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CONTENTS
About the Authors xvi

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Language and Literacy

Teaching and Learning 1
Marco’s Journey toward Becoming a Language and
Literacy Teacher 2
Literacy in Contemporary Times 4
The Dimensions of Language and Literacy 4
Defining Literacy 4
Multiliteracies 5
Implications for Language and Literacy Education 7
Critical Reflection 10
Critical Literacy 11
Literacy and Identity 12
Factors That Mediate Teachers’ Language
and Literacy Planning 15
What to Teach? 15
What Do the Documents Say? Language and Literacy
Learning in Canadian Classrooms 15
Who Are the Learners in Front of Us? 19
Educators’ Histories as Students and Beliefs 25
Introduction to Teaching Language and Literacy 25
Multiliteracies Pedagogies 26
Cambourne’s Conditions for Learning: A Starting Point for
Language and Literacy Teaching 29
Instructional Components of Multiliteracies
Pedagogies 30
Instructional Component Considerations 33
Summary 34
Selected Professional Resources 35
NEL vii
viii Contents
CHAPTER 2 Planning for Language and Literacy

Teaching 36
Program Planning 38
Curriculum Planning and Classroom
Organization 39
Long-Range Planning 40
Selecting Materials 44
Selecting Materials for Critical Literacy 46
Organizing Learners, Time, and Space 48
Whole-Class Teaching 49
Grouping Learners for Instruction 49
Scheduling Time Blocks 52
Organizing Space 55
Planning and Organizing for Diversity 59
Planning for Learners Who Struggle with Literacy
Achievement 60
Planning for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners 62
Planning for Aboriginal Learners 64
Organizing for Families as Partners 67
Building Partnerships with Families 68
Summary 69
CHAPTER 3 Language Development and Oracy 71

Language Systems 72
Semantics 73
Syntax 75
Phonology 77
Pragmatics 78
Communicative Competence 79
The Purposeful Nature of Language 82
Halliday’s Functions of Language 83
Integrating the Language Arts 85
The Social Context of Language Development 89
Language at Home and at School 89
Oral Language in the Classroom 94
Talking 95
Listening 99
Assessing Oracy (Listening and Talking) 102
NEL
Contents ix
Summary 103
CHAPTER 4 Early Literacy 106

Early Literacy 110
What Literacy Knowledge Do Young Children Need? 111
Phonological Awareness, Phonemic Awareness, and
Phonics 115
Assessing Early Literacy 117
Informal Assessment 118
Running Records 129
Miscue Analysis 133
Multiliteracies Pedagogies: Experiences That
Create Early Literacy Learning Opportunities 135
Creating a Rich Literacy Environment 135
Read-Alouds 139
Shared Reading 141
Structuring Sustained Learning Opportunities through
Literature 144
Shared Writing: The Language Experience Approach 146
Summary 149
CHAPTER 5 The Nature and Assessment of Reading 151

The Views of Erin and Taylor on Standardized
Reading Assessment 152
Erin on a Provincial Assessment 152
Taylor on a Standardized District-Wide Assessment 152
Issues That Arise from the Interviews 153
Perspectives on Reading 153
Bottom-Up Perspectives 154
Top-Down Perspectives 155
Interactive Perspectives 156
Social Constructivist Perspectives 157
Your View of Reading 160
Our Approach to Reading: Implications for Practice 160
Reading Assessment 162
Purposes of Assessment 162
Considerations for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Learners 164
NEL
x Contents
Assessment and Aboriginal Children 165

Curriculum Documents: Part of the Assessment Dialogue 168
High-Stakes Assessment 169
Assessment within Multiliteracies Pedagogies 172
Strategy One: Observation 173
Strategy Two: Conferencing 175
Strategy Three: Work Samples 177
Summary 188
CHAPTER 6 Reading Instruction: Major Components 190

Learners’ Views of Reading and Reading
Instruction 191
Sharon Taberski’s Learners on Reading 191
Implications of the Transcripts 192
Perspectives on Reading and Reading
Instruction 192
Pedagogies to Support Reading Practices:
Considerations 194
Phonics and Meaning 196
Explicit and Implicit Instruction 200
Incidental and Systematic Instruction 201
Dimensions of Language and Literacy 202
Fostering a Love of Reading 203
Reading Instruction Components 204
Read-Aloud Beyond the Early Years 204
Shared Reading 210
Guided Reading 210
Independent Reading 214
Scheduling the Components 219
Summary 220
CHAPTER 7 Pedagogies to Foster Strategic Reading 221

Strategy Instruction for Constructing Meaning
When Reading: Wendy Crocker 222
Overview of Pedagogies to Support Strategic
Reading 223
NEL
Contents xi
Overview of Pedagogies for Supporting Word

Solving 224
Pedagogies for Supporting the Use of
Graphophonic Cues and Structural Analysis
Knowledge 227
Considerations for Teaching Phonics 228
Phonics Instruction 232
Onsets and Rimes 235
Word Walls 236
Making Words 237
Word Sorting 237
Word Parts 239
Pedagogies for Supporting the Use of Contextual
Cues: Pragmatic, Semantic, and Syntactic
Cues 241
Cloze Procedure 241
Pedagogies to Support the Use of All Cuing
Systems Together 243
Masking 243
Minimal Cue Messages 243
Oral Reading 244
Pedagogies to Support Comprehending 244
Directed Reading–Thinking Activity 246
The KWL Technique 247
Questioning the Author 249
Question–Answer Relationship 250
Reciprocal Teaching 252
Think-Alouds 253
Semantic Webs 255
Selecting Instructional Techniques 257
Summary 258
CHAPTER 8 Literacy Across the Curriculum 260
Janet McConaghy’s “Life-Cycle” Project 261
Language and Thinking 262
Reading in the Content Areas 264
Working with Textbooks 265
Nonfiction/Information Texts 265
NEL
xii Contents
Teaching Text Structures 266

Informational Text Structures 266
Narrative Texts 268
Writing and Learning 271
Think Books and Journals 273
Writing to Consolidate What Is Known 276
Research Projects 277
Guiding the Research Process 283
Writing Relevant Research 285
Summary 287
CHAPTER 9 The Process of Writing 289

Writing in Denise Barrett’s Grades 7/8
Classroom 290
Writing Technologies 291
Forms of Writing 292
Narrative 292
Expressive 293
Informational or Expository (Nonfiction) 295
Poetry 298
The Process of Composing 302
Prewriting 303
Drafting 303
Feedback 307
Presentation 307
The Role of Audience 307
Conducting a Writing Workshop 308
Guidelines for Conducting a Writing Conference 308
The Students’ Role in a Writing Workshop 311
Writing Resources 312
Social Interaction in the Writing Process 314
The Importance of Talk 315
Peer Group Writing Conferences 317
Summary 318
NEL
Contents xiii
CHAPTER 10 Assessment and Conventions of Writing 321

Assessing Writing in Eileen Loughlin’s Grade 2
Classroom 322
Assessing Writing Abilities 323
Purposes for Assessment 323
Informal Assessment of Writing 324
Product-Based Assessment 328
Teaching Spelling 343
Invented Spelling 343
Teaching Spelling in the Context of the Writing Process 348
The Direct Teaching of Spelling 350
Spelling Practices to Avoid 354
Teaching Grammar, Punctuation, and
Capitalization 354
Grammar 354
Punctuation and Capitalization 356
Teaching Handwriting 357
Printing and Cursive Handwriting 358
Teaching Letter Forms 359
Helping the Left-Handed Writer 361
Keyboarding and Technology Skills 362
Summary 363
CHAPTER 11 The Pleasures of Literacy 366

Teacher-Librarian Kathy Oster 367
Literature and Literacy 369
Canadian Children’s Literature 371
Exploring Issues of Social Justice 372
Picture Storybooks for K to 8 376
Picture Storybooks for K to 4 376
Picture Books for Older Readers 379
Novels 381
Beginning Chapter Books for the Primary Grades 381
Novels in Grades 5 to 8 383
Graphic Novels for Grades 4 to 8 387
Collections of Short Stories 389
NEL
xiv Contents
Traditional Literature 390

Folk and Fairy Tales 390
Myths, Legends, and Fables 391
Ever-Evolving Stories: Storytelling 392
Poetry for Children 393
Sharing Poetry in School 395
Poetic Devices 397
Forms of Poetry 397
Picture Book Versions of Poems and Songs 398
Poetry Collections 399
Information Books 400
Criteria for Evaluating Information Books 401
Narrative Nonfiction 405
Nonbook Resources 406
Summary 408
CHAPTER 12 Responding to Literature 410

Literature Response in Jan Smith’s Grade 6
Classroom 411
Reader Response 413
Reader Response and Reading Comprehension 413
What Is Reader Response? 413
Learning through Response 415
Response Groups 416
Literature Response Journals 418
Readers’ Workshop 423
Literature Circles 424
Novel Studies 425
Alternative Modes of Response 426
Fan Fiction 430
Responding to Information Books 431
Assessing Response Activities 432
Book Selection 435
Guidelines for Appropriate Selection of Children’s
Literature 436
Censorship of Children’s Materials 438
Issues and Controversies 439
Summary 440
NEL
Contents xv
CHAPTER 13 New Media 443

New Media as Text 447
Constructing Meaning in the Multiliteracies
Environment 451
Social Construction of Meaning 451
Strategies for Web Reading 452
Potential of E-books 454
Moving from Traditional Literacy Practices to
Multiliteracies Pedagogy 455
Design and Redesign 458
Assessing Multiliteracies 459
Becoming a Reader and Writer of
Multiliteracies 461
Summary 463
Appendix: Children’s Literature by Grade Level: Fiction and Nonfiction for

Recreational Reading 465
Glossary 482
References 490
Index 509
NEL
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Joyce Bainbridge
Joyce is professor emerita, Department of
Elementary Education, and former vice dean
of the Faculty of Education at the University of
Alberta. She received her M.A. and Ed.D. at the
University of Northern Colorado. The recipient
of teaching and research awards, she taught uni-
versity courses in language and literacy education
for many years, and continues to teach educa-
tional research courses. She is the author of two
textbooks and many journal articles.
Rachel Heydon
Rachel is professor and program chair of cur-
riculum studies and studies in applied linguis-
tics, Faculty of Education, Western University.
She holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum, Teaching, and
Learning from the Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education, University of Toronto. Dr. Heydon
coordinates the pre-service elementary language
arts courses at Western and teaches literacy and
curriculum theory courses at the graduate level.
She is associate editor of the Journal of Curriculum
Studies, co-editor of the journal Language and Literacy, a former president of the
Language and Literacy Researchers of Canada, and author of many publications about
curriculum, early childhood, literacy, and teacher professional learning in literacy.
Kathryn Hibbert
Kathryn, author of the multiliteracies chapter, is an associate professor, Faculty of
Education at Western University. Her research interests pertain to the scholarship of
teaching and learning, the pedagogy of multiliteracies, and the pedagogical poten-
tial of virtual learning environments. Dr. Hibbert takes a socio-cultural approach to
learning about the nature of literacy in both school settings and professional practice
settings, and the policies, decisions, and practices that inform them.
xvi NEL
PREFACE
Research has consistently shown that children and youth develop their language and
literacy abilities through interacting meaningfully with people in their daily lives—at
storytime, in talk with peers, when searching for information, and while at play. When
learners are in school, they use language in purposeful ways across the curriculum.
Learning is enhanced through interactions with educators, families, peers, and other
people both within and outside the school context. In the school setting, educators
play a crucial role in maximizing learners’ language and literacy acquisition. They
serve as strong models, providing a stimulus for thinking and exploring ideas. They
put multiliteracies into action.
This sixth edition of Constructing Meaning is an introduction to teaching K to 8
language and literacy from an integrated, social constructivist perspective. This per-
spective draws heavily on multiliteracies theory, which highlights the multiple modes,
media, discourses, and languages through which people communicate. The pedago-
gies we suggest promote critical literacies, and in this edition we strive to be explicitly
sensitive to what literacy means today and the kinds of demands this places on educa-
tors and learners. Throughout the book, we discuss and illustrate the various ways in
which rapidly evolving communication technologies and learner demographics have
radically changed literacy from even a generation ago. These are exciting times for
language and literacy educators and learners, and we have tried to offer many ways
for pre- and in-service educators to capitalize on this excitement by helping to support
learners’ literacy learning in all their teaching.
In keeping with the first five editions, we provide a comprehensive yet accessible
pedagogical framework grounded in our theoretical approach. This framework can
provide beginning and even experienced educators with a range of ideas related to
different areas of language and literacy education.
There are some major changes in this edition. First of all, we have reordered
the sequence of some chapters to align the book more closely with the structure of
language and literacy education courses taught in faculties of education. Second,
we have created more streamlined content to emphasize what is most important in
language and literacy education and to promote contemporary and enduring trends
in the field. Throughout our revisions for the sixth edition, we have maintained the
structural and organizational strategies that proved successful in past editions. For
instance, we continue to introduce each chapter with a graphic organizer that pro-
vides readers with an overview of topics and subtopics to be considered, and we pre-
sent scenarios of educator practice. Definitions of terms in boldface type are presented
in the Glossary at the end of the book. Included in many chapters are book lists,
examples of teaching/learning activities, and samples of learners’ reading, writing,
visual representations, and oral language. We end each chapter with a summary and
a short annotated list of professional resources for readers who wish to pursue an area
NEL xvii
xviii Preface
further. We rely heavily on web resources, frequently including them in our lists of
suggested professional resources for educators. The Appendix contains publishing
information for all the children’s and young adult books mentioned in the chapters,
along with additional titles, both fiction and nonfiction, that we recommend for
learners at various grade levels.
Our goal in Chapter 1 is to situate Canadian language and literacy teaching and
learning and set up all subsequent discussions in the book. We contemplate literacy
teaching today and highlight issues of learner diversity and definitions of literacy. All
of this leads into the introduction of our theoretical framework, complete with an
overview of pedagogical strategies, before we turn to you, as educator, and identify
some of the things that educators need to grapple with in their curricular conversation
on how and what to teach. In this chapter, like the others, we invite readers to reflect
on their beliefs, practices, and experiences in a bid to help educators become critically
reflective professional decision makers.
Chapter 2 is a companion to Chapter 1, following upon the big ideas of how to
design language and literacy programs to address the funds of knowledge and needs
of all learners. We structure the chapter by forwarding key pedagogical decisions that
educators need to make. We then go on to suggest ways that learners, time, and space
can be organized to maximize learning in different contexts, as always highlighting
the work of real educational practitioners in relation to the research literature. The
chapter concludes with a section on families as partners.
Given the notion that “literacy floats on a sea of talk” (Britton, 1972, p. 58), in
Chapter 3 we describe the structure of language and explore how language functions
in different social contexts and in the learning process, in particular. We suggest how
to enhance listening and speaking in classrooms and how to assess learners’ oral lan-
guage abilities.
The focus of Chapter 4 is early literacy. In this chapter, we begin by describing
an early years classroom that operates from an emergent literacy curriculum. We then
consider the nature of early childhood literacy. We provide suggestions for assessing
young children’s literacy acquisition and for planning appropriate programs to be
responsive to their knowledge, interests, and needs. We end the chapter by describing
specific instructional strategies to promote young children’s language and literacy
practices and learning.
Reading is the focus of Chapters 5 through 7. In Chapter 5 we begin by describing
various theoretical perspectives on reading and strategies for assessing what learners
know, can do, and value. In Chapters 6 and 7, we suggest specific instructional tech-
niques to support learners in becoming lifelong, purposeful, and strategic readers.
In Chapter 8 we focus on the role of literacy in learning across the curriculum.
We describe strategies for reading in the content areas, teaching text structures, and
reading and researching information, as well as working with journal writing, learning
logs, research reports, and study skills.
Chapters 9 and 10 are devoted to teaching writing. In Chapter 9, we examine
forms of writing, the process of composing, and guidelines for implementing a writing
NEL
Preface xix
workshop. Chapter 10 deals with strategies for assessing learners’ writing as well as for
teaching the conventional aspects of writing (spelling, grammar, and handwriting).
Chapter 11 addresses the literature available for children and young adults, and
provides lists of books for learners in K to 8, with a heavy emphasis on Canadian
content and social justice issues.
Chapter 12 addresses the importance of responding to literature through a range
of activities; it also suggests ways to organize response groups, journals, drama, multi-
media, and the visual arts. The chapter discusses how to select literature for learners’
reading pleasure and for classroom use.
In Chapter 13, Kathryn Hibbert explores new media. She offers some insights
to help educators as they expand their definitions of literacy teaching and learning
to include accessing, creating, and redesigning multiple forms of text. The approach
utilizes multiple communication channels and modes of delivery, acknowledging the
diverse cultural and social settings of today’s classrooms.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) program delivers research-
based instructor resources that promote student engagement and higher-order
thinking to enable the success of Canadian students and educators. Visit Nelson
Education’s Inspired Instruction website at http://www.nelson.com/inspired/ to
find out more about NETA.
The following instructor resources have been created for Constructing Meaning:
Teaching Language and Literacy K–8, sixth edition. Access these ultimate tools for
customizing lectures and presentations at http://www.nelson.com/instructor.
NETA PowerPoint
Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for every chapter have been created by Luigi
Iannacci of Trent University. There is an average of 15 slides per chapter featuring the
information included in key figures and tables from Constructing Meaning: Teaching
Language and Literacy K–8, Sixth Edition. NETA principles of clear design and
engaging content have been incorporated throughout, making it simple for instruc-
tors to customize the deck for their courses.
Image Library
This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables, and photographs used
in the book. Instructors may use these jpegs to customize the NETA PowerPoint or
create their own PowerPoint presentations.
NEL
xx Preface
NETA Instructor Guide

This resource to accompany Constructing Meaning: Teaching Language and Literacy
K–8, Sixth Edition has been prepared by Luigi Iannacci of Trent University. This guide
contains suggested classroom activities, a chapter summary, discussion q uestions, and
a list of additional resources to give instructors the support they need to engage their
students within the classroom.
CourseMate
CourseMate includes:
• an interactive ebook that includes note-taking and highlighting functionality
• interactive teaching and learning tools, including:
� quizzes
� flashcards
� videos
� suggested books for the classroom
� additional resources
� and more
NEL
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all the K to 8 learners, educators, undergraduate students, graduate stu-

dents, and colleagues who have helped us understand the nature of the teaching and
learning of language and literacy during our years as learners, teachers, and researchers.
Particular appreciation is expressed to the educators who took the time to write and
talk to us about their classroom experiences and to the learners who provided samples
of their reading, writing, and oral language.
We acknowledge the significant contribution of Kathryn Hibbert, who developed
Chapter 13: New Media. Kathy’s expertise and experience in this area has deeply
enriched the book.
We are grateful for the involvement and contributions of several others, too:
Dawn Ford, who assisted us with the photographs, and Elisabeth Davies, Emma
Cooper, Wambui Gichuru, Lori McKee, and Joelle Nagle from Western University
for their research assistance. On a personal note, Rachel extends her deep appreciation
to Oliver Cavanaugh for always helping to make language new again.
We also appreciate the valuable comments and suggestions from instructors
at our own and other universities, as well as from the following reviewers selected
by Nelson Education: Jim Chevalier, University of Windsor; Roswita Dressler,
University of Calgary; Lynne Wiltse, University of Alberta; and the late Mary Clare
Courtland, Lakehead University, who was a long-time scholar of language and lit-
eracy education and a friend to many of us in the field. We will miss her keen insight
and advice.
Finally, we thank the editorial staff at Nelson Education for encouraging us to
write a sixth edition of this book and for providing advice and support during its
development.
Joyce Bainbridge
Rachel Heydon
NEL xxi
1
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Language and

Literacy Teaching and Learning
LITERACY IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES MULTILITERACIES PEDAGOGIES

• The Dimensions of Language and Literacy • Cambourne’s Conditions for
• Defining Literacy Learning: A Starting Point for
• Multiliteracies Language and Literacy Teaching
• Implications for Language and Literacy Education
• Critical Reflection
• Critical Literacy
• Literacy and Identity
INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
FACTORS THAT MEDIATE TEACHERS’ LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS

AND LITERACY PLANNING OF MULTILITERACIES PEDAGOGIES
• What to Teach? • Instructional Component
• What Do the Documents Say? Language and Considerations
Literacy Learning in Canadian Classrooms
• Who Are the Learners in Front of Us?
EDUCATORS’ HISTORIES AS STUDENTS AND

BELIEFS
NEL 1
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15. by the words of the Lord] i.e. the king’s command was
recognised to be in accordance with the Divine will. Read by the
word; the plural words is probably only a textual error.
¹⁶And the priests went in unto the inner part of

the house of the Lord, to cleanse it, and
brought out all the uncleanness that they
found in the temple of the Lord into the court
of the house of the Lord. And the Levites took
it, to carry it out abroad to the brook Kidron.
16. the priests] The work was so divided between priests and
Levites that only the priests went into the house.
unto the inner part of the house] Render, within the house. The
reference is not to the Holy of Holies specially, but to the whole
interior of the house.
uncleanness] compare verse 5; Isaiah xxx. 22.
to the brook Kidron] The brook Kidron is the deep valley on the
east of Jerusalem separating it from the Mount of Olives; 2 Samuel
xv. 23; John xviii. 1. It was treated as an unclean spot, compare xv.
16.
¹⁷Now they began on the first day of the first

month to sanctify, and on the eighth day of the
month came they to the porch of the Lord;
and they sanctified the house of the Lord in
eight days: and on the sixteenth day of the
first month they made an end.
17. to sanctify ... and they sanctified] Two periods of eight days
each were spent in “sanctifying,” the courts apparently requiring
eight days and the house itself eight days.
¹⁸Then they went in to Hezekiah the king

within the palace, and said, We have cleansed
all the house of the Lord, and the altar of
burnt offering, with all the vessels thereof, and
the table of shewbread, with all the vessels
thereof.
18. the table of shewbread] Compare iv. 8 (note), 19; 1
Chronicles xxviii. 16—“the tables of shewbread.”
¹⁹Moreover all the vessels, which king Ahaz in

his reign did cast away when he trespassed,
have we prepared and sanctified; and, behold,
they are before the altar of the Lord.
19. cast away] According to xxviii. 24, “cut in pieces”; compare 2
Kings xvi. 17. The reference is probably to the “bases” and the “sea.”
have we prepared] Render, have we set up. Ahaz had taken

away the supports both of the laver and of the sea (2 Kings xvi. 17).
20‒24 (not in 2 Kings).

The Sevenfold Sacrifice for the Reconciliation of the
People.
The ritual of the sin offering is fully given in Leviticus iv. Ahaz had
broken the covenant, and Hezekiah’s sin offering was intended to
atone for the breach.
²⁰Then Hezekiah the king arose early, and

gathered the princes of the city, and went up
to the house of the Lord. ²¹And they brought
seven bullocks, and seven rams, and seven
lambs, and seven he-goats, for a sin offering
for the kingdom and for the sanctuary and for
Judah. And he commanded the priests the
sons of Aaron to offer them on the altar of the
Lord.
21. they brought] As the sacrifice was not for an individual but for
a whole people the offering on this occasion consisted of seven of
each of four different sacrificial animals, the bullocks, rams, and
lambs being used for the burnt offering (verses 22 and 24), and the
he-goats for the special sin offering (verse 23).
for the kingdom] i.e. for the kingly house.
for the sanctuary] i.e. for the Temple (compare Leviticus xvi. 16),
but probably inclusive of the personnel of the Temple, i.e. the priests
and Levites, since otherwise they would have been passed over in
the great sin offering.
on the altar of the Lord] Not on the altar of Ahaz (2 Kings xvi.
11).
²²So they killed the bullocks, and the priests

received the blood, and sprinkled it on the
altar: and they killed the rams, and sprinkled
the blood upon the altar: they killed also the
lambs, and sprinkled the blood upon the altar.
22. received the blood] In basons with which they dashed (not as
the text “sprinkled”) the blood against the altar. This dashing was
different from the sprinkling with the finger.
²³And they brought near the he-goats for the
sin offering before the king and the
congregation; and they laid their hands upon
them: ²⁴and the priests killed them, and they
made a sin offering with their blood upon the
altar, to make atonement for all Israel: for the
king commanded that the burnt offering and
the sin offering should be made for all Israel.
23. brought near] i.e. to the king and the people.
and they laid their hands] “they” = the representatives of the

people, for whom the sacrifice was to be offered, compare Leviticus
iv. 15.
25‒30.
The Levitical Service of Music.
²⁵And he set the Levites in the house of the

Lord with cymbals, with psalteries, and with
harps, according to the commandment of
David, and of Gad the king’s seer, and Nathan
the prophet: for the commandment was of the
Lord by his prophets.
25. and of Gad ... and Nathan] Neither of these prophets is
elsewhere said to have had a part in inciting David to the
organisation of the Temple music with which the Chronicler credits
him. Their names are introduced in order to emphasise the value of
the musicians of the Temple, whose service is thus declared to have
arisen through the inspiration of prophets; compare 1 Chronicles
xxviii. 19.
²⁶And the Levites stood with the instruments of
David, and the priests with the trumpets.
26. with the instruments] LXX. ἐν ὀργάνοις. Compare 1 Chronicles
xxiii. 5.
²⁷And Hezekiah commanded to offer the burnt

offering upon the altar. And when the burnt
offering began, the song of the Lord began
also, and the trumpets, together with the
instruments of David king of Israel. ²⁸And all
the congregation worshipped, and the singers
sang, and the trumpeters sounded; all this
continued until the burnt offering was finished.
27. and the trumpets] Compare 1 Chronicles xv. 24 (note).
together with the instruments of David] Render perhaps, even

according to the guidance of the instrument of David, i.e. led (or
“accompanied”) by them.
²⁹And when they had made an end of offering,

the king and all that were present with him
bowed themselves and worshipped.
29. bowed themselves and worshipped] i.e. first bowed down (on
their knees) and then completely prostrated themselves.
³⁰Moreover Hezekiah the king and the princes

commanded the Levites to sing praises unto
the Lord with the words of David, and of
Asaph the seer. And they sang praises with
gladness, and they bowed their heads and
worshipped.
30. to sing praises] Since (1) the Hebrew word for “Psalms”
means “Praises,” and (2) the words of David and Asaph are specially
mentioned in this verse, it is clear that the Chronicler by this phrase
means “to sing Psalms.”
31‒36 (not in Kings).

A Great Sacrifice of Burnt Offerings and Thank Offerings.
³¹Then Hezekiah answered and said, Now ye

have consecrated yourselves ¹ unto the Lord,
come near and bring sacrifices and thank
offerings into the house of the Lord. And the
congregation brought in sacrifices and thank
offerings; and as many as were of a willing
heart brought burnt offerings. ³²And the
number of the burnt offerings, which the
congregation brought, was threescore and ten
bullocks, an hundred rams, and two hundred
lambs: all these were for a burnt offering to the
Lord.
¹ Hebrew filled your hand.
31. answered and said] i.e. answered the thoughts or expectation

of the people as expressed by the Sacrifices and the Songs;
compare Job iii. 2 (Revised Version).
ye have consecrated yourselves] Hebrew “filled your hand”;

compare xiii. 9; Exodus xxviii. 41.
sacrifices and thank offerings] The phrase means simply the
special type of sacrifices which were termed “thank offerings.” The
fat of such offerings was burnt on the altar, the breast and right thigh
were reserved for the priests, but the remainder belonged to the
offerer and was used for a joyous meal (Leviticus vii. 12 ff.). The
burnt offering was entirely consumed on the altar, no portion being
kept by priests or offerer (Leviticus i. 1‒13): hence such sacrifices
represented a greater cost and are accordingly said to be given by
those who were “of willing heart,” i.e. conspicuously pious and
generous.
³³And the consecrated things were six

hundred oxen and three thousand sheep.
33. the consecrated things] The term was applied (1) to gold and
other valuables offered in the Temple; compare xv. 18; 1 Chronicles
xviii. 8‒11; (2) to those parts of the various sacrifices which were
assigned to be eaten by the priests; Leviticus xxi. 22 (“the holy
[bread]”), xxii. 2, 3, 15 (“the holy things”). Here the reference is more
general, i.e. to the thank offerings (verse 35) themselves.
³⁴But the priests were too few, so that they

could not flay all the burnt offerings: wherefore
their brethren the Levites did help them, till the
work was ended, and until the priests had
sanctified themselves: for the Levites were
more upright in heart to sanctify themselves
than the priests.
34. the priests] According to Leviticus i. 5 f. the task of flaying the
sacrifice was to be performed by the offerer. Either this passage
marks a later stage in the customary ritual, or perhaps this occasion
was regarded by the Chronicler as exceptional because the offerings
were brought on behalf of the “congregation” in general. The verse
presents other difficult features. Who were the priests who had not
yet sanctified themselves? What is the significance of the evident
contrast between the attitude of the priests and that of the Levites, to
the disadvantage of the former? It would seem that there were
priests who had deliberately or slackly failed to comply with
Hezekiah’s injunction (verses 4, 5) and were therefore still ritually
unclean from the pollution of the previous reign. In general we infer
that the Levites had either been less deeply involved in the idolatries
of Ahaz or at least were more zealous than the priests for the
restoration of the worship of Jehovah alone. Possibly this tradition
may truly represent the historical facts; or it may be an inference
derived from 2 Kings xvi. 16 where the subservience of the high-
priest Urijah to king Ahaz is mentioned (so Kittel). Less probable is
the view of Benzinger that this verse has been added by the
Chronicler to the midrashic source upon which he is here depending,
and that it represents merely the Chronicler’s personal predilection
for the Levites as distinct from the priests.
³⁵And also the burnt offerings were in

abundance, with the fat of the peace offerings,
and with the drink offerings for every burnt
offering. So the service of the house of the
Lord was set in order.
35. with the fat] Compare vii. 7; Leviticus iii. 3, 17.
the peace offerings] i.e. the thank offerings (verse 31).
drink offerings] compare Numbers xv. 5, 7, 10. The offering was

to be of wine, and the quantity used was to correspond with the size
of the animal sacrificed.
was set in order] i.e. was re-established.

³⁶And Hezekiah rejoiced, and all the people,
because of that which God had prepared for
the people: for the thing was done suddenly.
36. that which God had prepared for the people] It was God, not
Hezekiah, who had done it all.
suddenly] In the very first year of Hezekiah’s reign (verse 3).
Chapter XXX.
Hezekiah Invites all Israel to keep the Passover.
From verse 2 it appears that this Passover took place in the first
year of Hezekiah while the Northern Kingdom was still standing. The
invitation to share in it at Jerusalem which Hezekiah is here (verse 1)
said to have sent to north Israel is opposed to all historic probability.
The Chronicler, however, was little likely to be troubled by that
difficulty, even if he had observed it (see note, verse 5). Furthermore
it is a plausible suggestion that the references to Ephraim,
Manasseh, etc. in verses 1, 10, 11, 18 really reflect conditions of the
Chronicler’s own circumstances, regarding which see the note on xv.
9. It is therefore a mistake to suggest that the date may be wrong
and that the Passover really took place in the sixth year of Hezekiah
after the fall of Samaria on the ground that the invitation would then
be more credible.
¹And Hezekiah sent to all Israel and Judah,

and wrote letters also to Ephraim and
Manasseh, that they should come to the
house of the Lord at Jerusalem, to keep the
passover unto the Lord, the God of Israel.
²For the king had taken counsel, and his
princes, and all the congregation in
Jerusalem, to keep the passover in the
second month.
2. in the second month] The Law allowed such a postponement;
compare Numbers ix. 10, 11.
³For they could not keep it at that time,

because the priests had not sanctified
themselves in sufficient number, neither had
the people gathered themselves together to
Jerusalem. ⁴And the thing was right in the
eyes of the king and of all the congregation.
3. at that time] In the first month.
⁵So they established a decree to make

proclamation throughout all Israel, from Beer-
sheba even to Dan, that they should come to
keep the passover unto the Lord, the God of
Israel, at Jerusalem: for they had not kept it in
great numbers ¹ in such sort as it is written.
¹ Or, of a long time.
5. to make proclamation] A phrase characteristic of the

Chronicler.
from Beer-sheba even to Dan] i.e. the extreme points of the
undivided kingdom of David and Solomon. “The existence of the
North Kingdom is either ignored or more probably the writer
assumed that it had already fallen” (Curtis). On the origin of the
phrase and the order in Chronicles (Beer-sheba to Dan not Dan to
Beer-sheba, as in 2 Samuel xxiv. 2, etc.) see Hogg in the Expositor,
1898, pp. 411‒421.
they had not kept it in great numbers in such sort as it is written]

The statement applies to Israel, not to Judah; for the first time an
attempt is made to draw Israel en masse to a regular Passover at
Jerusalem.
⁶So the posts went with the letters from the

king and his princes throughout all Israel and
Judah, and according to the commandment of
the king, saying, Ye children of Israel, turn
again unto the Lord, the God of Abraham,
Isaac, and Israel, that he may return to the
remnant that are escaped of you out of the
hand of the kings of Assyria.
6. the posts] Literally “the runners.”
the remnant that are escaped of you out of the hand of the kings
of Assyria] The phrase applies most naturally to the final downfall of
Samaria through Shalmaneser and Sargon (722‒721 b.c.), but it is
possible of course to interpret it of the repeated disasters at the
hands of the Assyrians in the time of Tiglath-pileser some ten years
earlier.
⁷And be not ye like your fathers, and like your

brethren, which trespassed against the Lord,
the God of their fathers, so that he gave them
up to desolation ¹, as ye see.
¹ Or, to be an astonishment.
7. to desolation] Render, as margin, to be an astonishment;

compare xxix. 8 (same Hebrew word).
⁸Now be ye not stiffnecked, as your fathers

were; but yield yourselves ¹ unto the Lord, and
enter into his sanctuary, which he hath
sanctified for ever, and serve the Lord your
God, that his fierce anger may turn away from
you.
¹ Hebrew give the hand.
8. yield yourselves] Literally “give the hand”; compare 1

Chronicles xxix. 24 “submitted themselves”).
sanctified for ever] Compare vii. 16.
⁹For if ye turn again unto the Lord, your

brethren and your children shall find
compassion before them that led them
captive, and shall come again into this land:
for the Lord your God is gracious and
merciful, and will not turn away his face from
you, if ye return unto him. ¹⁰So the posts
passed from city to city through the country of
Ephraim and Manasseh, even unto Zebulun:
but they laughed them to scorn, and mocked
them.
9. shall find compassion] Compare Psalms cvi. 46 (a similar
phrase in Hebrew).
¹¹Nevertheless divers of Asher and Manasseh

and of Zebulun humbled themselves, and
came to Jerusalem.
11. of Asher] Asher is somewhat strange. The parallel with verse
10 alone suggests that we should read of Ephraim; and this is the
more probable if the real significance of the reference is for the
Chronicler’s period (see the head-note, and xv. 9). It is not likely that
Judaism at that time could claim many adherents in the old territory
of Asher (see Hölscher, Palästina, p. 32).
humbled themselves] So xxxiii. 12.
¹²Also in Judah was the hand of God to give

them one heart, to do the commandment of
the king and of the princes by the word of the
Lord.
12. Also in Judah was the hand of God] i.e. the mighty working of
God, which brought some penitents from far parts of Israel,
manifested itself in Judah also.
the commandment of the king ... by the word of the Lord] The
king’s command was according to God’s command in the Law.

Hezekiah’s Great Passover.
It seems clear that the story of Hezekiah’s Passover has been
composed by the Chronicler on the analogy of Josiah’s grand
celebration of that feast (see xxxv. 1‒19), which the present festival
even surpasses in some respects—viz. in its scope (for all Israel and
strangers, whereas Josiah’s was for Judeans only) and in its
duration (for two weeks, Josiah’s for one). Josiah’s Passover was
famous because of the account of it in Kings. Doubtless the
Chronicler felt that a celebration of that feast was incumbent upon a
great reforming monarch, and he has therefore credited Hezekiah
with observing it.
¹³And there assembled at Jerusalem much

people to keep the feast of unleavened bread
in the second month, a very great
congregation.
13. the feast of unleavened bread] In the “Passover” were united
two separate “feasts,” (1) the eating of the lamb on the fourteenth of
Nisan, (2) the eating of unleavened bread from the fourteenth to the
twenty-first of Nisan. The combined Feast was sometimes called “the
Passover” and sometimes (as here) “the feast of unleavened bread”;
compare Exodus xii. 1‒14 and 17‒20, and note that the intervening
verses, 15, 16, bind the two feasts into one celebration.
¹⁴And they arose and took away the altars that

were in Jerusalem, and all the altars for
incense ¹ took they away, and cast them into
the brook Kidron.
¹ Or, vessels.
14. the altars] Compare xxviii. 24.

¹⁵Then they killed the passover on the
fourteenth day of the second month: and the
priests and the Levites were ashamed, and
sanctified themselves, and brought burnt
offerings into the house of the Lord. ¹⁶And
they stood in their place after their order,
according to the law of Moses the man of
God: the priests sprinkled the blood, which
they received of the hand of the Levites.
15. the second month] Compare verses 2, 3.
were ashamed] Of their former backwardness; compare verse 3,

xxix. 34.
¹⁷For there were many in the congregation that

had not sanctified themselves: therefore the
Levites had the charge of killing the passovers
for every one that was not clean, to sanctify
them unto the Lord.
17. of killing the passovers] “Passovers” (plural rare) = “Paschal
victims”; compare verse 15, xxxv. 8 (“passover offerings”).
¹⁸For a multitude of the people, even many of

Ephraim and Manasseh, Issachar and
Zebulun, had not cleansed themselves, yet did
they eat the passover otherwise than it is
written. For Hezekiah had prayed for them,
saying, The good Lord pardon every one ¹
¹ Or, him that setteth his whole heart.
18. of Ephraim, etc.] The list of tribes given here does not agree
with the list in verse 11, but in both cases it may be that the
Chronicler merely wished by his list to designate men of the Northern
Kingdom as opposed to those of the Southern. He could not make
the distinction by using the term “Israel” here, for in Chronicles
“Israel” as a rule is not used in opposition to “Judah”; compare xi. 3
(note). (For a somewhat different view, see the head-note on verses
1‒12 and xv. 9.)
otherwise than it is written] i.e. they were allowed to partake of

the Passover meal, although not purified according to the regulations
of the Law.
¹⁹that setteth his heart to seek God, the Lord,

the God of his fathers, though he be not
cleansed according to the purification of the
sanctuary.
18, 19. The good Lord pardon every one that, etc.] In Hebrew
verse 18 ends abruptly with the word “pardon.” Probably the Revised
Version is correct in disregarding the Hebrew division. The phrase
“the good Lord” is not found elsewhere, and another suggestion is
to transpose the adjective and read (verse 18) ... “The Lord pardon
the good: (verse 19) even every one that,” etc. The LXX., however,
supports the order of the Hebrew text.
²⁰And the Lord hearkened to Hezekiah, and

healed the people.
20. healed the people] By prevention; no plague was allowed to
break out among them, although uncleanness in the sanctuary had
been threatened with death; Leviticus xv. 31.
²¹And the children of Israel that were present
at Jerusalem kept the feast of unleavened
bread seven days with great gladness: and
the Levites and the priests praised the Lord
day by day, singing with loud instruments unto
the Lord.
21. with loud instruments] Literally “with instruments of strength.”
It is better to read “with all their might” (as 1 Chronicles xiii. 8). The
change in Hebrew amounts only to the dropping of the smallest letter
(yōd).
²²And Hezekiah spake comfortably unto all the

Levites that were well skilled in the service of
the Lord. So they did eat throughout the feast
for the seven days, offering sacrifices of peace
offerings, and making confession ¹ to the Lord,
the God of their fathers.
¹ Or, giving thanks.
22. spake comfortably] i.e. with kindly and appreciative words.

For the phrase compare Isaiah xl. 2.
making confession] Or, as margin, “giving thanks.”
²³And the whole congregation took counsel to

keep other seven days: and they kept other
seven days with gladness.
23. other seven days] Compare vii. 9 (Solomon’s Dedication
Feast).
²⁴For Hezekiah king of Judah did give to the
congregation for offerings a thousand bullocks
and seven thousand sheep; and the princes
gave to the congregation a thousand bullocks
and ten thousand sheep: and a great number
of priests sanctified themselves.
24. sanctified themselves] Compare xxix. 34.
²⁵And all the congregation of Judah, with the

priests and the Levites, and all the
congregation that came out of Israel, and the
strangers that came out of the land of Israel,
and that dwelt in Judah, rejoiced.
25. the strangers] i.e. men of alien descent dwelling in Israel with
certain conceded, not inherited, rights, and with most of the
obligations of the native Israelite. LXX. οἱ προσήλυτοι Compare ii. 17;
1 Chronicles xxii. 2 for the unfavourable side of a “stranger’s”
position.
²⁶So there was great joy in Jerusalem: for

since the time of Solomon the son of David
king of Israel there was not the like in
Jerusalem.
26. since the time of Solomon] For Solomon’s great festival, see
v. 2 ff.
there was not the like] Compare what is said of Josiah’s

Passover; xxxv. 18 (note).
²⁷Then the priests the Levites arose and
blessed the people: and their voice was heard,
and their prayer came up to his holy
habitation, even unto heaven.
27. the priests the Levites] So in xxiii. 18, but only in these two
places in Chronicles The phrase is Deuteronomic, and implies that at
the stage of ritual development represented in Deuteronomy all
Levites were potentially priests. Such was not in any case the view
of the Chronicler, and perhaps we ought to read “the priests and the
Levites” both here and in xxiii. 18.
Chapter XXXI.
1 (compare 2 Kings xviii. 4).
Destruction of Idolatrous Symbols.
¹Now when all this was finished, all Israel

that were present went out to the cities of
Judah, and brake in pieces the pillars ¹, and
hewed down the Asherim, and brake down the
high places and the altars out of all Judah and
Benjamin, in Ephraim also and Manasseh,
until they had destroyed them all. Then all the
children of Israel returned, every man to his
possession, into their own cities.
¹ Or, obelisks.
1. the pillars ... the Asherim] Compare xiv. 3 (note).
in Ephraim also] It is obviously assumed that the Northern

Kingdom had come to an end; compare xxx. 6, 9.

Organisation of the Priests. Tithe.
If the Temple had been desecrated and closed by Ahaz, it would

follow that the organisation of its Priests and Levites had fallen into
confusion. The Chronicler therefore makes Hezekiah the restorer of

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(Original PDF) Constructing Meaning:

Teaching Language and Literac 6th

About the Authors xvi

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Language and Literacy

CHAPTER 2 Planning for Language and Literacy

CHAPTER 3 Language Development and Oracy 71

CHAPTER 4 Early Literacy 106

CHAPTER 5 The Nature and Assessment of Reading 151

Assessment and Aboriginal Children 165

CHAPTER 6 Reading Instruction: Major Components 190

CHAPTER 7 Pedagogies to Foster Strategic Reading 221

Overview of Pedagogies for Supporting Word

Teaching Text Structures 266

CHAPTER 9 The Process of Writing 289

CHAPTER 10 Assessment and Conventions of Writing 321

CHAPTER 11 The Pleasures of Literacy 366

Traditional Literature 390

CHAPTER 12 Responding to Literature 410

CHAPTER 13 New Media 443

Appendix: Children’s Literature by Grade Level: Fiction and Nonfiction for

NETA Instructor Guide

We thank all the K to 8 learners, educators, undergraduate students, graduate stu-

Introduction to Language and

LITERACY IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES MULTILITERACIES PEDAGOGIES

FACTORS THAT MEDIATE TEACHERS’ LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS

EDUCATORS’ HISTORIES AS STUDENTS AND

¹⁶And the priests went in unto the inner part of

uncleanness] compare verse 5; Isaiah xxx. 22.

¹⁷Now they began on the first day of the first

¹⁸Then they went in to Hezekiah the king

¹⁹Moreover all the vessels, which king Ahaz in

have we prepared] Render, have we set up. Ahaz had taken

20‒24 (not in 2 Kings).

²⁰Then Hezekiah the king arose early, and

for the kingdom] i.e. for the kingly house.

²²So they killed the bullocks, and the priests

and they laid their hands] “they” = the representatives of the

²⁵And he set the Levites in the house of the

²⁷And Hezekiah commanded to offer the burnt

together with the instruments of David] Render perhaps, even

²⁹And when they had made an end of offering,

³⁰Moreover Hezekiah the king and the princes

31‒36 (not in Kings).

³¹Then Hezekiah answered and said, Now ye

31. answered and said] i.e. answered the thoughts or expectation

ye have consecrated yourselves] Hebrew “filled your hand”;

³³And the consecrated things were six

³⁴But the priests were too few, so that they

³⁵And also the burnt offerings were in

the peace offerings] i.e. the thank offerings (verse 31).

drink offerings] compare Numbers xv. 5, 7, 10. The offering was

was set in order] i.e. was re-established.

suddenly] In the very first year of Hezekiah’s reign (verse 3).

¹And Hezekiah sent to all Israel and Judah,

³For they could not keep it at that time,

⁵So they established a decree to make

5. to make proclamation] A phrase characteristic of the

they had not kept it in great numbers in such sort as it is written]

⁶So the posts went with the letters from the

⁷And be not ye like your fathers, and like your

7. to desolation] Render, as margin, to be an astonishment;

⁸Now be ye not stiffnecked, as your fathers

8. yield yourselves] Literally “give the hand”; compare 1

sanctified for ever] Compare vii. 16.