SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIPS

- Root zone (depth of soil penetrated by roots) soils provide the storage reservoir which
needs to be periodically recharged.

- Knowledge on infiltration, movement of water and water holding capacity of soil is

essential for efficient irrigation.

1. Physical properties

(a) Soil texture- the size of the particles making up a soil and their relative proportion.

- USDA Classification: <0.002 mm – clay

0.002 to 0.05mm – silt
0.05 to 1.0 mm – sand
- Soil texture can be determined from grain-size distribution using textural classification
chart.

(b) Soil structure- arrangement of soil particles in situ

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑀𝑆
(c) Bulk density, 𝜌𝑏 = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑉𝑏

𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜌
(d) Apparent specific gravity, 𝐴𝑠 = = 𝜌𝑏
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑀𝑆
(e) Particle density, 𝜌𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠

𝜌
(f) Real specific gravity, 𝑅𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑠
𝑤

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
(g) Porosity, 𝑛 = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

2. Soil-moisture content

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑤
(a) Mass water content, 𝜃𝑚 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑀𝑠

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉
(b) Volumetric water content, 𝜃𝑣 = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑉𝑤
𝑏
 - θv is more useful since it represents the equivalent depth of water per unit depth of soil
dw =θvDs

𝑀𝑤
𝑉𝑤 𝜌 𝑤 𝜌𝑏
𝜃𝑣 = = 𝑀𝑠 = 𝜃𝑚 = 𝜃𝑚 𝐴𝑠 ∴ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝜃𝑚 𝐴𝑠 𝐷𝑠
𝑉𝑏 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑏

3. Soil-water tension

- In unsaturated soils, water is held in the soil matrix under negative pressure due to
attraction of the soil matrix for water.
- Instead of referring to this negative pressure the water is said to be subjected to a tension
exerted by the soil matrix.
- The tension with which the water is held in understand soil is termed as soil-moisture
tension, soil-moisture suction or, matric potential.

Classes and availability of soil water

Soil-water can be classified as:

(i) Hygroscopic water- water held tightly to the surface of the grains by adsorption

(ii) Capillary water- water held by surface tension in the pore spaces

(iii) Gravitational water- water moves freely in response to gravity.

Field capacity

- It is the water content of the soil when gravitational water has been removed
- It represents the upper limit of available soil water range
- It is determined 2 days after an irrigation or thorough wetting. (Limitations: restricting
layers, high water table, surface evaporation, consumptive use by crops)
- Water content corresponding to a soil-moisture tension of 1/10 atm for sandy soil to 1/3
atm for stilly or clay soil
- Field capacity is determined by ponding water on the soil surface in an area of about 2-5
m2 and permitting it to drain for 1-3 days with surface evaporation prevented (spreading a
polythene sheet or thick straw mulch). One to three days after thorough wetting, soil
samples are collected from different depths. Moisture content is determined by
gravimetric method

Permanent Wilting Point

- It is the moisture content at which plant can no longer extract sufficient water for its
growth and wilts permanently
- Wilting depends on rate of water use, depth of root zone and water holding capacity of
the soil
- Lower end of available moisture range
- Water content corresponding to soil-moisture tension of 15 atm
𝐹𝐶
- As an approximation PW can be estimated a𝑃𝑊 =
2 𝑡𝑜 2.4
- Permanent wilting point is determined by growing indicator plants (sunflower) in small
containers. The plants are allowed to wilt and are then placed in a chamber with an
 approximately saturated atmosphere to test their permanent wilting. The residual soil
moisture content is determined

Available Water

- It is the difference in water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent
wilting.
- It represents the moisture which can be stored in the soil for subsequent use by plants
- The moisture near the wilting point is not readily available to the plant. The portion of the
available moisture which is most easily extracted by plants is termed as readily available
moisture.
- Irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture content falls up to the
optimum level. The optimum level represents the maximum deficiency up to which the
soil moisture may be allowed without any fall in crop yields.
- The amount of irrigation should be just sufficient to bring the moisture content up to its
field capacity making allowance for application losses.

Management allowable depletion, f

- It is the degree to which the water in the soil is allowed to be depleted by management
RAW = f * available water, where f is depletion factor
- Values of f depends on crop type, rooting depth, rooting pattern, sensitivity to stress, etc.
- Typically, f = 40% for shallow rooted crops, 50% for averaged crops, 60% for deep rooted
crops

5. Measurement of Soil Moisture

- to determine the time and amount of irrigation
- to determine the use rate
i. Appearance and feel method
- soil samples throughout the root zone are collected
- by looking and feeling soil moisture deficiency is determined using guidelines
- not precise and requires experience and judgment
- simple, quick and requires no equipment except soil auger

ii. Gravimetric method

- Involves weighing a sample of moist soil, drying to a constant weight at a temperature of
1050-1100C, and reweighing
- Most accurate and direct method
- Destructive, labour intensive and time consuming
- Several samples are required to obtain a satisfactory representative value
iii. Electro-resistance blocks
- Porous blocks (Gypsum) containing desired electrical elements are placed into the soil
 - As the moisture content of the blocks changes, the electrical resistance changes
- Gypsum blocks are soluble and deteriorate in 1 to 3 seasons, calibration changes

iv. Tensiometer

- A porous ceramic cup filled with water and attached to a vacuum gauge or mercury
manometer.
- A hole is bored or dug to a desired depth, a handful of loose soil is placed into the hole,
and the cup is pushed firmly into the soil. The water inside the cup comes into hydraulic
contact with soil water through the pores in the cup. Soil water exercises a suction which
draws out a certain amount of water causing a drop in pressure registered by the vacuum
gauge.
- Effective up to a tension of 0.8 atm. At this pressure air enters the closed system through
the pores of the cup and makes the unit inoperative.
- Tensiometer reading does not give direct information on the moisture content; a soil-
moisture characteristic curve is required to determine moisture content
- Since these units operate satisfactorily only up to tensions of 0.8 atm, they are most
useful in sandy soils where this represents a major portion of the available water
- Sometimes a combination of tensiometer and resistance blocks is used, since the blocks
become sensitive at about the same degree of moisture content that the tensiometer ceases
to function
V. Neutron method

- A hole is dug, a metal tube is driven into the hole, and a neutron source and a counting
device are lowered to the desired depth.
- Fast neutrons are emitted from the source into the surrounding soil which are slowed
down by the soiol water. The slow neutron reaching the counting device are recorded.
Fasr neutrons are not registered by the counter.

- There exists a good correlation between moisture content and the number of slow down
neutrons reaching the counter.
𝑅𝑠
𝜃𝑣 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑅𝑠𝑡
a, b = calibration coefficients, Rs = count rate in the soil, Rst = standard count rate
- It measures θv directly, gives average value of the area of influence, nondestructive.
- Expensive, cannot be used to measure near the surface, needs calibration and may be
hazardous.

vi. Time-DomainReflectometry (TDR)

- The wave guide or probe of the device is embedded in the soil and the time of travel
of a pulse along the wave guide is measured. From the travel time analysis the soil’s
bulk dielectric constant is computed, from which the volumetric water content of the
soil is inferred

- Highly accurate, no calibration is required, nondestructive, gives average ϴv for the

soil depth
- Expensive, electrodes are difficult to install in stony and heavy compacted soils

6. Flow of water through soils

- Flow occurs in the direction of decreasing piezometric or hydraulic head

𝑝
- Piezometeric or hydraulic head, ℎ = 𝛾 + 𝑧
∆ℎ
- The quantity of flow can be ascertained by applying Darcy’s law 𝑣 = 𝐾 ∆𝑠
Where, v = flow velocity
K = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity
∆ℎ
= hydraulic gradient or slope of the piezometric headline
∆𝑠

- The hydraulic head, h can be measured by piezometer in saturated soil and by

tensiometer in unsaturated soil.
 - For unsaturated soil the hydraulic conductivity decreases many folds as the moisture
content decreases. Moreover, it is difficult to measure h because tensiometer becomes
inoperative when the tension exceeds 0.8 atm. Furthermore, flow occurs in both
liquid and vapour phases.

7. Infiltration

- Time rate of entry of water into soil

- Whenever the soil surface configuration influences the rate of entry the term intake is
used
- It has great practical importance – design and operation of water application system
- Factors influencing infiltration includes: initial moisture content, condition of soil
surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile, viscosity of water and depth of
water on the soil surface.
- The infiltration rate, I can be expressed as: I = atn
- When the observation extends over long period a better fit can be obtained by:
I = atn+b
∆ℎ
𝐼=𝑘
∆𝑠
- Initially I is high because of large difference in tension in addition to gravity; after
several hours difference in tension becomes zero and hydraulic gradient equals to
utility and I approaches to Ks.
- Infiltrometers are used to collect data for deriving infiltration equation.