the Mount, a cloud received him, and bore
him into heaven. On his way, he met the door-keeper Kemuel, chief
of twelve thousands of angels of destruction; they were angels of
fire; and he would have prevented Moses from advancing: then
Moses pronounced the Name in twelve letters, revealed to him by
God from the Burning Bush, and the angel and his host recoiled
before that word twelve thousand leagues. But some say that Moses
smote the angel, and wounded him.
A little further, Moses met another angel; this was Hadarniel, who
had a terrible voice, and every word he uttered split into twelve
thousand lightnings; he reigned six hundred thousand leagues
higher than Kemuel. Moses, in fear, wept at his voice, and would
have fallen out of the cloud, had not God restrained him. Then the
prophet pronounced the Name of seventy-two letters, and the angel
fled.
Next he came to the fiery angel Sandalfon, and he would have fallen
out of the cloud, but God held him up. Then he reached the river of
flame, called Rigjon, which flows from the beasts which are beneath
the Throne, and is filled with their sweat; across this God led him.[529]
It is asserted by the Rabbis that Moses learnt the whole law in the
forty days that he was in the Mount, but as he descended from the
immediate presence of God, he entered the region where stood the
angels guarding the Mount, and when he saw the Angel of Fear, the
Angel of Sweat, the Angel of Trembling, and the Angel of Cold
Shuddering, he was so filled with consternation, that he forgot all that
he had learnt.
Then God sent the Angel Jephipha, who brought back all to his
remembrance; and, armed with the law, Moses passed the ranks of
all the angels, and each gave him some secret or mystery; one the
art of mixing simples, one that of reading in the stars, another that of
compounding antidotes, a fourth the secret of name, or the Kabalistic
mystery.[530]
It is said by the Mussulmans, that when the law was declared to the
children of Israel by Moses, they refused to receive it; then Mount
Sinai rose into the air, and moved above them, and they fled from it;
but it followed them, and hung over their heads ready to crush them.
And Moses said, “Accept the law, or the mountain will fall on you and
destroy you.”
Then they fell on their faces and placed the right side of the brow
and right cheek against the ground and looked up with the left eye at
the mountain that hung above them, and said, “We will accept the
law.” This is the manner in which the Jews to this day perform their
worship, says Tabari; they place the brow and right cheek and eye
upon the ground, and turn the left cheek and eye to heaven, and in
this position they pray.[531]

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solution Figure P-5

SEcTIon 5–5 CheCKup

Troubleshooting Section Many chapters include a troubleshooting section that relates to

1. Explain the difference in operation between an astable multivibrator and a monosta-

7–7 Troubleshooting CLK B CLK A

typical Applied Logic feature.

◆ Core Fundamentals The fundamental topics of digital technology should be cov-

◆ Troubleshooting Troubleshooting sections appear in many chapters and include

Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts 1

Chapter 2 Number Systems, Operations, and Codes 51

Chapter 3 Logic Gates 111

Chapter 4 Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification 177

4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits 189

Chapter 5 Combinational Logic Analysis 247

Chapter 6 Functions of Combinational Logic 299

Chapter 7 Latches, Flip-Flops, and Timers 373

Chapter 8 Shift Registers 435

Chapter 9 Counters 483

Chapter 10 Programmable Logic 547

Chapter 11 Data Storage 613

Chapter 12 Signal Conversion and Processing 683

Chapter 13 Data transmission 725

Chapter 14 Data Processing and Control 787

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-1

Chapter Outline Key Terms

1–1 Digital and Analog Quantities

FIGURE 1–1 Graph of an analog quantity (temperature versus time).

FIGURE 1–2 Sampled-value representation (quantization) of the analog quantity in

The Digital Advantage

Original sound waves

Amplified audio signal

FIGURE 1–3 A basic audio public address system.

A System Using Digital and Analog Methods

10110011101 Digital-to-analog Linear amplifier

Electromechanical Robotic unit

Section 1–1 Checkup

Answers are at the end of the chapter.

1–2 Binary Digits, Logic Levels, and Digital Waveforms

Another system in which a 1 is represented by a LOW and a 0 is represented by a HIGH is

Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or

(a) Positive–going pulse (b) Negative–going pulse

FIGURE 1–7 Ideal pulses.

FIGURE 1–9 Examples of digital waveforms.

A portion of a periodic digital waveform is shown in Figure 1–10. The measurements

*Answers are at the end of the chapter.

A Digital Waveform Carries Binary Information

FIGURE 1–11 Example of a clock waveform synchronized with a waveform representation

FIGURE 1–12 Example of a timing diagram.

The Israelites had made their preparations to depart out of Egypt a

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