Christian Lozada

BSEd-SCI 2 2D

PRE-TEST
1. Snake venom
2. Chloroplast
3. Myosin
4. Lipoproteins
5. Cytochrome C
6. Simple Proteins
7. Fibrous Proteins
8. Ovalbumin
9. Hemoglobin
10. Photosynthesis
11. Enzymes
12. Glucose, Fructose
13. Chlorophyll
14. Acetyl CoA
15. Adenosine Triphosphate

TEST I. FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Snake venom
2. Myosin
3. Simple Proteins
4. Buchner
5. Fibrous Proteins
6. Ovalbumin
7. Hemoglobin
8. Keratin
9. Enzymes
10. Insulin
11. Globular Proteins
12. Casein
13. Antibodies
14. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
15. Glutamic acid

TEST II. MATCHING TYPE

1. J
2. E
3. F
4. D
5. G
6. K
7. I
8. C
9. A
 10. B

TEST III. DISCUSSION

1. Discuss enzyme-substrate complex (5pts)
An enzyme forms the enzyme substrate complex, a transitory molecule,
when it makes complete contact with its substrate. An enzyme takes on a
somewhat altered form in the absence of its substrate. Upon entering the
active site, the substrate results in a conformational shift, or shape change.

2. Using Kjeldahl nitrogen procedure, you can estimate the protein content of
biological matter, how? (5pts)
We can estimate protein content using kjeldahl nitrogen procedure by
only determining the nitrogen content and multiplying 6.25(100116)

3. Enumerate and briefly discuss the nature of enzymes (8pts)

a. Enzymes are active in extremely small amount.
It claims that a chemical reaction that may transform a significant
amount of substrate into a product only requires a tiny amount of enzyme
to continue.
b. True catalysts remain unaffected by the reaction, which they catalyze.
Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction and remain unchanged after
it. However, variations in pH, temperature, and other variables will have
an impact on the reactions they catalyze.
c. Enzymes considerably hastens the completion of a reaction, it will not
affect the equilibrium of that reaction.
Enzymes speed up the rate at which reactants and products approach
equilibrium, but they do not change the equilibrium concentrations of
these components.
d. Catalytic reaction/action is specific
Catalysts are selective. Catalyst doesn't just speed up all reactions, but
only a very particular reaction.

4. One of the biological functions OF proteins is for immune protection, discuss

on how?(5 pts )
Immunoglobulins, or antibodies, which fight infection, are formed with
the aid of proteins. Antibodies, which are blood proteins, aid in defending our
bodies against pathogenic invaders like bacteria and viruses. Our body creates
antibodies that target these foreign invaders for destruction when they
penetrate our cells.

5. Enumerate and discuss the factors affecting enzyme activity (13pts)

a. Substrate concentration
If there is a lot of substrate, enzymes will function best. The rate
of enzyme activity increases together with the concentration of the
 substrate. Enzyme activity does not, however, always grow at the
same rate.
b. Enzyme concentration
Enzyme activity rises when enzyme concentration rises because
there are more enzymes to form complexes with substrates.
c. Temperature
In general, a reaction is sped up by increasing temperature and slowed
down by decreasing temperature. Extreme heat, on the other hand, can
cause an enzyme to lose its structure and cease functioning.

d. Hydrogen concentration (PH)

There is an ideal pH range for each enzyme. Outside of this
range, pH changes will limit enzyme activity. Enzymes can denature
at extreme pH levels.
e. Inhibitors
Enzyme inhibitors are substances that alter the enzyme's
catalytic capabilities. As a result, they reduce the enzyme's ability to
catalyze reactions or, in extreme cases, completely stop them. These
inhibitors function by obstructing or changing the active site.

6. Discuss the effect of mercury, lead and cadmium on the activities of enzymes
(15pts)
a. Mercury
Most proteins become inactive once mercury binds to them. To put it
simply, mercury binds to an enzyme in an irreversible manner, altering its
conformation and inhibiting the binding of its typical substrate.
b. Lead
Lead directly affects the hematological system by blocking several
important enzymes involved in the heme synthesis pathway, which limits
the production of hemoglobin. Additionally, it shortens the lifespan of
circulating erythrocytes by making cell membranes more fragile.
c. Cadmium
Cadmium exposure exhibited an inhibitory influence on the
disaccharidases, amylase, and pepsase activity in terms of digestive
enzymes. At lower concentrations, Cadmium was found to significantly
induce trypsin activity; however, as Cadmium concentration rose, trypsin
activity reduced.

POST-TEST
TEST I. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. B
 6. C
7. D
8. B
9. B
10. A
11. B
12. C
13. D
14. A
15. B
16. B
17. A
18. B
19. D
20.C
21. A
22. C
23. A
24. B
25. A

TEST II. ENUMERATION/DISCUSSION

1. Trace the history of photosynthesis in sequence and specify the contributions

of the scientist or the work done related to photosynthesis ( 10 pts)

 Early Greeks - taught that the plant obtained its food directly from the
earth
 Jan Baptista van Helmont (1600’s)- A willow tree that was planted in a
pot with soil and kept in a controlled setting for five years was the
subject of an experiment by Helmont. Helmont wanted to prove plants
use materials from the soil to perform photosynthesis, and he came to
the conclusion that the tree grew by consuming water.
 Woodward (1699) - state that more than water was required by plants.
 Hales (1727) - Plants very probably draw through their leaves some part
of their nourishment from the air, may not light
 Joseph Priestley (1774) - He placed a candle and a mint plant in a
covered container. As the candle flame ran out of oxygen, it died.
Priestley was able to relight the candle after 27 days. This demonstrated
that plants create a gas that enables the burning of fuels. Although
Priestley did not know it at the time, his experiments proved that air
contains oxygen.
 Jan Ingenhousz (1779) - Submerged plants were first planted in the sun
by Ingenhousz, and later in the shadow. He found that when the plants
 were exposed to sunlight, they began to form little bubbles. These
plants stopped producing bubbles after they were moved into the
shade. Ingenhousz later came to the conclusion that plants create
oxygen via light.
 Jean Senebier (1796) - explained how plants use sunlight to absorb
carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
 Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure (1800’s) - established that while plants
require carbon dioxide, their increased mass as they grow is also due to
their intake of water, not just carbon dioxide.
 Julius Robert Mayer (1840s) - claimed that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. This is referred to as the first law of thermodynamics. He
suggested that plants transform light energy into chemical energy.
 Blackman (1905) - demonstrating that photosynthesis is not only a
photochemical reaction but also a biochemical reaction.
 Hill (1937) - demonstrated that isolated chloroplasts in the presence of
light, water and suitable hydrogen acceptor evolve oxygen in the
absence of carbon dioxide

2. CAM survive in deserts why? (5pts)

Stomata in cacti are located deep into the tissue as opposed to the
surface. Furthermore, a photosynthetic adaptation known as Crassulacean
acid metabolism causes the stomata to open at night (CAM). This drastically
lowers water loss, which is crucial in a dry environment, together with the
deep-layer stomata.

3. Trace the 38 ATP formed form the complete oxidation of glucose to carbon
dioxide and water. Show the reaction and the details on how the 38 ATP was
formed. (30pts)

Glycolysis
One molecule of glucose is converted to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
There are 4 ATP produced minus two ATP consumed, there is a net gain of
two ATP. In addition, glucose to be converted to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid,
there are 4 hydrogen released used to reduced two molecules of NAD. In
aerobic organisms, this two NADH2 will enter the ETS and reoxidized. The
hydrogen or energy released will be used to synthesize ATP from ADP + IP.
For every molecule of NADH2, three ATP molecules will be synthesized,
hence, a total of eight (8) ATP molecules will be formed.

C6H12O6 2C3H4O3 + 4H (2NADH2) (ETS)

Glucose Pyruvic acid
 2 net ATP + 6 ATP (produce in the ETS) = 8 ATP

Acetyl CoA Formation

Two molecules of NADH will enter the ETS and reoxidized. The
hydrogen/electrons/energy released will be used to synthesize ATP. For every one
molecule of NADH2, 3 ATP will be synthesized, hence, a total of 6 ATP from the
conversion of two molecules of pyruvic acid to two molecules of Acetyl CoA.

2Pyruvic Acid + 2CoA + 2NAD 2Acetyl CoA + 2NADH +2CO2

2C3H4O3 + 2CoA + 2NAD 2CH3C=OCoA
Pyruvic Acid Acetyl CoA

A Krebs cycle intermediate is oxidized, releasing two hydrogen atoms in the

process. The two electrons possessed by the hydrogen atoms are passed along a
sequential series of cytochrome enzymes to oxygen. Three molecules of ATP are
produced for every pair of electrons passed along this system. Releasing a 24 ATP
molecules
Reduced pyridine nucleotides will enter the ETS and reoxidized. The hydrogen
released will be used to synthesize ATP. For every molecule of NADPH2/NADH2, 3
ATP molecules will be formed and 2 ATP for every molecule of FADH2.
All of the preceding events result in a net ATP gain of 38 molecules from a single
glucose molecule.
Glycolysis = 8 ATP
Acetyl CoA Formation = 6 ATP
Krebs Cycle = 24 ATP
38 AT P

4. What is ETS discuss the significance. (5pts)

The oxidative phosphorylation process, also known as the electron
transport chain, is a collection of four protein complexes that combine redox
events to produce an electrochemical gradient that results in the production of
ATP. The inner mitochondrial membrane contains the ETS, or electron
transport system. It aids in releasing and using the energy held in NADH2 and
FADH2 molecules. An NADH dehydrogenase is responsible for oxidizing the
NADH2 produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
5. What is photolysis or water? Explain
Photolysis is the splitting of a molecule using light energy, which in the
context of photosynthesis is water. Photolysis is required for photosynthesis to
function because this process replaces the electron that has been lost from
Photosystem II.

6. Discuss the process of light reaction of photosynthesis, show the reaction and
discuss the significance (10 pts).
The first phase of photosynthesis is known as the light reaction, in which
solar energy is transformed into chemical energy in the form of ATP and
 NADPH. NADPH and ATP are produced with the assistance of pigment
molecules and protein complexes.
a. Photolysis of water - By using light energy, water is split to form oxygen,
and hydrogen and electron are released
2H2O + light 4H 4e- + O2
b. Reduction of NADP + to NADPH - the electron from water are transferred
through the photosynthetic electron transfer system to NADP + to form
NADPH.
NADP+ + H+ + 2e- + light NADPH
c. Photophosphorylation - light and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are used to
convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to ATP.
ADP + Pi + Light ATP

7. Rice, corn, and cactus are representatives of the three biochemical variants,
the C3, C4, and CAM. Illustrate and explain on how glucose was formed from
carbon dioxide (CO2) in each of the three biochemical variants (30 pts).
a. In C3 plants, such as rice, the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1, 5-
bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase converts CO2 into a 3-carbon
molecule (Rubisco). Rubisco, as its name suggests, also catalyzes the
wasteful process of photorespiration, which results in the loss of up to 25%
of previously fixed carbon, to oxidize ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate (RuBP).
b. Corn (C4 plants) - Corn uses the C4 photosynthesis pathway and is a
photosynthetic autotroph. It has a particularly fast rate of photosynthesis,
uses water efficiently, and will profit from rising carbon dioxide levels less
than C3 plants, like most C4 plants. In C4 plants, the carbon dioxide is first
converted into organic acids with four carbon atoms, such as malate and
oxaloacetic acid. The PEP carboxylase enzyme first fixes the carbon dioxide
in the chloroplasts of the spongy mesophyll tissue.

c. Cactus (CAM plants) - Cacti use CAM photosynthesis, a method that only
succulents can use. Stomata only open in CAM photosynthesis during
night when the plant is relatively chilly, reducing transpirational moisture
loss. Stomata open during the night in this channel, allowing CO2 to
permeate into the leaf where it combines with PEP to produce malate.
Then, until daylight, this acid is kept in huge central vacuoles. Malate is
liberated from the vacuoles and decarboxylated during the day.
8. C4 plants are more than efficient than C3 plants in terms of photosynthetic
activity, discuss on how? (5 pts)
The C4 pathway is more effective than the C3 pathway under
conditions of high temperature, high light, and the current atmospheric CO2
concentration because it raises the CO2 concentration near the main CO2
fixing enzyme Rubisco. Photorespiration and the oxygenase reaction are both
significantly reduced.

9. Differentiate the cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation (10 pts).

Only the photosystem I undergoes cyclic photophosphorylation, but the
photosystems I and II both undergo non-cyclic photophosphorylation. In the
non-cyclic photophosphorylation, both NADPH and ATP are produced, as
opposed to the cyclic photophosphorylation, which only produces ATP.
10. Discuss the role of oxygen in respiration (5 pts.)
The oxygen obtained during anatomical respiration (also known as
breathing) is used by aerobic respiration to promote ATP generation. In this
capacity, oxygen serves as an electron acceptor in the electron transport chain
that produces ATP from food.

11. What is gluconeogenesis? Explain (5 pts)

 The process through which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate
metabolites is known as glucoseneogenesis. Pyruvate, lactate, a few
gluconeogenic amino acids, and glycerol, which is mostly produced by fat
metabolism, are the main gluconeogenic precursors.