An Overview of Estrus Cycle,

Follicle Development and

Function

Bhuminand Devkota, DVM, PhD

Agriculture and Forestry University
Chitwan
The major structures of the Ovary
Schematic illustration of uterine tissue
A schematic illustration of the cervix
Ovarian Dynamics
Bovine ovarian follicles and their respective
ultrasographic images
Phases of the estrus cycle
Stages of the estrus cycle
Primary steps leading to the
preovulatory LH surge
The relationships between the hypothalamus, the
pituitary and the ovary during follicular phase
GnRH release from the hypothalamus tonic and surge centers
Hormonal changes during the follicular phase
Follicular recruitment, selection and dominance
Several (2-3) follicular waves occur during
one cycle
Relative gonadotropin, inhibin and estradiol secretion during
proestrus by recruited, selected and dominant follicles
The 2-cell, 2-gonadotropin model
Ovarian events caused by the preovulatory LH surge
The major steps of oogenesis
Relationship between granulosal cells and the
developing oocyte
21 December 26, 2014
An Overview of Estrus Cycle
and Follicle Development

Bhuminand Devkota, DVM, PhD

Agriculture and Forestry University
Chitwan
Changes in dominant follicle throughout
the estrous cycle of dairy cows

1 4 9 11 14 21
Day of the estrous cycle
 Variation in time to 2 nd wave

Ov

0 10 21
Days of the estrous cycle
 Variation in time to 2nd wave

Ov

0 10 21
Days of the estrous cycle
 Variation in time to 2 nd wave

Ov

0 10 21
Days of the estrous cycle
 Follicle Growth
16-18 mm
day of estrus
2 mm
DF
Corpus
albicans

+
E2 LH
FSH
 Day 1
New CL
3 - 4 mm
Corpus
albicans

FSH and follicle

growth
 Day 2
14 mm

6.5 mm

DF?
5 mm
6 mm 6 mm

FSH

P4
16 mm
Day 3
8.5 mm
DF?
7 mm 8 mm
7 mm
+ E2 &
Inhibin
DF & FSH but
Subordinate still
follicles above
basal
20 mm
Day 4
10 mm

7 mm
8 mm 7 mm

FSH at
P4 Acquires LHr basal
levels
Can ovulate
with GnRH
 Day 5
22 mm
12 mm

7 mm

GnRH induced
< 50 % respond LH surge can
single injection ovulate
PGF
 Day 6
23 mm
13 mm

~ 95 %
responsive to
Still not sig. # responsive to
GnRH
one injection PGF
> 90 % 2/ 12 h apart
24 mm
14 mm

~ 90 %
~ 90 % responsive to responsive to
one injection PGF GnRH
> 95 % 2 / 12 h apart
25 mm
15 mm

> 84 % responsive
to GnRH
25 mm
15.5 mm
26 mm
16 mm
 Day 11
2 – 3 mm
27
mm 15.5 mm

GnRH induced
LH surge will not
ovulate
 Day 12
3 - 5 mm
28
mm 15 mm
 Day 13
8 mm
25
mm 15 mm

8.5 mm

7 mm
 Day 14
25 8 mm
mm 14 mm

10 mm

7 mm

Acquires LHr
Can ovulate with
GnRH
 Day 15
25 mm
14 mm 12 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
 Day 16
25 mm
13 mm 13 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
 Day 17
25 mm
12 mm 14 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
 Day 18
20 mm
15 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
 Day 19
18 mm
15.5 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
 Day 20
16 mm
16 mm

GnRH induced LH
surge will ovulate
Day of estrus

16-18 mm

+
E2 LH
FSH
 Ovsynch:

OV
28 ± 4h

PGF2a
GnRH

GnRH
AI
7 days 2 days 16 h

F CL 
Adapted from Pursley et al. 1995
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
 Fertility: Animals have functional ovaries, display
estrus cyclicity, mate/breed, conceive, sustain
the embryo/fetus through gestation, calve and
resume estrus cyclicity and restore uterine
function after calving. For cows: 1 calf each year,
buffalos: 1 calf/12-14 months.

 Sub-fertility: Delayed or irregular production of

the annual live calf.

 Infertility: Reproductive function is impaired and

animal fail to produce a calf regularly.

 Sterility: Absolute inability to reproduce.

 Infertility is mainly due to

◦ Structural or functional defects of

the genital system.

◦ Congenital or
acquired/managemental/diseased
condtions of the genital system.
 Infertility

Not cycling Cycling no

Cycling
normally? seen

HEAT
DETECTION
 (Missed heats)
Not cycling
normally
Human error

Congenital Lact/Nutritional Systemic Illness, Pathological

Ovarian cysts
Anomalies Anestrus lameness uterus

-Nutrition --Mummies
-Freemartin -Follicular
High Cortisol
-Segmental -Lactation -Macerated Fet
related -Luteal
aplasia -Puberty
-Pyometra

Prolapses
Uterine torsion
Hydropsies
1. A case in which an animal with
anomalies of the ovaries or uterus
develops abnormal estrus conditions
such as anestrus and fails to mate
even if it has attained puberty or
passed 40-60 days after parturition.
1. Freemartin:
In bovine, unlike-sexed twin and multiple pregnancy, about
92% female fetues fail to have normal sexual
differentiation and are likely to have anomalies of the
reproductive organs that lead to absolute sterility. This
sterile cow is referred to as a freemartin.

Clinical diagnosis include short (1/3 or less of the normal)

length of the vagina, clitoral hypertrophy and long pubic
hair. Normal length of the vagina: 12-18 cm, freemartin
length: 6-8 cm (can be checked with a test tube (2 cm in
diam) or small vaginoscope. By rectal palpation, a hard
cylinder/cone shaped object is felt 5-10 cm in front of
the vaginal vestibule but the cervical canal, uterus and
ovaries are not palpable.
◦ Fe born co-twin to M
 Brother may have died in
utero
◦ Due to anastomosis of
C-A vessels 28-30d
 M’s MIH, Testosterone
 +/- ovotestis
 +/- enlarged clitoris
 +/- abn ano-genital
dist.
 > 60days
Day 40
 Small vulva
increased ano-genital
area

Prominent tuft of hair at

the vulva
 Dx: neonate
◦ Vaginal depth
◦ teats
◦ Karyotype (chimeric)
 XX cells
 XY cells
 Dx: adult
◦ Rectal palpation
 No tract!
 Karyotype
Clinical diagnosis include short (1/3 or less of the
normal) length of the vagina, clitoral
hypertrophy and long pubic hair. Normal
length of the vagina: 12-18 cm, freemartin
length: 6-8 cm (can be checked with a test
tube (2 cm in diam) or small vaginoscope. By
rectal palpation, a hard cylinder/cone shaped
object is felt 5-10 cm in front of the vaginal
vestibule but the cervical canal, uterus and
ovaries are not palpable.
 – “White heifer Dz”
– Can occur anywhere
in Muellerian duct
– May lack enough
uterine PFG2 to lyse
CL
– May simply obstruct
gametes; cycling
would be normal

Uterus unicornis Hydrosalpinx

2. Ovarian subfunction:
A state in which animals after attaining puberty or
passing 40-60 days after parturition develop no
ovarian follicles or follicles after developing to
some extent undergo repeated atresis and
regression without ovulating, resulting in
continued ovarian atrophy.

i) Ovarian hypoplasia: Both the ovaries grow

insufficiently and are extremely small, flat and
inelastic. Growth of the uterus is inadequate.
ii) Ovarian quiescence: Ovary shape normal but the
follicles do not grow or grow to some extent
followed by repeated atresia without ovulating.
Uterus small and inelastic.
iii) Ovarian atrophy: Bilaterally flat or wrinkled
surfaced ovary without follicles or CL. Uterus small
and inelastic.
 Ovarian Hypoplasia

 Pseudohermaphrod
ites

 Double cervix /
uterus didelphys
 Direct cause: Suppressed function of the
hypothalamus to secrete GnRH resulting in
reduction in the ability of APG to secrete FSH
and LH.

 Predisposing causes: Nutritional deficiency,

parasitic infection and poor management and
health.
 Purpose is to induce follicular maturation and
ovulation
◦ If present a growing follicle >1.0 cm in diam., give
IM inj. of 1500-3000 IU hCG, or, GnRH analogues
eg:100 mg fertirelin acetate or 1—20 mg buserelin.
Observe for estrus signs in days 8, 20 and 30
because the interval between 1st and 2nd ovulation
after hormone therapy range from 8-15 days.
◦ If no growing follicle, give IM or SC inj. of 500-1000
IU of eCG. A simultaneous hCG can be given.
Mating in observed estrtus.
◦ If ovarian quiescence, CIDR or PRID can be used for
5-12 days. Mating in observed estrus.
 Does:
◦ Male
pseudohermaphrodites
◦ True hermaphrodites
◦ Intersex in twins

 Sows
◦ Hermaphrodite

 Ewes:
◦ Hermaphroditism (rare)
◦ Freemartin (rare)
◦ Segmental aplasia
19
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
1. A case in which an animal with
anomalies of the ovaries or uterus
develops abnormal estrus conditions
such as anestrus and fails to mate
even if it has attained puberty or
passed 40-60 days after parturition.
1. Follicular cyst
Ovarian follicle grows to >2.5cm (cattle) in diam without ovulating,
persists for a long time and then regresses. This process is
repeated. Generally multiple cysts in one or both ovaries.

Predisposing factors: Obesity, nutritional deficiency, phytoestrogen,

genetic factors.

Direct causes: Abnormal secretion of GnRH or decreased sensitivity to

estrogen in the hypothalamus, leading to failure of LH surge.

Symptoms: With or without initial nymphomania leading to irregular

estrus cycle or a complete anestrus, loosened sacrosciatic ligament
(raised tail head) in a prolonged condition.
 Normal ovary
with
Normal CL and normal
follicle/s
Follicular cysts
 Improve feeding and management.

 100-200 mg of fertirelin acetate or 10-20 mg

buserelin (both GnRH analogues) once IM.
OR, 5000-10000 IU hCG once IM or SC.
2. Luteal cyst: A state in which ovarian follicle grow to 2.5 cm
or larger but do not ovulate, part or the entire wall of the
cystic follicle wall luteinizes. Once formed, it continues to
exist for a long time, secretes P4 and supresses the growth
of normal ovarian follicles so an anestrus state persists. The
disorder is often complicated by follicular cyst, so its
diagnosis should follow that of follicular cyst.

Differentiation between follicular and luteal cyst is very

important but is a difficult task until and unless we use USG
(rim of a luteal tissue around the fluid filled cavity) or a P4
assay (>1-5 ng/mL in the milk or plasma). Another is a cystic
CL. It is formed after ovulation, is considered a normal but
contains a big cavity. A newly formed CL also sometime
reveals cavity but it is a small cavity.

Treatment: PG preparations such as 12-15 mg of dinoprost or

15-25 mg of tromethamine dinoprost, or PG analogues such as
500 mg of cloprostenol or 5mg of etiproston tromethamine
once IM.
Luteal cysts
Causes are behavioral, stress, high yield, poor
nutrition or unknown.
On palpation reveals a CL (late metestrus and
diestrus) or a follicle (proestrus or estrus).
Treatment: PG or analogues (if CL), GnRH analogues
or hCH (if DF) or estradiol benzoate (2-5mg) once
IM, or CIDR for 7 days) to normalize endocrine
abnormalities.
Breeding/mating on standing heat or after heat
detection.
Two possible mechanisms:
1. Presence of mummy, pus and mucus in the uterus or abnormalities
in the uterus such as chronic endometritis inhibit the
production/release of luteolytic factors (PG).
2. Abnormal secretion of gonadotrophic hormones from the APG
(common in high yielders).
Diagnosis: CL palpable for more than 25 days.

Treatment: PG or analogues (if CL), GnRH analogues or hCH (if DF) or

estradiol benzoate (2-5mg) once IM.

Breeding/mating on standing heat or after heat detection. Sometime

such animal after treatment may shift to ovarian quiscence and
ovarian cysts.
Causes: Delayed involution after dystocia or due to infection by
Actinomyces pyogenes, Trichomonas fetus etc.
Purulent exudate in the uterus supresses the production and release of
luteolytic factors by the uterus causing retained CL resulting an
extended anestrus period.
Diagnosis: Vaginal examination (by vagisnoscope) reveals dry vaginal mucus
membrane and closed cervix. Rectal palpation reveals expanded,
subsiding into the abdominal cavity, presenting fluctuations and has no
contractility with thin uterine walls. The uterus feels similar to 2-3
months of pregnancy in many cases, so differentiation with pregnancy is
highly important. USG is the best tool.
Treatment:
1) PG or analogues (if CL), GnRH analogues or hCH (if DF) or estradiol
benzoate (2-5mg) once IM.
2) Treatment for endometritis.
Pyometra
13
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
2. A case in which estrus and mating
does not lead to conception due to
the disorders of the vagina, cervical
canal, uterus, oviduct ad ovary.
1. Vaginitis: Inflammation due to bacterial
infection (staph, strept, E coli, A. pyogenes
etc).
Treatment: Vaginal irrigation with a non-
irritating antiseptic solution or with a
antibiotic solution.

2. Urovagina: Due to disorder of the peri-vulval

and perivaginal ligaments, vulva is raised
causing some or most part of the urine
flowing backward into the vaginal floor, which
is retained for a while or for a long period
(causes cervicitis or endometritis).
Treatment: Improve the animal’s condition, treat
for cervicitis and endometritis.
3. Cervicitis: Inflammation of the cervical canal
(acutely or chronically), often accompanies
endometritis and results from the bacterial
infection at the time of abortion, dystocia and ROP.
Also results from injuries while inappropriately using
equipments during insemination, and diagnosis and
treatment of uterine diseases.
Signs: Swollen, thickened (if chronic), os exposed
outside towards the vagina, thick mucus may come
out.
Treatment: Vaginal irrigation with a non-irritating
antiseptic solution, luke warm physiological saline, 1%
povidine solution or an antibiotic solution can be
infused into the cervical canal. Repeated estrus
cyclicity may heal the condition naturally, so
maintaining normal ovarian function is important. Also
treat for vaginitis and endometritis if mixed
inflammation is noticed.
Cervicitis
4. Endometritis:
Inflammation of the endometrium.
Most frequently occuring disease of all uterine diseases
being one of the major causes of conception failure.
The disease causes irregular estrus cyclicity or even
anestrus.
If inseminated, inhibits sperm from ascending by reducing
their motility, inhibits the growth of embryo and, if
implantation is attained, causes EED and abortion.

Causes:
Infectious (staph, strept, E coli, A. pyogenes, Pseudomonas spp,
Campylobacter fetus, B abortus etc.), also by AI, ET and
examining equipments, bacteris present in the vagina or cervix
may enter. ROP, dystocia, septic fetal death are other major
causes.
Non-infectious: Infusion of irritants
Metricheck scoring
Types:
Acute and chronic according to clinical findings.
Secretive: Catarrhal and purulent according to discharge.
Diagnosis:
Metricheck or vaginoscopic collection and scoring of the dischage.
Microscopic examination for increased PMN WBCs,
bacteriological culture and histology.

Treatment: 1. Irrigation with a physiological NS (40-42oC, 2-4

liters) to remove secretion or debris.
2. IU infusion of 50 ml of 0.2% of povidine iodine, or, antibiotics
(30 to 50 ml) such as ampicillin, penicillin, kanamycin,
tetracycline (1:1 dilution in DW) or according to the sensitivity
test.
3. Similar drugs can be given parentally if needed.
4. Self cleaning by inducing estrus with a PG inj during luteal
phase.
5. If present a cystic ovarian condition, treat it.
5. Ovulation failure:
Abnormality in the ovulation process.
i) Delayed ovulation
ii) Anovulation (leads to atresia or cysts)
Causes: Abnormal LH secretion from the APG, or
the delay, lack or loss of LH surge, but may
also be related to abnormal secretion of FSH
and estradiol.
Treatment: If growing ovarian follicles are
present, give GnRH analogues or hCG.
10
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
3. A condition in which no abnormality
is present in the reproductive organs
but no conception occurs even after
three times of mating.
1. Repeat breeder: This refers to an infertile condition of
unknown cause in which despite the normal estrus cycle
and normal results of examination of the ovaries and
other reproductive organs, no conception occurs and
animal repeats to breed or returns to heat after
mating in each of 3 estruses. It means animal repeats
regular estrus and mating for 3 or more times.
Causes: Fertilization failure or EED

Because of a lack of definitive diagnostic criteria,

infertile cows are diagnosed for other diseases too.
Some cases may have a repeated ovulation failure or a
latent endometritis.
Treatment: Difficult cases to treat. Improving nutrition,
breeding management may help. Treatment for
endometritis, if needed. PG or GnRH can be given
depending upon the ovarian condition.
4. Abnormalities during
pregnancy and perinatal periods
1. Fetal death
i) Fetal mummification
ii) Fetal maceration

2. Abortion (refer to VIII semester lectures and

the given tables)
3. Prolonged gestation (refer to VIII semester
lectures)
4. Uterine torsion (refer to VIII semester
lectures)
5. Dropsy of fetal membrane (refer to VIII
semester lectures)
6. Dystocia (refer to VIII semester lectures)
6
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
4. Abnormalities during pregnancy and
perinatal periods
 A condition in which part or the entire vaginal wall
protrudes from the vulva.
Tends to occur during the mid- to late gestation
period and sometime after parturition.
Diagnosis and complication:
- A reddened vaginal mucosa is exposed from
the vulva, in a severe case the entire
vaginal wall along with the ectocervical
portion protrudes to produce a football-
sized mass.
- As time progresses, mucosa dries and gets
soiling and necrosed.
- In some cases, the back part of the
prolapsed vaginal wall serves as a hernial
sac, into which the bladder and fatty
tissue enter.
Causes:
multiple/complex
–Genetics (Hereford cattle)
–Older multiparous cows
–Close confinement
• especially in stanchions in
which the cow’s rear
projects over the gutter
• Commonly observed
during last 2 to 3 m of
gestation (high
estrogen)

• E2 Causes relaxation of
pelvic ligaments and
adjacent structures and
edema and relaxation of
the vulva and vulvar
sphincter muscles
• When cow lies down
intra-abdominal pressure
is transmitted to the
flaccid pelvic structures

• Tends to force relaxed

and loosely attached
vaginal floor and walls
through the vulva

• Not seen in all cows:

• Variation in levels of estrogen
• Conformation may
predispose
• Occasionally seen in cows following
parturition:
• Associated with cystic follicles
• Excessive estrogen production
• Feeding cows moldy corn or barley may cause edema
of the vulva, relaxation of the pelvic ligaments,
tenesmus, and prolapse of vagina and even the rectum
 Treatment:
◦ Mild cases: place in box stall
◦ Advanced cases: if in stanchion elevate hind end
(platform; build up bedding)
◦ Epidural; wash and replace
Treatment:
- In mild cases, the problem heals spontaneously
after parturition.
- Treatment of the severe cases involves
disinfecting the vulva and surrounding part with
cationic detergent, washing the prolapsed part
with normal saline or 1% povidine iodine and
reducing in a low-front and high-back standing
position. A vulvar truss is installed after reduction.
Vulvar sutures can be placed.
- Other diseases such as follicular cysts if present
should be treated.
- Prognosis and subsequent conception depedns upon
the severity and complications.
Frank suturing technique
◦ 4-5 small separate loops
of doubled 1/4-3/8”
umbilical tape on either
side of the vulva in the
hair line from the level of
the anus to opposite the
lower commissure of the
vulva
◦ Lace the loops with 1-
1/2” umbilical tape as
lacing a shoe
 Modified Caslick’s method

 Caudal ¾” of mucous membrane of

both vulvar lips removed & ends
sutured together

 Fixation of the cervix to the prepubic

tendon
Minchev’s method
 Surgically fastening cranial
portion of vaginal wall
through the lesser sciatic
foramen to the dorso-
lateral wall of the
sacrosciatic ligament,
muscles and skin of the
croup

Ewe saver
 Winkler Method:
Suture cervix to the pre-
pubic tendon
LDA Toggle Set
 • Prognosis:
– Depends on
severity and
length of time it
existed

– Recurrence is
common

Vagina
– Reduced fertility
*An intussusception of
uterine horn
* More common in older
cows
* Very often assoc w/
Ca
* Uterine fatigue
* Post delivery

*Dx: simple
*Tx: Reduce, and tx
Ca
Gravity

 Cast dam w/ head lower than

tail, OR…
 Bale of straw under pelvic area
and pull hind legs out behind,
OR…
 In standing cow, have two
assistants suspend uterus in a
plastic “sling” (from HD
garbage bags).
 Caution! Do NOT hoist her by
her heels
1. Clean the mucosal surface
gently, with water/saline.
Caution: may be friable!
eave fetal membranes attached
2. repair tears as necessary
3. bladder can be blocked
4. Osmotic (hygroscopic)
agents (sugar, etc.)??
4. “Knead” the prolase back into body, with
closed fists, starting at the cervix. Be patient.
(Epidural not often necessary)

 When she relaxes, push on the prolapse.

 Completely reduced the intussusception

 16 oz glass softdrink bottle works well
◦ Or fill uterus with warm water/dilute
disinfectant, but siphon it off with stomach
tube
 Ca and Oxytocin (Shrinking the lumen)
 Suture
 Antibiotics

 Prognosis, fresh prolapse: Good for survival

◦ At risk for Milk production
◦ At risk for endometritis, pyometra, cystic ovaries
◦ Many return to fertility
 Can’t/shouldn’t be
reduced
◦ Induration
◦ Tears?
◦ Maggots?
◦ Gross contamination
◦ Thrombosis, ut
arteries
 Ca and Oxytocin (Shrinking the lumen)
 Suture
 Antibiotics

 Prognosis, fresh prolapse: Good for survival

◦ At risk for Milk production
◦ At risk for endometritis, pyometra, cystic ovaries
◦ Many return to fertility
Rt horn
Anatomy of broad ligament:

– looser and longer in pluriparous cows

– lesser curvature of the uterus in advanced
pregnancy is supported dorsally and laterally
by the broad ligament.

Manner in which the cow lies down & rises:

– Fore quarters go down first; elevates rear quarters first
– Gravid uterus suspended in abdominal cavity
–Lack of fetal fluids
–Sudden falls or rolling
–Deep capacious abdomen
–Movement of calf during 1st stage of
labor (occurs at term)
– 3-7% of dystocias
– Overdue date  Displacement of
– Failure to make upper vulvar
progress during commissure
calving – Inward
– Restlessness – Left
– Right
– Abdominal
straining
• Colic/Pain
• Tail up / straining
 Uterine torsion (vaginal exam)

Pre-cervical
Torsion

Post-
cervical
Torsion

(Jackson PGG : 1995)

 Palpation per rectum
definitive dx to rule out
torsion
◦ Palpate broad ligament
◦ Counter or clockwise
(most torsions are
counterclockwise)
 Degree:
◦ 45°- 360°; 45° to 90°
degree torsions are
common
• Several methods; no standard method
applicable to every torsion:

– Manual detorsion per vaginam

– Rolling the cow
– C-section
• Schaffer Plank method (Roberts 3rd ed,
1986)
8. Uterine prolapse: A postpartum condition in which
part or the entire uterus is reversed and prolapses
from the cervical canal to the outside of the vulva.
-The problem is often caused by dystocia due to fetal
gigantism, postpartum persistent pain, ROP and
relaxation of the uterus and birth canal.
- Raising pregnant cows on a floor with a high-front
and low-back slope is a major predisposing factor.
- Prolapsed part may contain placenta, has
cotyledons, is congested, edematous, contaminated
with blood and feces and may contain laceration.
- Initially animal strains a lot but as the time
progresses is gradually weak.
- Animal shows loss of appetite, pulse and respiration
increases causing dysstasis and in some cases
animal collapses.
Treatment and management:
- Prolapsed mass should be kept clean and moist by
covering with a clean and moist clothes or plastic sheet.
- Reduce the mass as soon as possible.
- If time has elapsed and injuries present, treat for the
injuries and go for a symptomatic treatment with
cardiotonics and infusions.
- While reducing, cow should be kept in low-front and
high-back posture.
- If severe straining, give epidural anesthesia.
- Reduction involves irrigation of the mass with a luke
warm normal saline or 1% povidine. Remove gently the
placenta, if present.
- Prolapsed uterus is placed in a moist cloth, raised above
the vulva, start reduction gradually from the cervical
canal by taking advantage of the straining pause. After
reduction, position the uterine horns properly, put
intrauterine antibiotics and give oxytocin (30-50 IU).
- Apply truss, manage the floor and keep animal
comfortable and calm.
9. Retained placenta (ROP): Normal placenta
expulsion time is 3-8 hrs after parturition. If the
placenta is not expelled within >12 hrs of
parturition, the condition is known as ROP. A
hanging placenta is visible.

Causes are not clear but uterine inertia is always

present. High yield, obesity, lack of exercise and
deficiency of Ca, vitamin E and selenium have been
reported as predisposing factors. Frequently
occurs in cows after abortion, premature birth,
still birth, dystocia, twinning and induced
parturition.
Treatment: No treatment until there are signs of
systemic illness. Spontaneous decay and expulsion
with lochia is possible. PG can be given to keep open
the cervix and treatment for endometritis can be
given. Conventional manual removal is not indicated.
43
 Fertility, subfertility,
infertility and sterility in domestic animals

Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
 Manifestation of reproductive disorders and
reproductive diseases – some cases

4. Abnormalities during pregnancy and perinatal

periods
7. Vaginal prolapse: A condition in which part or the entire vaginal
wall protrudes from the vulva.
-Tends to occur during the mid- to late gestation period and
sometime after parturition.
-The possible mechanism is that increased abdominal pressure presses
the uterus and vagina backward and high amounts of estrogen
produced by the placenta relaxes the supportive tissue of the
vagina and vulva.
-If the birth canal and vulva is injured or relaxed due to dystocia,
the disease is likely to occur frequently during the following
gestation.
-Inclined floor with the front part higher and the rear part lower is
a major cause of this problem during mid- to late gestation.
-In infertile cows, problem may occur during estrus or due to
follicular cyst.
Diagnosis and complication:
 A reddened vaginal mucosa is exposed from the vulva, in a
severe case the entire vaginal wall along with the ectocervical
portion protrudes to produce a football-sized mass.
 As time progresses, mucosa dries and gets soiling and necrosed.
 In some cases, the back part of the prolapsed vaginal wall
serves as a hernial sac, into which the bladder and fatty tissue
enter.
Treatment:
 In mild cases, the problem heals spontaneously after parturition.
 Treatment of the severe cases involves disinfecting the vulva and
surrounding part with cationic detergent, washing the prolapsed
part with normal saline or 1% povidine iodine and reducing in a
low-front and high-back standing position. A vulvar truss is
installed after reduction. Vulvar sutures can be placed.
 Other diseases such as follicular cysts if present should be treated.
 Prognosis and subsequent conception depedns upon the severity and
complications.
8. Uterine prolapse: A postpartum condition in which part or the
entire uterus is reversed and prolapses from the cervical canal to
the outside of the vulva.
-The problem is often caused by dystocia due to fetal gigantism,
postpartum persistent pain, ROP and relaxation of the uterus
and birth canal.
 Raising pregnant cows on a floor with a high-front and low-
back slope is a major predisposing factor.
 Prolapsed part may contain placenta, has cotyledons, is
congested, edematous, contaminated with blood and feces and
may contain laceration.
 Initially animal strains a lot but as the time progresses is
gradually weak.
 Animal shows loss of appetite, pulse and respiration increases
causing dysstasis and in some cases animal collapses.
Treatment and management:
 Prolapsed mass should be kept clean and moist by covering with a
clean and moist clothes or plastic sheet.
 Reduce the mass as soon as possible.
 If time has elapsed and injuries present, treat for the injuries and go
for a symptomatic treatment with cardiotonics and infusions.
 While reducing, cow should be kept in low-front and high-back
posture.
 If severe straining, give epidural anesthesia.
 Reduction involves irrigation of the mass with a luke warm normal
saline or 1% povidine. Remove gently the placenta, if present.
 Prolapsed uterus is placed in a moist cloth, raised above the vulva,
start reduction gradually from the cervical canal by taking advantage
of the straining pause. After reduction, position the uterine horns
properly, put intrauterine antibiotics and give oxytocin (30-50 IU).
 Apply truss, manage the floor and keep animal comfortable and calm.
9. Retained placenta (ROP): Normal placenta expulsion time is 3-8
hrs after parturition. If the placenta is not expelled within >12
hrs of parturition, the condition is known as ROP. A hanging
placenta is visible.

Causes are not clear but uterine inertia is always present. High
yield, obesity, lack of exercise and deficiency of Ca, vitamin E
and selenium have been reported as predisposing factors.
Frequently occurs in cows after abortion, premature birth, still
birth, dystocia, twinning and induced parturition.
Treatment: No treatment until there are signs of systemic illness.
Spontaneous decay and expulsion with lochia is possible. PG
can be given to keep open the cervix and treatment for
endometritis can be given. Conventional manual removal is not
indicated.
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH

9
 Problems of Buffalo
Reproduction in Nepal

Bhuminand Devkota, DVM, PhD

Total buffaloes in Nepal: 51,33,139
DLS, Nepal,
2011/12
Contribution
 Multipurpose animal

 71% of total milk

 52.8% of total meat

Neopane and Shrestha,
2009

This shows how important the buffaloes are for

the country economy and food supply system
Poor reproductive performance is the major problem of buffalo production

 Delayed puberty, age of first calving

 Prolonged postpartum anestrus, intercalving interval
 Silent estrus, poor estrus expression
 Seasonal anestrus

Reasons? Seasonality ?

Are buffaloes the mystery animals as far as

their reproduction is concerned?

Answer is NO
Reproductive organs of buffalo: Similar to cow
However, we should understand some basic differences
Buffalo ovary: Smaller than cow ovary
CL: Smaller, maroon color

Buffalo Cow

CL CL
Buffalo Ovary with CL and without follicle greater than
0.5cm
Indices Value Min Max
Length 2.22 ±0.07 1.96 2.5

Breadth 1.64 ±0.12 1.34 2.1

Thickness 1.57 ±0.06 1.3 1.78

Vol of OV 3.66 ±0.51 2 5

Vol of CL 1.54 ±0.21 1 2.25

CL length 1.48 ±0.12 1.1 1.8

CL breadth 1.22 ±0.08 0.9 1.4

 Ovary with CL along with follicle greater than 0.5cm

Indices Value Min Max

Length 2.42±0.11 1.85 2.95

Breadth 1.45±0.06 1.2 1.65

Thickness 1.64±0.10 1.2 2.1

Vol of OV 3.96±0.54 1.75 5.75

Vol of CL 1.40±0.22 0.25 2

CL length 1.41±0.06 1.2 1.6

CL breadth 1.22±0.06 1 1.4

Diam of follicle 0.88±0.08 0.6 1.25

 26%
Ratio of
embedded
to
protruding
74% Embedded CL
CL Protruding CL

11%
CL without
Ratio of CL centrum
without
centrum to
CL with 89% CL with
centrum centrum
 We surveyed around our university in Chitwan and found
that about 5% pregnant buffaloes were slaughtered. WHY?
This is the common way how most of our smallholders are getting clinical
reproductive service
(If once in every 3 years, they are lucky)
&
This is how we are collecting highly valuable field data…

Mobile Infertility
Clinics
 Study 1…
Methodology
 Reproductive history
 Clinical examinations:

◦ Rectal palpation and/or transrectal USG

◦ Vaginoscopy in buffalo cows
 Blood samplings
◦ Blood nutritional parameters such as Ca, P,
TP, UN.
 BCS recording
 Fecal examinations
Prevalence of reproductive disorders in buffaloes (n=82)

2.4 1.2 4.9

1.2
1.2
52.5 2.4
Series1
34.2
Treatment for anestrus with hormones and Vit+Min: a
comparison
Cases Hormones Vitamin+M
in
Silent estrus (CL+) Prostaglandin F2a Vitamin+Min

True anestrus (CL-, GnRH Vitamin+Min

DF-)

Comparison of reproductive
performance after two follow up
examinations

1st: within17 d (for estrus/mating)

2nd: within 4 m (for pregnancy)
 Treatment comparison with respect to reproductive
performance
Anestrus with Anestrus with
CL inactive ovaries
Treatment PGF2a Vit-M GnRH Vit-M

No of buffaloes treated 10 13 7 24

No of buffaloes bred within 7 (70.0)* 4 (30.8) 2 (28.6) 4 (16.7)

17 d (%)

No of buffaloes conceiving 6 (60.0)* 3 (23.1) 2 (28.6) 4 (16.7)

within 17 d (%)

No of buffaloes conceiving 7 (70.0) 8 (61.5) 6 (85.7) 18 (75.0)

within 4 m (%)
*Significantly higher than Vit-M treated group
Devkota et al., JVMS (in press)
Some factors affecting treatment effect
Pregnancy rate within 17 days after treatment
(number of buffaloes conceiving)
Anestrus buffaloes Anestrus buffaloes with
with CL inactive ovaries
Treatment PGF2a Vit-M GnRH Vit-M
No. of buffaloes treated 10 13 7 24
BCS
<2.5 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
2.5-3.5 40.0 (4)* 23.1 (3) 28.6 (2) 16.7 (4)
>3.5 20.0 (2)* 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Parity
Heifer 10.0 (1) 0.0 (0) 28.6 (2) 4.2 (1)
1-3 lactation 20.0 (2) 7.7 (1) 0.0 (0) 12.5 (3)
≥4 lactation 30.0 (3) 15.4 (2) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Calving to treatment
interval
2-6 months 12.5 (1) 9.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 6.3 (1)
7-12 months 37.5 (3) 9.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 12.5 (2)
>12 months 12.5 (1) 9.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)

*Significantly higher than Vit-M treated group (P<0.05). Devkota et al., JVMS (in press)
BCS: cyclic (silent) vs non cyclic (true anestrus)
P<0.01
3
2.5
2
BCS

1.5
1
0.5
0
Cyclic Non-cyclic

Bohara and Devkota, 2009

Influence of some blood nutritional parameters on
pregnancy rate
No. of No. of buffaloes Pregnancy
buffaloes conceiving within 4 rate within
treated months 4 months
Calcium (mg/dl)
<8.5 5 0 0.0**
8.5 - 11.0 12 10 83.3
Inorganic
phosphorus (mg/dl) 4 1 25.0
<4.5 13 9 69.2
4.5 - 7.5
Total protein (g/dl)
<7.0 8 3 37.5*
7.0 - 9.0 9 7 77.8

**P<0.01, *P<0.10 vs normal blood level

Devkota et al., JVMS (in press)
Nutritional metabolic parameters: cyclic (silent) vs non
cyclic (true anestrus)
Parameters Cyclic (n=5) Non-cyclic (n=8) P value
Ca (mg/dl) 7.36± 0.61 5.7±0.41 0.058
iP (mg/dl) 4.21±0.38 3.43±0.23 0.131
TP (mg/dl) Sub- 5.77±0.57 4.69±0.33 0.153
Urea (mg/dl)normal 22.13±2.92 24.15±1.84 0.577
Cholesterol (mg/dl) 162.59±20.84 142.69±6.49 0.406
Glucose (mg/dl) 73.88±7.14 66.44±7.01 0.474

Bohara and Devkota, 2009

Influence of gastrointestinal parasites on pregnancy rate

48%
Series1
53%

Parasitic infection No. of No. of buffaloes Pregnancy rate

buffaloes conceiving within 4 within 4
Treated months months
Negative 13 10 76.9
Cocccidia 6 2 33.3*
Helminth with/without coccidia 5 1 20.0*

*Significantly lower than negative group

(P<0.05)
Devkota et al., JVMS (in press)
Comparison in blood Ca, iP and TP between buffaloes
that showed or failed to show pregnancy within 4 months

Pregnancy within 4 months

Positive (n=10) Negative (n=7)
Ca (mg/dl) 9.5±0.3 7.4±0.4**

iP (mg/dl) 6.0±0.4 5.2±0.5

TP (g/dl) 7.4±0.2 6.2±0.3**

**P<0.01 vs positive group
Devkota et al., JVMS (in press)
 Summary of the result
 Clinical reproductive examination (of the
ovaries) for correct diagnosis of the cause
of anestrus and estimation of BCS are the
keys for the success of treatment.

 Hormonal treatment is superior if given

after correct diagnosis

 Nutritional deficiency and parasitic

infections are the major factors affecting
treatment success.
 Study 2…Seasonality?
Climatology of Chitwan
Max (oC) Min (oC)
Rain fall (mm)
40 400
Temperature

Rain fall
30 300
20 200
10 100
0 0
n b a r r y n u l g p ct v c
Ja Fe M Ap Ma Ju J Au Se O No De

Devkota and Bohara, Pak J Zool (2009)

Monthly parturition trend of buffaloes in the IAAS Livestock
Farm, Chitwan (2002-2007)
Parturition %

30

20

10

0
Jan
Jan Feb Mar
MarApr May
MayJun Jul Jul
Aug Sep Sep
Oct Nov Dec
Nov Months

Devkota and Bohara, Pak J Zool (2009)

CL and/or follicle ≥7.0mm No CL and follicle ≤7.0mm
 Monthly variation of anestrus conditions in buffaloes in Southern
Nepal (n=226)
True anestrus with inactive ovaries
Silent estrus (luteal phase)
Silent estrus (follicular phase)
Luteal cyst
100
Percentage

7050

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months of the year

Devkota et al., Asian J Anim Vet Adv (2011)
 Difference between the proportion of anestrus buffaloes per poor (<2.5) or good
(>2.5) BCS group during the active (Jul-Dec) and low (Jan-Jun) breeding months

BCS Breedin Proportio Prevalence rate (%) of anestrus

group g n of conditions
(Number months anestrus True Silent Silent Ovarian
of buffaloes anestru estrus estrus cyst
animals) per BCS s (luteal (follicula (Luteal)
group phase) r phase

Poor: Active 37.1 76.9 23.1 0.0 0.0

<2.5 (13/35)a (10/13) (3/13) (0/13) (0/13)
(35) Low 62.9 95.5 4.5 0.0 0.0
(22/35)b (21/22) (1/22) (0/22) (0/22)

Active 66.2 39.2 37.2 21.6 2.0

Good: (51/77)b (20/51) (19/51) (11/51) (1/51)
>2.5 Low 33.8 46.2 46.2 7.6 0.0
(77) (26/77)a (12/26) (12/26) (2/26) (0/26)
Devkota et al., Asian J Anim Vet Adv (2011)
Summary of the result

 Distinct seasonal patterns of reproductive

problems in Nepalese buffaloes.

 Different strategies should be developed for

active and low breeding seasons to
overcome the reproductive problems
Suggestion
 Improve clinical reproductive services,
nutrition and management including
deworming

 Vets: Check the ovary for CL

 Technicians: Check the BCS
 Before giving any treatment for anestrus/subestrus

 However, the best way out is to go for a

fixed-time AI (FTAI) technologies.
 Take home message…
1. Most important is the clinical reproductive examination for proper
diagnosis (ovarian condition for the presence or absence of follicles, CL,
cysts, atrophy, quiescence etc).

2. Remember that management and nutrition that are related to reproductive

health and BCS are the major affecting factors for treatment success

3. Seasonal fluctuation of reproductive efficiency of buffaloes needs to be

studied further.
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH

31
 Bhuminand Devkota
Dep. of Theriogenology
 Indications
 Physical immaturity of the mother
 Failure of the uterine cervix to dilate fully
 Irreducible uterine torsion
 Preparturient recumbency
 Acute reticuloperitonitis or pericarditis
 Shistosoma reflexus
 Gross oversize of the fetus
 Pregnancy toxemia
 Gross swelling of the vagina and vulva
 Irreducible mal-presentation
 Hydrallantois , hydrammnios
 Mummified fetus
 Other diseases and complications
Position of the cow and
operative site in CS
 Left paralumbar or Upper left flank
approaches
 Upper right flank laparotomy
 Ventral midline approach or
paramedian approach
 Ventrolateral oblique approach
Caesarean section
 Left flank advantages

 Easy if cow is standing

 No interference with omentum, intestine
 Reduce shock
 Good healing

Disadvantage
 More assistants required
 Difficult if recumbent cow
 Fetal delivery relatively difficult
Caesarean section
 Right flank advantages
 Good for oversize fatus
 Easy if cow is standing
 Small incision required
 One assitant is also enough

 Disadvantage
 Interference with omentum & intestine
 Peritoneal contamination and infection chance
is greater.
Caesarean section
 Ventral midline or paramedian advantages
 Good if fetal emphysema
 Easy to find uterine horn
 Easy to drain abnormal uterine content

 Disadvantage
 Intestine interferes a lot and may come out
 Lateral recumbency is required
Caesarean section
 Ventrolateral oblique approach
advantages
 Good if animal is in lateral recumbency

Disadvantage
 Long incision is required
 Hernia possible
 Vessel rupture and bleeding chance is high.
Ventrolateral oblique approach
Fetotomy
Fetotomy, general
considerations
 Embryotomy
 Dividing foetus into small pieces
 Dead fetus
 Common in cattle
 Techniques
 Percutaneous
 Subcutaneoues
Indications
 Fetal maldisposition
 Fetopelvic disproportion
 Obstruction by hip-lock
 Caesarean section

Important
 Fetotomy only in fetal death
 Caesarean section if fetus is
alive
 Fetotomy equipments
A) Tubular fetotome
B) Fetotomy wire
C) Handles for wire
D) Handle for
fetotome
E) Screw to tighten
handle
F) Introducer
G) Threader
H) Cleaning brush
Fetotomy facts
 Partial or complete dissection of the fetus to
make possible its removal
 Number of assistants required
 Proper restrain of the animal
 Good skills required

 Technique
 Anterior presentation
Head-> forelegs-> thorax-> pelvis->
 Posterior presentation
Hind limbs -> body -> forelegs
Anterior presentation
Head->
forelegs->
Anterior presentation
thorax-> pelvis->
When to go for partial
fetotomy
 Deviation of the neck
 Shoulder flexion
 Bilateral hip flexion (Breech presentation)
 Hock flexion
 Fetal monsters (may also require complete
fetotomy)
Hip flexion
Hock flexion
Dystocia in the mare
 Incidence less than in cattle
 4 % in Thoroughbred breed
 Common in Shetland ponies

Causes of dystocia
- Anterior presentation
- Posterior presentation
- Transverse presentation
Specific causes of equine dyctocia
 Uterine inertia
 Bony tissue obstruction
 Soft tissue obstruction
 Uterine torsion
 Downward deviation of the uterus
 Fetal monster
 Malpresentation
 Malposition
 Malposture
Ventro-tranverse position
Dorso-transverse position
Dystocia in the sow
 Incidence 0.25-1.0 %
 Common in gilts or old sows
 Welsh gilts -> small pelvis
 Large white -> uterine inertia
Rate of causes of dystocia in sows
 Uterine inertia 37 %
 Obstruction of the birth canal 13 %
 Deviation of the uterus 9.5 %
 Maternal excitement 3%
 Fetal maldisposition 33.5 %
 Fetopelvic disproportion 4%
Uterine inertia
 Primary uterine inertia 20 %
 stillbirth
 Secondary uterine inertia 49 %

 Idiopathic uterine inertia 31 %

 Fat sows
 Calcium

Treatments : oxytocin
Obstruction of the birth canal
 Bony tissue abnormality
 Soft tissue abnormality
 Distension of the urinary bladder
 Vulval abnormalities
 Persistent hymen
 Non-dilation of the cervix
 Obstruction of the uterine lumen
 Downward deviation of the uterus
Dystocia in the sow caused by
distension of the urinary bladder
Maternal excitement
 Common in gilts
 It delays or inhibits the farrowing process
 Causes late movement and innate nervousness

Treatments : azaperone IM 2 mg/kg

oxytocin 20 IU
Signs of dyctocia
 Discharge and placenta at the vulva
 Signs of imminent but no farrowing
 Straining but no piglets
 Premature cessation of labour
 Prolonged farrowing >½-4 hrs. (2.5 hrs.)
 Placenta
Sites for CS
Dystocia in the dog and cat
 Incidence in cat is lower than in dog
 Common in exotic breeds
 Causes (in dogs)
 Uterine inertia 36 %
 Fetopelvic disproportion 22 %
 Fetal maldisposition 11 %
 Abnormalities of birth canal 9%
 Other causes 22 %
Failure of the expulsive forces
 Primary uterine inertia
 Common in Scottish terrier
 Single pup syndrome and single kitten
 Hysteria  Cocker spaniels
 Secondary uterine inertia
 Reduced abdominal muscle tone -> old or fat animals
Obstruction of the birth canal
 Bony abnormalities
- pelvic fracture -> accidents
- Common in Scottish terrier
- Brachycephalic in toy breeds
 Soft tissue abnormalities
 Deviation of uterus  Boxer
 Torsion of uterus
Fetal maldisposition
 Posterior presentation
 normal whelping in 40 %
 Bilateral hip flexion is common

 Deviation of the head

 Long neck  Collies
 Long head  Sealyham and Scottish terrier
Fetopelvic disproportion
 Common in small breeds, low litter size breeds and
Yorkshire terrier breed

Fetal monster due to

- hydrocephalus
- Anasarca
- Conjoined twins
Diagnosis
 Examination of genital system
 Inspection of vulva
 Vaginal examination
 Abdominal palpation
 Abdominal auscultation/ Ultrasound
 X-rays
Treatment of dystocia
 Ecbolic therapy
 oxytocin 2-5 IU IM 20-30 minutes
 Calcium borogluconate 10% 5-15 ml very slow IV

 Assisted delivery of the fetus

 Episiotomy
 Manual delivery
 Forceps delivery
54